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State and Its Margins

Comparative EthnographiesVeena Das and Deborah Poole

T h is b o o k is a b o u t m a rg in s , th e p la c e s f ro m w h ic h we s e e k to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t c o u n ts as th e s tu d y o f th e sta te in a n th ro p o lo g y . T h e c h a p te r s c o lle c te d h e r e b e g a n as p a r t o f a S c h o o l o f A m e r ic a n R esea rch a d v a n c e d sem in a r. T h e re w e ask ed a n th ro p o lo g is ts w o rk in g o n d if fe re n t reg io n s to re f le c t o n w h a t w ou ld c o n s t i tu te th e e th n o g ra ­phy o f th e s ta te as e m b e d d e d in p ra c tic e s , p laces, a n d lan g u ag es c o n ­s id e re d to b e a t th e m a rg in s o f th e n a tio n -s ta te . A lth o u g h we in v ite d a n th ro p o lo g is ts w hose w o rk fo cu sed o n reg io n s th a t h av e b e e n d r a m a t­ically a ffe c ted by r e c e n t p o litica l a n d e c o n o m ic re fo rm s , we w ere in te r ­e s te d in m o v in g away f ro m th e id e a th a t th ese re fo rm s h a d so m e h o w p r o d u c e d a w e a k e n in g o r s h r in k in g o f th e fo rm s o f r e g u la t io n a n d b e lo n g in g th a t s u p p o s e d ly c o n s t i tu te th e m o d e r n n a tio n -s ta te . O u r an a ly tica l a n d d e sc r ip tiv e stra teg y w as to d is ta n c e o u rse lv e s f ro m th e e n tr e n c h e d im ag e o f th e s ta te as a ra tio n a liz e d a d m in is tra tiv e fo rm o f p o litica l o rg a n iz a tio n th a t b e c o m e s w e a k e n e d o r less fu lly a r t ic u la te d a lo n g its te r r i to r ia l o r so c ia l m arg in s . In s te a d , we a sk e d se m in a r p a r t ic ­ip an ts to re f le c t o n ho w th e p ra c tice s a n d po litics o f life in these a re a s sh a p e d th e p o litica l, reg u la to ry , a n d d isc ip lin a ry p ra c tic e s th a t c o n s t i­tu te , so m eh o w , th a t th in g we call “th e s ta te .”

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As a d is c ip l in e th a t i ts e lf h a s o f te n b e e n c o n s id e re d to o c c u p y a m a rg in a l v o ice in W estern p o litic a l theo ry , a n th ro p o lo g y o ffe rs a n ideal p o in t o f d e p a r tu r e fo r th e ra d ic a l r e th in k in g o f th e s ta te t h a t a view fro m th e m a rg in s re q u ire s . A n th ro p o lo g y is f re q u e n tly c o n f ig u re d as a d isc ip lin e t h a t speaks fo r (o r a t tim e s w ith ) th o s e p o p u la tio n s th a t have b e e n m a rg in a liz e d |by th e p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic s tr ic tu re s o f co lo n ia l a n d p o s tc o lo n ia l ru le . M o re o v e r, e th n o g r a p h y is a m o d e o f k n o w in g th a t p riv ileg es e x p e r ie n c e — o f te n g o in g in to re a lm s o f th e so c ia l th a t a re n o t ea s ily d is c e rn ib le w ith in th e m o re fo rm a l p ro to c o ls u s e d by m any o th e r d isc ip lin es . As su c h , e th n o g ra p h y o ffe rs a u n iq u e p e r s p e c ­tive o n th e s o r ts o f p rac tices th a t seem to u n d o th e s ta te a t its te r r i to r ia l a n d c o n c e p tu a l m arg in s . T h e re g io n a l o r lo ca l p ersp ec tiv es o f a n th r o ­p o logy a re a lso im p o r ta n t h e r e , a l th o u g h fo r so m ew h a t d i f f e r e n t re a ­sons fro m th o s e usually im p lie d w h en a n th ro p o lo g is ts speak o f re g io n a l c o m p a r is o n s . T h e a n th r o p o lo g is ts in th is v o lu m e all w o rk in s ta te s a n d re g io n s th a t a re f re q u e n d y c h a ra c te r iz e d in co m p a ra tiv e p o litic a l th e o ry as “n e w n a t io n s ” w ith “f a i le d ,” “w e a k ,” o r “p a r t ia l” s ta te s , a n d th e i r w o rk s p e a k s in m a n y ways to th e p a r t i c u la r m o d a li t ie s o f r u le in A frica, L a tin A m erica , a n d S o u th A sia . 1 Yet, th e i r e th n o g ra p h ie s o f d isc ip linary , re g u la to ry , a n d e n fo rc e m e n t p ra c tic e s a re f ra m e d , n o t as s tu d ie s o f re g io n a l o r fa iled s ta te s , b u t r a th e r as in v ita tio n s to r e th in k th e b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n c e n te r a n d p e rip h e ry , p u b lic a n d p r iv a te , legal a n d illegal, t h a t a lso ru n th r o u g h th e h e a r t o f ev en th e m o st “su ccess­fu l” E u ro p e a n l ib e ra l s ta te . A n a n th ro p o lo g y o f th e m a rg in s o ffe rs a u n iq u e p e r s p e c tiv e to th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e s ta te , n o t b e c a u s e it c a p tu re s e x o tic p rac tice s , b u t b e c a u se it su g g ests th a t su ch m a rg in s a re a necessa ry e n ta i lm e n t o f th e s ta te , m u c h as th e e x c e p tio n is a n e c e s ­sa ry c o m p o n e n t o f th e ru le .

F o r re a s o n s h av in g to d o w ith its h is to r ic a l o r ig in s as th e s tu d y o f “p rim itiv e ” p e o p le s , a n th ro p o lo g y h a s tra d itio n a lly n o t a c k n o w le d g e d th e s ta te as a p r o p e r su b je c t f o r e th n o g r a p h ic in s p e c t io n . W ith few e x c e p tio n s , a n th ro p o lo g y ’s su b je c t, u n til recen tly , was u n d e r s to o d to be p rim itiv e o r “n o n -s ta te ” so c ie ties . S e e n fro m th is p e rsp ec tiv e , th e s ta te s e e m e d d is ta n t f ro m th e e th n o g ra p h ic p ra c tic e s a n d m e th o d s th a t c o n ­s ti tu te d th e p ro p e r , d isc ip lin a ry su b je c ts o f a n th ro p o lo g y .

A t th e sa m e tim e , how ever, th e la n g u a g e a n d f ig u re o f th e s ta te h as h a u n te d a n th ro p o lo g y . W h e th e r we ch o o se to p la c e th e o rig in s o f p o li t­

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ic a l a n th ro p o lo g y w ith M o n te s q u ie u ([1 7 4 8 ] 1 9 7 7 ) , M ain e ( [1 8 6 6 ] 2 0 0 2 ) , o r E v a n s -P r itc h a rd (1 9 4 0 ) , th e q u e s t to f in d o r d e r o r r e a s o n a m o n g th e p rim itiv es m a k e s use o f a la n g u a g e o f o r d e r th a t is in h e r i te d f ro m — a n d in d e e d p a r t o f— th e m o d e r n E u ro p e a n s ta te .2 In th is se n se , a n th ro p o lo g y has alw ays b e e n , in m a n y u n a c k n o w le d g e d ways, “a b o u t ” th e s ta te — even ( a n d p e rh a p s e sp ec ia lly ) w hen its su b jec ts w ere c o n s ti­t u te d as e x c lu d e d f r o m , o r o p p o s e d to , th e fo r m s o f a d m in is tr a t iv e ra tio n a l i ty , p o litic a l o r d e r , a n d a u th o r i ty c o n s ig n e d to th e s ta te . W e c o n te n d th a t it is th r o u g h th e la n g u a g e o f th e s ta te th a t a n th ro p o lo g is ts h av e tr a d it io n a lly c o n s t i tu te d th e t r o p e s o f so c ia l o rd e r , r a t io n a li ty , a u th o r i ty , a n d e v e n e x te rn a li ty f o r d e f in in g t h e i r su b je c t. P ie r r e C la s tre s (1 9 7 4 ), fo r e x a m p le , c la im e d so m e th ir ty y ea rs ago t h a t th e ra t io n a l i ty a n d fo rm s o f life p r o p e r to o u r n o n m o d e r n e th n o g ra p h ic s u b je c ts w ere best u n d e r s to o d as e x p re ss io n s o f a co llec tive d e s i r e to fe n d o f f th e im m in e n t e m e rg e n c e o f th e state. H e r e , as in m an y o th e r a n th r o p o lo g ic a l te x ts , th e s ta te w as a ssu m e d to b e a n in e v ita b le o r g h o s tly p re se n c e th a t s h a p e d th e m e a n in g an d fo rm th a t pow er to o k in an y g iv en society. T h e w o rk o f th e a n th ro p o lo g is t , th e n , becam e th a t o f c o r d o n in g off. the p r im itiv e from th e d o m a in o f s ta te ly p rac tices. In th is k in d o f a n th ro p o lo g ic a l p ra c tic e , as in d e e d in th e ea rly t r a d i t io n s o f M a rx is t a n d p o s tc o lo n ia l w riting, th e p rim itiv e was c o n s titu te d as a n o s ­ta lg ic s ite fo r th e d isc o v e ry o f the s ta te fo rm as a u n iv e rsa l c u ltu ra l o p e r ­a to r— ev en w hen n o t p re s e n t, it was s e e n as w aitin g o n th e th re s h o ld o f rea lity , as it w ere .3

A n y e ffo rt to r e th in k th e sta te as a n o b jec t o f e th n o g ra p h ic in q u iry m u s t s ta r t , th e n , by c o n s id e r in g h o w th is d o u b le e f fe c t o f o r d e r a n d t r a n s c e n d e n c e has b e e n u se d to t ra c k th e p re se n c e o f th e state. O n o n e level, o f co u rse , s ta te s se e m to be a ll a b o u t o rder. T h u s , in m a p p in g th e e ffe c ts a n d p re s e n c e o f “th e s ta te ” in lo ca l life, a n th ro p o lo g is ts o f te n lo o k f o r signs o f a d m in is tra tiv e a n d h ie ra rc h ic a l ra tio n a litie s th a t p r o ­vide seem in g ly o r d e r e d links w ith th e po litical a n d re g u la to ry a p p a r a ­tus o f a c e n tra l b u re a u c ra t ic state. T h is a p p ro a c h in fo rm s m u c h o f th e r e c e n t tu r n to th e s ta te in a n th ro p o lo g ic a l w r i t in g (fo r e x a m p le , F e rg u s o n a n d G u p ta 2002; F u ller a n d H a rris 2000; H e rz fe ld 2 0 0 1 :1 2 4 - 25; H a n s e n a n d S te p p u ta t 2001). S e e n fro m th is p e rsp e c tiv e , th e task o f t h e a n th r o p o lo g is t b e c o m e s t h a t o f first s ig h t in g in s ta n c e s o f th e s ta te as it exists o n th e local lev e l a n d th e n a n a ly z in g th o se lo ca l

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m a n ife s ta tio n s o f b u re a u c rac y a n d law as c u ltu ra lly in fo rm e d in te r p r e ­ta t io n s o r a p p ro p r ia tio n s o f th e p ra c tic e s an d fo rm s th a t c o n s t i tu te th e m o d e r n lib e ra l s ta te . T h e se p a r o c h ia l s ig h tin g s o f th e s ta te le a d , in tu r n , to a m o re sp a tia lly a n d c o n c e p tu a lly d isp e rse d p ic tu re o f w h a t th e s ta te is, a lb e it o n e th a t is still b asica lly id e n tif ia b le th ro u g h th e s ta te ’s a ff ilia tio n s with p a r t ic u la r in s ti tu tio n a l fo rm s .4

O n e aspec t o f th in k in g o f th e s ta te in te rm s o f o rd e r-m a k in g fu n c ­tio n s is th a t th e sp a tia l a n d soc ia l m a rg in s th a t so oft'eti c o n s ti tu te th e te r r a in o f e th n o g ra p h ic fie ld w o rk a re seen as s ite s o f d iso rd e r, w h e re th e s ta te has b e e n u n a b le to im p o se its o rd e r .5 W h ile it is tru e th a t p o lit­ica l a n th ro p o lo g y s ta k e d its u n iq u e c la im for u n d e r s ta n d in g th e p o li t i­ca l p rec ise ly by a sk in g how o r d e r w as m a in ta in e d in so-called s ta te le ss so c ie tie s su ch as th e N u e r (E v an s-P ritch a rd 19 4 0 ), i t d id so by b ra c k e t­in g a n y re fe re n c e to th e fu n c t io n in g o f the a c tu a l s ta te —th e c o lo n ia l o n e — in th a t very c o n te x t . As m a n y c ritic s o f E v a n s -P r itc h a rd hav e p o in te d o u t, the se g m e n ta ry system as a system o f b a la n c e d fo rc e c o u ld b e p r e s e n te d as e m b o d y in g th e o r d e r e d politics o f N u e r life, p re c ise ly b e c a u se th e d iso rd e rs cau sed by th e co lo n ia l s ta te w ere left o u t o f th e p ic tu r e (see C o r ia t 1993; H u tc h in s o n 1996). A l th o u g h a t t e n t io n to c o lo n ia l c o n tex ts le d to in c reased c o n c e rn with th e s ta te as a f a c to r in th e fo rm a tio n o f c e r ta in types o f a n th ro p o lo g ic a l su b jec ts (B a la n d ie r 1951; G lu ck m an 1963; M eillassoux [1975] 1981), b o th po litica l a n th r o ­p o lo g is ts (for e x a m p le , G ledh ill 1994; V in cen t 1 9 90) a n d p o s tc o lo n ia l a n d s u b a lte rn th e o r is ts (see th e se v e ra l volum es o n su b a lte rn s tu d ie s by th e S u b a l te r n C o lle c tiv e ) have t e n d e d , u n til r e c e n tly , to e m p h a s iz e e i th e r re s is tan ce to th e sta te o r th e lo c a l form s o f le g a l, e c o n o m ic , a n d c u l tu ra l p lu ra lity th a t m a rk e d a n th ro p o lo g ic a l su b je c ts as c o n ta in e d by o r a r t ic u la te d w ith th e s ta te .

G iv en th a t it is im p o ssib le to t h in k o f po litica l system s in th e c o n ­te m p o r a r y w orld as in h a b it in g a n y fo rm o f s ta te le ss so c ie tie s , a r e we o b se rv in g sim ply in c o m p le te — o r f ru s t r a te d — fo rm s o f th e sta te in s u c h s itu a tio n s? O r d o th e fo rm s o f illeg ib ility , partia l b e lo n g in g , a n d d is o r ­d e r th a t seem to in h a b it th e m a rg in s o f th e state c o n s t i tu te its n e c e ssa ry c o n d i t io n as a th e o re tic a l a n d p o litic a l object?

K ey to th is a s p e c t o f th e p r o b le m o f m a rg in s is th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n v io lence a n d th e o rd e r in g fu n c tio n s of th e s ta te . In fo rm e d as it is by a p a r tic u la r p ic tu re o T h u m a n n a tu re , E u ro p e a n po litical th e o l ­

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ogy h a s b estow ed th e s ta te with b o th th e quality o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e a n d a r e la te d m o n o p o ly o v e r v io le n c e (s e e A b ram s 1 9 8 8 ) .6 M ax W e b e r ’s fa m o u s fo rm u la t io n o n th e c r i te r ia f o r c o u n tin g a p o litic a l o rg a n iz a ­tio n as a s ta te m ay b e w o r th re c a llin g h e re . In his w o rd s , “A ‘ru lin g o rg a ­n iz a t io n ’ will be c a l le d ‘p o litic a l’ in s o fa r as its e x is te n c e a n d o r d e r is c o n t in u o u s ly s a f e g u a rd e d w ith in a g iv e n territorial a r e a by th e th r e a t a n d a p p lic a tio n o f p h y sica l fo rce o n th e p a r t o f th e a d m in is tra tiv e staff. A c o m p u lso ry p o litic a l o rg a n iz a tio n w ith c o n tin u o u s o p e ra tio n s (politis- cher Anstaltsbetrieh) w ill b e called a ‘s t a t e ’ in so fa r as its a d m in is tra tiv e s ta ff successfu lly u p h o ld s th e c la im to th e monopoly o f th e legitimate u se o f p h y s ic a l fo rc e in th e e n f o r c e m e n t o f its o r d e r ” (W eb er 1 9 7 8 :5 4 ; e m p h a s is in o r ig in a l) . W eb er also e m p h a s iz e d th a t u se o f fo rce in an y o th e r ty p e o f o rg a n iz a tio n w ould b e c o n s id e re d le g itim a te on ly if i t was p e rm it te d by th e s ta te o r p re sc r ib e d by it. T hus, “th e c la im o f th e m o d ­e rn s ta te to m o n o p o liz e th e use o f fo rc e is as e ssen tia l to it as its c h a ra c ­te r o f c o m p u ls o ry ju r i s d ic t io n a n d c o n tin u o u s o p e r a t io n ” (5 6 ) . In d e f in in g th e s ta te as t h a t w h ich r e p la c e s p riv a te v e n g e a n c e w ith th e ru le o f law, W eber w as, o f cou rse , b u i ld in g o n e a r l ie r tra d itio n s o f K an t a n d H e g e l , fo r w h o m th e sta te in m o d e rn i ty was d e f in e d by c le a r-c u t b o u n d a r ie s b e tw een th e ex te rn a l re a lm o f law a n d th e in te rn a l re a lm o f e th ic s , a n d also b e tw e e n th e re a lm o f u n iv e rsa lis tic re a s o n p r o p e r to th e s ta te a n d p r im o rd ia l re la tio n s p r o p e r to th e fam ily (fo r e x a m p le , H eg e l [1821] 1991; K a n t [1797] 1 9 6 5 ). In h e re n t in th is im a g in a tio n o f th e f ig u re o f law w as th e c re a tio n o f b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n th o se p r a c ­tices a n d spaces th a t w e re seen to fo rm p a r t o f th e s ta te a n d th o se th a t w ere e x c lu d e d f ro m it. L egitim acy, in tu rn , e m e rg e d as a fu n c t io n o f th is b o u n d a ry -m a rk in g e ffec t o f s ta te p rac tices . T h e v io le n c e o f w a rfa re c o n tra c te d be tw een s ta te s a n d p o lic e c o n tro l o f th e d if fu se d v io len ce o f society by fo rce w ere c o n s titu te d as le g itim a te b e c a u se th e y w ere o f th e s ta te . O t h e r fo rm s o f v io le n c e th a t s e e m e d e i t h e r to m im ic s ta te v io le n c e o r to c h a lle n g e its co n tro l w e re d e e m e d illeg itim a te .

In th is vision o f p o li t ic a l life , th e s ta te is im a g in e d as a n alw ays in c o m p le te p ro je c t t h a t m u s t c o n s ta n t ly be s p o k e n o f— a n d im a g ­in e d — th r o u g h a n in v o c a tio n o f th e w ild e rn e ss , law lessness, a n d savagery th a t n o t o n ly lies o u ts id e its ju r is d ic tio n b u t a lso th re a te n s it fro m w ith in . K ant, f o r in s tan ce , a s su m e d th a t th e e n d s o f g o v e rn m e n t in te rm s o f m a n a g in g th e e te rn a l w e ll-b e in g , civ ic w e ll-b e in g , a n d

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physical w e ll-b e in g o f th e p e o p le w ere th r e a te n e d fro m w ith in because it was “n a tu r a l” fo r p e o p le to p u t th e ir p h y sica l w ell-be ing ab o v e th e ir c h ic w e ll-b e in g an d th e ir civic w ell-be ing a b o v e th e ir e te rn a l w ell-being. F o r K an t, th is “sta te o f n a tu r e ” th a t th r e a te n s th e civic o r d e r was to be tra n s fo rm e d by e d u c a tio n (V ries 2002). W e b e r— w ith w h o m th e th eo ry o f th e ra tio n a liz a tio n o f th e s ta te is m o s t c lo se ly a sso c ia te d — sim ilarly tre a te d th is p ro cess as re g re t ta b ly in c o m p le te , s in ce th e fo rm a lism o f law h a d to c o n te n d w ith th e d e m a n d s o f p o p u la r ju s t ic e .7 W e w ish to e m p h a s iz e t h a t fo r th e s e ( a n d o th e r ) f o u n d a t io n a l th e o r is ts o f th e E u ro p e a n s ta te fo rm , th e s ta te itse lf was se e n as always in d a n g e r o f los­in g its h o ld o v e r th e ra t io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f g o v e rn a n c e by th e fo rc e o f th e n a tu ra l f ro m w ith in . T h u s , d e m a n d s fo r p o p u la r ju s t ic e wre re in te r ­p r e te d as a n e x p re s s io n o f fa c e ts o f h u m a n n a tu r e th a t h a d n o t yet b e e n m a s te re d by ra tionality .

A n d w h a t a b o u t th e law lessness a n d w ild e rn e ss im a g in e d to reside o u ts id e th e s ta te? In s tru c tiv e h e re is th e c o n c e p t o f th e s ta te o f n a tu re as th e n e c e ssa ry o p p o s ite a n d o r ig in p o in t fo r th e s ta te a n d th e law7. T h e fa c t th a t H o b b e s ( [1 6 5 1 ] 1 9 6 8 ), L o c k e ([1 6 9 0 ] 1 9 8 8 ), R o u sse a u ([1762] 19 8 1 ), a n d o th e r ea rly th eo ris ts o f th e s ta te im a g in e d th e state o f n a tu re th r o u g h the im a g e o f A m erica as b o th a rea l s ite o f savagery and an id e a liz e d p r im o rd ia l p la c e suggests th a t we, too , s h o u ld th in k o f th e m a rg in s o f th e sta te— th e “sta te o f n a tu r e ”— as lo c a te d in th e space o f la n g u a g e a n d p ra c tic e w h e re th e re a l sp a c e s o r sites t h a t p ro v id e im p e tu s to th e id ea o f th e s ta te o f n a tu re m e e t th e m y th ica l o r p h ilo ­so p h ica l o r ig in s o f th e s ta te . L o c a te d always o n th e m a rg in s o f w h a t is a c c e p te d as th e te r r i to ry o f u n q u e s t io n e d s ta te c o n tro l ( a n d le g iti­m acy ), th e m a rg in s we e x p lo r e in th is b o o k a r e s im u lta n e o u s ly sites w h ere n a tu r e c a n be im a g in e d as wild a n d u n c o n tro l le d a n d w h e re the s ta te is c o n s ta n tly r e fo u n d in g its m o d es o f o r d e r a n d law m ak in g . T h ese sites a re n o t m e re ly te r r ito r ia l: th ey a re a lso , a n d p e rh a p s m o r e im p o r­tantly, sites o f p ra c tice o n w h ic h law a n d o th e r s ta te p ra c tic e s a r e co lo ­n iz e d by o t h e r fo rm s o f r e g u la t io n th a t e m a n a te f ro m th e p re s s in g n e e d s o f p o p u la tio n s to s e c u re p o litica l a n d e c o n o m ic survival.

It is im p o r ta n t to u n d e r s c o r e th a t a t o u r s e m in a r a t S a n ta Fe, we d id n o t s ta r t w ith th e a s s u m p tio n th a t we h a d a sh a re d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w hat w o u ld c o u n t as th e m a rg in s . A l th o u g h all a u th o rs w a n te d to th in k b e y o n d a sim ply sp a tia l m o d e l o f c e n te r a n d p e r ip h e ry ; th e dis-

V e e n a D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

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T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

c u ss io n s in S a n ta Fe m a d e it e v id e n t th a t th e r e la t io n b e tw e e n so v e r­e ign a n d d isc ip lin a ry fo rm s o f p o w er, as well as th e sp ecific g e n e a lo g ie s o f p o l i t ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic su b je c ts , in fo rm e d o u r v a rio u s id e a s a b o u t th e m a rg in s . O u r co n v e rsa tio n s le d us to fo rm u la te th e se issues a r o u n d th re e c o n c e p ts o f m arg in s .

T h e firs t a p p ro a c h gave p r im a c y to th e id e a o f m a rg in s as p e r ip h ­e rie s s e e n to fo rm n a tu r a l c o n ta in e r s fo r p e o p le c o n s id e re d in s u f f i­c ien tly so c ia lized in to th e law. As e th n o g ra p h e rs , we w ere in te re s te d in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e sp ec ific te c h n o lo g ie s o f p o w er th ro u g h w h ich s ta te s a t te m p t to “m a n a g e ” o r “pacify” th e s e p o p u la tio n s th ro u g h b o th fo rc e an d a p e d a g o g y o f c o n v e rs io n in te n d e d to tra n s fo rm “u n ru ly s u b je c ts ” in to law fu l sub jec ts o f th e sta te . In severa l cases d isc u sse d in th is b o o k (G u a te m a la , P e ru , S o u th A frica ), m a rg in a l p o p u la tio n s a re fo rm e d o f “in d ig e n o u s ” o iP T ia tu ra l” su b je c ts , w h o a re a t o n c e c o n s id e re d to b e f o u n d a t io n a l to p a r tic u la r n a tio n a l id e n titie s a n d e x c lu d e d f ro m th e se sam e id e n ti t ie s by th e so rts o f d isc ip lin a ry k n o w led g e th a t m a rk th e m as rac ia lly a n d c iv iliza tio n a lly “o th e r .” In th e se cases, ju r id ic a l c la im s to in c lu s io n a re u n d e rm in e d in in te r e s t in g ways by d isc ip lin a ry fo rm s o f p o w e r th a t d e s ta b iliz e th e very d is c o u rs e s o f b e lo n g in g th a t c la im to b in d su b je c ts to th e s ta te a n d its law s. In o th e r cases (C o lo m b ia , C h a d , S ie rra L e o n e , S ri.L an k a ), th e p e d a g o g y o f c o n v e rs io n is p layed o u t in less s e t t le d ways a m o n g sub jec ts w h o hav e b een u p r o o te d o r d is p la c e d by ac ts o f war. In th e se cases, su b je c ts a re c o n s ti tu te d ju rid ic a lly as p e r ­m a n e n t in h a b ita n ts o f th e sam e fo rm s o f u n c o n tro l le d o r p r iv a te j u s ­tice t h a t u n d e r g i r d s o v e re ig n p o w e r in th e f o r m o f w ar a n d th e e x c e p tio n .

A s e c o n d , r e la te d a p p r o a c h to th e c o n c e p t o f th e m a rg in th a t e m e r g e d f ro m o u r p a p e r s a n d s e m in a r d isc u ss io n s h in g e s a r o u n d issues o f leg ib ility a n d illegibility . L ik e o th e r a n th ro p o lo g is ts , h e r e we b eg in by ta k in g n o te o f th e w ell-know n fac t th a t so m u c h o f th e m o d e r n state is c o n s tru c te d th ro u g h its w rit in g p rac tices. W e re c o g n iz e th a t th e d o c u m e n ta r y a n d s ta t is t ic s -g a th e r in g p ra c tic e s o f th e s ta te a r e a ll in te n d e d , in so m e sen se , to c o n s o lid a te s ta te c o n tro l o v e r su b jec ts , p o p ­u la tio n s , te rr ito rie s , a n d lives. In o u r se m in a r d iscu ssio n s, how ever, we so o n re a l iz e d th a t o u r e th n o g r a p h ie s w o rk ed a g a in s t th e n o t io n th a t th e s ta te is so m eh o w “a b o u t” its leg ib ility . R ather, o u r p a p e rs s e e m e d to p o in t in s te a d to th e m a n y d i f f e r e n t sp aces , fo rm s , a n d p r a c t ic e s

9

th ro u g h w h ich th e s ta te is c o n tin u a lly b o th e x p e r ie n c e d a n d u n d o n e th r o u g h th e illegibility o f its ow n p ra c tic e s , d o c u m e n ts , a n d w o rd s . A m o n g th e so r ts o f p ra c tic e s w e c o n s id e r a re th e e c o n o m ie s o f d is ­p la c e m e n t , fa ls if ic a tio n , a n d in te r p r e ta t io n s u r r o u n d in g th e c irc u la ­tio n a n d use o f p e rs o n a l id e n tif ic a tio n p ap ers . P r o m in e n t h e re as well is th e te n s io n -fille d sp ace o f th e c h e c k p o in t. As a site w h ere a s su m p ­tio n s a b o u t th e secu rity o f id e n tity a n d rights ca n b e c o m e su d d e n ly a n d s o m e tim e s v io le n tly u n s e t t le d , th e c h e c k p o in t le d us to th in k a lso a b o u t th e d is t in c t te m p o ra l d y n a m ic s s u r r o u n d in g p e o p le ’s in te r a c ­tio n s w ith th e s ta te a n d sta te d o c u m e n ts .

Yet a th ird a p p ro a c h focuses o n th e m arg in as a sp ace b e tw een b o d ­ies, law, a n d d isc ip lin e . A fte r all, so v e re ig n p o w e r e x e rc ise d by th e s ta te is n o t on ly a b o u t te rr ito rie s ; it is a lso a b o u t b o d ie s . In fact, o n e m ay c o n ­te n d th a t th e p ro d u c tio n o f a b io p o litic a l bo d y is th e o rig in a ry activ ity o f so v e re ig n p o w er. M any a n th ro p o lo g is ts h a v e u s e d th e n o t io n o f b io p o w e r to tra c k th e way p o w er sp re a d s its te n ta c le s in to th e cap illa ry b ra n c h e s o f th e social. T h e p riv ile g e d site o f th is p ro cess has b e e n th e g ro w in g pow er o f m e d ic in e to d e f in e th e “n o rm a l .” Yet, th e la rg e r issue is th e q u e s tio n o f how p o litics b e c o m e s th e d o m a in in w h ich “life ” is p u t in q u es tio n . In th a t sense, th e m arg in s p ro v id e a p a rticu la rly in te r ­e s tin g v an tage p o s itio n fro m w h ich to observe th e co lo n iz a tio n o f law by d isc ip lin e s , as w ell as th e p r o d u c t io n o f c a te g o r ie s o f p a th o lo g y th ro u g h tactics th a t a re p arasitica l o n law even as th e y drawr re p e r to ire s o f a c tio n fro m it. O u r se m in a r d iscussions o n th is se t o f issues to o k th e n o t io n o f th e b io p o li t ic a l s ta te in e n tire ly u n e x p e c te d d ir e c t io n s as s tra te g ie s o f c itiz e n sh ip , te c h n o lo g ic a l im ag in a ries , a n d new re g io n s o f la n g u a g e w ere an a ly zed as c o -c o n s tru c tin g th e s ta te a n d th e m a rg in s .

T h e se th re e c o n c e p ts o f th e m a rg in all su g g e s t d if fe re n t m o d e s o f o c c u p y in g m arg in s th a n m ig h t b e to ld by a s im p le s to ry o f e x c lu s io n . In th e re m a in d e r o f th is in tro d u c tio n , we co n sid e r h o w th e a u th o rs in th is b o o k trace th ese d if fe re n t senses o f th e m arg in in th e ir e th n o g ra p h ic w o rk an d how in so d o in g they d ra w o n a n d re a r t ic u la te th in k in g a b o u t th e s ta te , so v ere ig n ty , a n d b io p o li t ic s in r e c e n t p o litic a l th eo ry . T h e c h a p te r s a re n o t o rg a n iz e d a r o u n d o n e o r th e o th e r c o n c e p t o f m a r ­g ins. T h ese th re e n o tio n s a re p re s e n t b u t have d if fe re n t w eights in e a c h c h a p te r . In th e fo llo w in g se c tio n s , w e ask how th e log ic o f e x c e p tio n o p e ra te s in re la tio n to th e m a rg in s , how e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l c iti­

V e e n a D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

o

T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

z e n sh ip is c la im ed , a n d h o w w e u n d e rs ta n d th e w o rk ing o f th e b io p o ­litica l s ta te f r o m th e p e r s p e c tiv e s o f r e g io n s w h o se e x p e r ie n c e s have n o t n o rm a lly in fo rm e d th is s e t o f c o n c e p tu a l issues.

LAW, M A R G I N S , A N D E X C E P T I O NR e c e n t a n th r o p o lo g ic a l w ork has d o n e m u c h to i l lu m in a te th e

c o n te x ts in w hich w ar a n d o th e r form s o f co llec tiv e v io len ce a re ex p e r­ie n c e d as e i th e r states o f c risis o r states o f e x c e p tio n . T h u s , a n th ro p o lo ­gists h a v e re f le c te d o n h o w th e c o n tex ts o f civil war, g e n e ra l p o litica l v io le n c e , a u th o r i ta r ia n r u le , a n d e m e rg e n c y p o w ers s h a p e p e o p le ’s sense o f co m m u n ity , se lf, a n d po litica l f u tu r e (fo r e x a m p le , D as e t al. 2000, 20 0 1 ; F e ld m an 1991; F e r in e 2001). A t s tak e h e re as w ell has been an e x te n d e d d iscussion o f th e ways in w h ich v io len ce a n d w ar sh a p e the very te r m s in w h ich e th n o g r a p h y c a n ta k e p la c e ( fo r e x a m p le , N o rd s tro m 1995). In th is l i te ra tu re , th e e x c e p tio n ten d s to b e tre a te d as r b o u n d e d en tity o r fo rm o f em erg en cy pow er, ac k n o w le d g e d as an in c re a s in g ly f re q u e n t, y e t so m e h o w a b e r r a n t face o f th e m o d e r n states in w h ich e th n o g ra p h e rs w o rk .

W h ile o u r ow n w ork h a s b e n e f ite d in m u ltip le ways fro m th ese sorts o f d iscu ss io n s , o u r c o n c e p t o f th e m arg in g o e s well b ey o n d th e sense o f “e x c e p t io n ” as a n e v e n t t h a t c a n b e c o n f in e d to p a r t ic u la r k in d s o f sp aces o r p e r io d s in t im e , o r a c o n d itio n th a t s ta n d s o p p o s e d , so m e­how, to “n o r m a l” fo rm s o f s ta te pow er. R a th e r, we draw o n th e very dif­fe re n t a p p ro a c h to th e e x c e p t io n a rtic u la te d by W alter B e n ja m in , Carl S c h m itt, a n d , m o s t re c e n tly , G io rg io A g a m b e n , w hose w o rk has been e n g a g e d by a n th ro p o lo g is ts in te re s te d in q u e s tio n s o f so v ere ig n ty an d b iopow er.

In h is r e th in k in g o f th e p ro b le m o f so v e re ig n ty a n d th e e x c e p tio n , A g a m b e n (1 9 9 8 ) has re s u s c i ta te d th e f ig u re o f homo sacer, a n o b scu re f ig u re o f a rc h a ic R o m a n law , as th e e m b o d im e n t o f “b a r e l i fe ,” in o rd e r to r e th in k so v e re ig n ty as ex e rc ised , n o t o v er te r r ito r ie s , b u t over life a n d d e a th . F u r th e r , th is life is “b a re ” b e c a u s e it c a n b e ta k e n by a n y o n e w i th o u t any m e d ia t io n f ro m law a n d w ith o u t i n c u r r in g th e g u ilt o f h o m ic id e . H o m o sace r, th e n , is th e p e r s o n w ho c a n b e killed but not sacrificed. A g am b en q u o te s th e w ords o f P o m p e iu s F estus: “T h e sac red m a n is th e o n e w h o m th e p e o p le h av e ju d g e d o n a c c o u n t o f a c rim e. I t is n o t p e rm itte d to sacrifice this m a n , ve t he w ho kills h im will

V e e n a D a s a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

n o t be c o n d e m n e d fo r h o m ic id e ” (71). B a re life, th e n , tu r n s o u t to be s o m e th in g c o n s t i tu te d in s o m e senses as “b e fo re th e law .” B ecause h o m o sa c e r , th is .e m b o d im e n t o f b a re life , c a n n o t be s a c r if ic e d , h e is ou tside th e p u rv iew o f d iv in e law, an d b e c a u se o n e w ho kills h im c a n n o t b e accu sed o f h o m ic id e , h e is also o u ts id e th e purv iew o f h u m a n law.

We w ill n o t go in to th e q u e s tio n s o f h is to r ic a l accu racy h e r e — th ere a re p la c e s in w h ich A g a m b e n ’s te x t is in d e e d b a re . E x a m p le s are o ffe red in a c ryp tic fa sh io n , b u t they a re n o t e la b o ra te d . F o r in stan ce , in s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry te x ts o n so v ere ig n ty , it was th e f a t h e r ’s pow er over th e life a n d d ea th o f th e so n th a t r e p r e s e n te d legal n o t io n s o f sov-. e re ig n ty (se e F ilm e r 1949), a n d A g am b en r ig h tly draw s a t te n t io n to this idea. B u t h e d o e s n o t d iscu ss w h e th e r th e f a th e r ’s ex e rc ise o f sovereign p ow er is a n e x a m p le o f p o w e r over b are life , o r w h e th e r in s te a d th e son is to be s e e n as a legally c o n s t i tu te d su b je c t. Sim ilarly, A g a m b e n ’s dis­cussion o f th e H ab eas C o rp u s A ct o f 1679 b e g s th e q u e s t io n w h e th e r th e p e r s o n w h o se “b o d y ” is su p p o se d to b e p r o d u c e d in c o u r t is a legally c o n s t i tu te d su b jec t o r a b a re bo d y s t r ip p e d o f all so c ia l a n d legal m ark s (F itz p a tr ic k 2001). A ll o f these a r e in tr ic a te q u e s tio n s . F o r the m o m e n t, w h a t we w ant to ta k e from A g a m b e n ’s th eo ry is th e im plica­tio n th a t law p ro d u c e s c e r ta in bod ies as “k il la b le ” b ecau se th e y a re posi­tio n e d by th e law itse lf as p r io r to the in s t i tu t io n o f law.

F or A g a m b e n , the f ig u re o f h o m o s a c e r h o ld s th e key to a n u n d e r ­s ta n d in g o f sovere ign ty a n d m o d e rn p o litic a l a n d legal c o d e s because o f w hat i t rev ea ls o f th e s o v e re ig n ’s p o w er to re s o r t to a b o u n d le s s state o f e x c e p tio n . H e re , A g a m b e n draws on th e w o rk o f B e n ja m in ([1978] 1986) a n d S c h m itt ([1 9 2 2 ] 1988) to a rg u e th a t th e s ta te o f e x c e p tio n p ro v id e s a th e o r y o f s o v e re ig n ty th a t is b o t h in s id e a n d o u ts id e law. B ecau se th e so v ere ig n c a n n o t by d e f in i t io n b e b o u n d to th e law, the p o litic a l c o m m u n ity i ts e lf b e c o m e s s p li t a lo n g th e d i f f e r e n t ax es o f m e m b e rs h ip a n d in c lu sio n th a t m ay ru n a lo n g given fa u lt lin e s o f race, g e n d e r , a n d e th n ic ity o r m a y p ro d u c e n ew c a te g o r ie s o f p e o p le in c lu d e d in th e po litical c o m m u n ity b u t d e n ie d m e m b e rs h ip in po liti­cal term s. T h e issue is n o t th a t m e m b e rsh ip is sim ply d e n ie d b u t ra th e r th a t in d iv id u a ls a re r e c o n s t i tu te d th ro u g h sp ec ia l laws as p o p u la tio n s o n w hom n e w fo rm s o f re g u la t io n can b e e x e rc ise d . A lth o u g h th e split be tw een in c lu s io n an d m e m b e rs h ip m ay b e c lear-cu t— as, fo r in stan ce , in th e e x c lu s io n o f c e r ta in races o r e th n ic i t ie s from c i t iz e n s h ip — it is

w ell to r e m e m b e r th a t sta tes o f e x c e p tio n , o f w h ic h w ar is th e classic e x a m p le , can re d ra w b o u n d a r ie s so th a t th o se w h o w ere s e c u re in th e ir c itiz e n sh ip c an b e e x p e lle d o r re c o n s ti tu te d as d if fe re n t k in d s o f b o d ­ies. T h e p a ra d ig m a tic e x a m p le o f th is fo r A g a m b e n is th e c o n c e n tra ­t io n cam p , w h e re Jew s w ere f irs t s tr ip p e d o f th e i r c itiz e n sh ip a n d th en c o n f in e d to th e c a m p a n d s u b je c te d to its a tro c itie s . O th e r e x a m p le s o f s u c h e x c e p tio n s f ro m “in s id e ” in c lu d e the in te r n m e n t o f A m e ric a n cit­iz e n s o f J a p a n e s e d e s c e n t d u r i n g th e S e c o n d W o rld W ar, o r m o re r e c e n t leg is la tio n c o n c e rn in g s u c h ca teg o ries as “te rro r is t .”

T h u s , a l th o u g h A g am b en p re s e n ts the f ig u re o f h o m o s a c e r a t least in so m e in s ta n c e s as if i t in h a b i te d so m e k in d o f p reso c ia l life , i t w ould a p p e a r th a t k il la b le b o d ie s a r e , in fact, p r o d u c e d through a c o m p le x leg a l process o f r e n d e r in g th e m as b a re life (F itzp a trick 2001). T h is may e x p la in why o n e c a n d e te c t tw o d if fe re n t m o d a litie s o f ru le in A g a m b e n ’s c o n c e p tio n o f b a re life. In s o m e p laces, h e assig n s it to sp ec ific spaces ( th e c o n c e n tr a t io n ca m p ) a n d f ig u re s o f m o d e r n life ( r e fu g e e s ) , as in s ta n tia tio n s o f h o w b are life is e m b o d ie d a n d a c te d u p o n in m o d e rn fo rm s o f s ta te h o o d ; in o th e r in s ta n c e s , h e s e e m s to see b a re life as a th r e a t h e ld in a b e y a n c e an d a s ta te in to w hich an y citizen c o u ld fall. This la t te r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f bare life as th e e x c e p tio n invites a t te n t io n to on e se n se o f m arg in s th a t we em p lo y h e re , as sites th a t d o n o t so m u c h lie o u t­s id e th e state b u t ra th e r, like riv ers , ru n th ro u g h its body.

O n o n e p o in t , how ever, w e d iffe r from A g a m b e n , fo r w e fe e l th a t s ta te s o f e x c e p tio n , d iffe re n ce s b e tw e e n m e m b e rs h ip a n d in c lu s io n , o r f ig u re s th a t re s id e b o th in s id e a n d o u ts id e th e law, d o n o t m a k e th e ir a p p e a ra n c e as g h o s d y sp e c tra l p re se n c e s f ro m th e p as t b u t r a th e r as p r a c t ic e s e m b e d d e d in e v e ry d a y life in th e p r e s e n t . In th is v o lu m e , t h e n , we su g g e s t tw o ways in w h ic h A g a m b e n ’s n o t io n o f e x c e p t io n f ra m e s o u r e th n o g ra p h ic e x p lo ra tio n s o f th e m a rg in s . F irst, o u r search fo r th e m arg in s o f te n settles o n th o se p ra c tic e s th a t seem to b e a b o u t th e c o n tin u a l r e fo u n d in g o f law th ro u g h fo rm s o f v io len ce a n d a u th o r ­ity th a t can b e c o n s tru e d as b o th e x tra ju d ic ia l a n d o u ts id e , o r p r io r to, th e s ta te . T his r e fo u n d in g h a p p e n s b o th th r o u g h th e p ro d u c t io n o f kil­la b le bo d ies, as p o s ite d by A g a m b e n , an d th r o u g h th e so rts o f pow er e m b o d ie d by f ig u re s such as th e p o lic e m a n o r lo ca l “boss.” L ik e h o m o sace r, th e se f ig u re s en joy a c e r ta in im m u n ity to law p rec ise ly b ecau se th e y a re c o n f ig u re d as ex is tin g o u ts id e o r p r io r to th e law.

T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

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F o r K an t, Hegel,, a n d o th e r l ib e ra l theo rists , th e o rig in s o f law a re traced to th e fo u n d a tio n a l an d u ltim a te ly private ( o r “n a tu ra l’') fo rm s o f law th a t p re c e d e d th e sta te (see A sad 2003). In o u r e th n o g ra p h ie s , this q u e s tio n o f th e o r ig in s o f law e m e rg e s , n o t as th e m y th o f the s ta te , b u t r a th e r in th e fo rm o f m en w hose ab ilities to r e p r e s e n t the s ta te o r to e n fo rc e its laws a r e th em selves p re m is e d on th e m e n 's re c o g n iz e d ability to m ove w ith im p u n ity b e tw e e n ap p ea ls to th e fo rm o f law a n d form s o f ex tra ju d ic ia l p ra c tic e tha t a re clearly c o n s tru e d as lying o u ts id e , o r p r io r to , th e s ta te . E x am p les o f s u c h fig u res in c lu d e th e P e ru v ia n gamonal, o r local s tro n g m a n , who re p re s e n ts the s ta te th ro u g h b o th p a r ­ticu lar fo rm s o f inciv ility a n d m o d es o f v io lence th a t a re m ark ed as ille ­gal (P o o le ) ; C o lo m b ia n p a ra m il i ta ry fo rces th a t a c t b o th as a n ex te n s io n o f th e a rm y a n d as c o n d u its fo r th e flow o f a rm s to d ru g lo rd s o r p la n ta tio n s (S a n fo rd ) ; a n d b ro k e rs w h o in h a b it th e eco n o m ic f r o n ­tiers d e s c r ib e d by R o itm a n . Such f ig u re s o f local a u th o r i ty r e p r e s e n t b o th h ig h ly p e r s o n a l iz e d fo rm s o f p r iv a te pow er a n d th e su p p o se d ly im p e rso n a l o r n e u tr a l a u th o r ity o f th e sta te . It is p re c ise ly because th e y also a c t as r e p re s e n ta t iv e s o f th e s ta te th a t th e y a r e ab le to m o v e across— a n d th u s m u d d y — th e se e m in g ly c lea r d iv id e se p a ra tin g le g a l an d e x tra le g a l fo rm s o f p u n is h m e n t a n d e n fo rc e m e n t . In m any ways, these local figu res w h o b u ild th e ir c h a r is m a an d p o w e r th ro u g h id io m s o f ru d e n e ss , incivility, a n d th re a t a re s im ila r to th e “b ig m e n ” d e sc r ib e d by G o d e lie r a n d S tr a th e r n (1991). L ik e th e “big m e n ,” they d o n o t so m u c h e m b o d y “t r a d i t i o n a l ” a u th o r i ty as a m u ta t io n o f t r a d i t io n a l a u th o r ity m a d e p o ss ib le by th e in te rm it te n t pow er o f th e sta te . Such fig­u res, w h o a p p e a r in d if f e r e n t guises in th e d iffe re n t e th n o g ra p h ic c o n ­texts o f th e c h a p te rs in th is vo lum e— as b ro k ers, w h ee le r-d ea le rs , lo ca l big m e n , p a ra m ilita ry — re p re se n t a t o n c e th e fad in g o f th e s ta te ’s ju r is ­d ic tio n a n d its c o n t in u a l r e f o u n d in g th ro u g h its ( n o t so m y th ic ) a p p ro p r ia t io n o f p r iv a te ju s tic e a n d v io len ce . In th is se n se , they are th e pub lic s e c re t th ro u g h w h ic h the p e rs o n s w ho em b o d y law, b u reau cracy , an d v io len ce th a t to g e th e r co n stitu te th e sta te m ove b e y o n d the re a lm o f m yth to b e c o m e j o i n e d in the rea lity o f everyday life.

C o n s id e ra t io n o f th e s e p e r s o n a e h e lp s us u n d e r s ta n d how th e f ro n tie r b e tw een th e leg a l a n d e x tra le g a l ru n s r ig h t w ith in the o ffices a n d in s t i tu t io n s th a t e m b o d y th e s ta te . D as,-fo r in s ta n c e , o ffe rs a n ex am p le o f a p o lic e m a n , know n fo r h is fie rce in teg rity , w h o com es u p

V e e n a D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

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T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

ag a in s t a p o w erfu l m afia -lik e o p e ra tio n a n d nearly lo ses h is life. D esp ite th e fa c t th a t h e is a fu n c tio n a ry o f th e s ta te , he , to o , is co n v in ced th a t th e ju d ic ia l p ro cess is in c a p a b le o f p in n in g th e c r im e o n th e p e rso n s re s p o n s ib le , a n d th u s h e p ro c e e d s to v io la te th e p r o c e d u r a l law in o r d e r to h a n d o u t w h a t h e co n sid e rs to b e su b stan tiv e ju s tic e . T h e sa m e p o lic e o ffice r, w h en in v o lv e d in th e s t a t e ’s c o u n te r in s u rg e n c y o p e r a ­tio n s a g a in s t w hat a re d e f in e d as m ili ta n t o r te r ro r is t o rg a n iz a tio n s , is k illed by h is own tru s te d d ep u ty , b e c a u se w h en p o lic e p e n e tra te th e se m ili ta n t o r te rro ris t o rg a n iz a tio n s to f ig h t th em , th e lin e s be tw een th e te r r o r i s t a n d th e p o l ic e m a n b e c o m e b lu r r e d . As in J e g a n a t h a n ’s d e s c r ip tio n , so in D as, s ta te p rac tice s in e m e rg e n c y z o n e s , o r sta tes o f e x c e p tio n , c a n n o t b e u n d e rs to o d in te rm s o f law a n d tra n sg ress io n , b u t r a th e r in te rm s o f p ra c tic e s th a t lie s im u lta n e o u s ly o u ts id e an d in s id e th e law. As a n e m b o d im e n t o f th e s ta te o f e x c e p tio n , th e p o lic e m a n c h a l le n g e s , n o t th is o r th a t law, b u t th e very p o ss ib ili ty o f law its e lf (B e n ja m in [1978] 1986; D e rr id a 1992; T aussig 1997). By e n g a g in g th is p h ilo s o p h ic a l d ile m m a a t th e o rig in o f th e s ta te a n d law as an e th n o ­g ra p h ic p ro b le m , th e a u th o rs in th is b o o k m ak e c le a r th a t th is p ro b le m . o f th e o r ig in o f law is n o t a g h o stly s p e c te r fro m th e p a s t, as in , fo r e x a m p le , A g a m b e n ’s a p p ro p r ia t io n o f th e fig u re o f h o m o sacer f ro m R o m a n law, b u t r a th e r th e re su lt o f th e c o n c re te p ra c tic e s in w hich life a n d la b o r a re e n g a g e d (see R ab inow 20 0 2 ).

A s e c o n d a re a in w h ic h o u r w ork a d d re sse s th e o r ie s o f sovere ign ty a n d th e e x c e p tio n c o n c e rn s p ra c tice s th a t have to d o w ith th e s e c u r in g a n d u n d o in g o f id e n ti t ie s . H e re , a p a r t ic u la r a rea o f in te re s t c o n c e rn s th e d o c u m e n ta t io n th r o u g h w hich th e s ta te claim s to s e c u re id en titie s , b u t w h ic h in p ra c t ic e o f te n c irc u la te s in ways th a t u n d e r m in e th e s e sam e id e n titie s a n d a ssu ra n c e s . A m o n g th e various k in d s o f d o c u m e n ts issu ed by g o v e rn m e n ts a n d su p p o se d to a c t as g u a ra n te e s o f b e lo n g in g ­ness, p assp o rts a re th e m o s t e lite . T h e m ajo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n , h o w ­ever, e n c o u n te r s th e s ta te th r o u g h d o c u m e n ts s u c h as r a t io n c a rd s , id e n ti ty ca rd s , c r im in a l co m p la in ts , c o u r t p ap e rs , b i r th a n d d e a th c e r ­tifica tes, a n d F irst In fo rm a tio n R e p o rts filed in p o lic e sta tio n s. T h e se d o c u m e n ts b e a r th e d o u b le sign o f th e s ta te ’s d is ta n c e a n d its p e n e tra ­tio n in to th e life o f th e everyday. In d e e d , several s c h o la rs have recen tly a r g u e d th a t it is th r o u g h th e se d o c u m e n ta r y p ra c t ic e s th a t th e s ta te m ak es th e p o p u la tio n le g ib le to itself, c re a tin g w h a t h a s b e e n re fe r re d

*5

to as a leg ib ility e ffec t (J. S co tt 1998). T ro u illo t (2 0 0 1 :1 2 6 ), fo r ex am ­ple, su g g e s ts th a t th e leg ib ility effec t is th e “p ro d u c t io n o f b o th a lan ­g u a g e a n d a k n o w le d g e fo r g o v e rn a n c e a n d o f th e o r e t ic a l a n d e m p ir ic a l too ls th a t classify a n d re g u la te co llec tiv ities .” T h e r e is in d e e d a vast l i te ra tu re on th e c lassificatory a n d c a r to g ra p h ic p ra c tic e s o f th e state th a t p o in ts to th e k n o w le d g e /p o w e r a llian ce in th e n e w m o d els o f g o v e rn a n c e th a t a rise w ith th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e id e a o f p o p u la tio n (see A p p a d u ra i 1996; D irk s 2001; F o u c a u lt 1979; M itc h e ll 1988; P e rro t a n d W o o lf 1984; J . S c o tt 1998; R. S m ith 1996).

W h a t in te re s ts u s h e r e , how ever, is n o t how th e s ta te m ak es th e p o p u la t io n leg ib le to i ts e lf b u t how th e s e d o c u m e n ts b e c o m e e m b o d ­ied in fo rm s o f life th r o u g h w hich id e a s o f sub jec ts a n d c itiz e n s com e to c irc u la te a m o n g th o se w h o use these d o c u m e n ts . F o r e x a m p le , in h e r c h a p te r in th is b o o k , M a r ia n e F e r in e n o te s how s ta te d o c u m e n ts sh a d o w a n d c o n s tr ic t m ig ra n ts , tra v e le rs , a n d re fu g e e s as th e y m ove across d if fe re n t so rts o f b o rd e rs a n d c h e c k p o in ts . As a n e x a m p le , she tells o f a m a n w hose o r ig in a l , an d no w invalid , S ie rra L e o n e a n iden tity card w as b a se d o n a fa lse id en tity a n d b i r th d a te . To c la im d e te rr ito r ia l- ized c itiz e n sh ip as a S ie r ra L eo n ean w a r re fu g e e — a n d th u s to ga in ce r­ta in r ig h ts w ith in o th e r , h o s t s ta te s— th e m a n m u s t e m b ra c e th a t id e n ti ty as th e only o n e o n w hich h is n e w sta tu s as a r e f u g e e can b e fo rg e d . H is id e n tity as a S ie rra L e o n e a n c itizen , t h e n , ex is ts in an in v e rse r e la t io n to t h e S ie r ra L e o n e a n s ta te ’s a b ility to s e c u re th a t id e n tity .8 In o th e r s to r ie s to ld by S ie rra L e o n e a n trav e le rs a n d m ig ran ts , F e rm e le a rn s how p a s s p o r ts issued by th e B ritish d u r in g th e co lo n ia l re g im e b e c a m e in v a lid o n in d e p e n d e n c e , th u s fo rc in g c itiz e n s w ho w ere tra v e lin g to s c ra m b le to acq u ire n e w d o c u m e n ts w ith in im possib ly sh o rt t im e fram es, f ro m co n su la tes th a t d id n o t yet e x is t. O f p a rtic u la r im p o r ta n c e h e re is th e te m p o ra l e x p e r ie n c e o f th e s ta te . T h u s , w hen th e s ta te in te rv e n e s to re v o k e id e n tity p a p e rs fo r s e e m in g ly a rb itra ry re a so n s , F e r m e ’s i n f o r m a n t feels p o w e r le s s as h e is f o r c e d to w ait m o n th s a n d to p o s tp o n e sch o la rsh ip s , w o rk , an d travel p la n s in a des­p e ra te a t te m p t to a c q u i r e n ew id e n ti ty p a p e rs a n d c o n f o r m to the new a n d seem in g ly a r b i t r a r y d e m a n d s o f th e state . In s u c h cases, the law is e x p e r ie n c e d as a la rg e ly a rb itra ry im p o s itio n w h o s e effec ts are felt as w h a t F e rm e d e s c r ib e s as c o n flic tin g “sp a tio te m p o ra li t ie s .”

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T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

P o o le ’s c h a p te r d e sc rib e s s im ila r te m p o ra l d is ru p tio n s in th e ways P eruv ian p e a s a n ts en g ag e th e s ta te th ro u g h th e end less ancT seem ing ly a rb itra ry flo w o f p a p e rw o rk th a t c o n s titu te s th e i r e x p e r ie n c e s o f “ju s ­tic e .” In th e a re a s sh e d esc rib e s , leg a l cases ra re ly reach c o n c lu s io n , an d “ju s tic e ” itse lf is m o re c o m m o n ly sp o k en of, n o t as so m e th in g th a t can b e o b ta in e d , b u t r a th e r as th e e p h e m e ra l lin k th a t b in d s p e a sa n ts to a s ta te w hose p ro m is e o f ju s t ic e tak es th e fo rm o f en d less p ro c e d u re s an d th e always in co n c lu s iv e p a p e rw o rk th a t d rifts a m o n g d if fe re n t in stances o f th e ju d ic ia l system . T h e p e d a g o g ic aspects o f th e sta te a re m a n ife s te d h e re , n o t th r o u g h schoo l te x tb o o k s o n c itiz e n sh ip , b u t r a th e r th ro u g h th e p rac tices by w h ich su b jec ts a re m ad e to le a r n th e gap b e tw e e n m em ­b e rsh ip a n d b e lo n g in g . P o o le show s th a t th e re is so m e su b s ta n c e to th e id e a th a t th e sp aces these p e a s a n ts in h ab it a re m a rg in a l sp aces , w ith an a b se n c e o f ro a d s , schoo ls , o r o th e r signs o f th e p re se n c e o f th e state. W h a t allows th e s ta te n ever to b e h e ld re sp o n s ib le to its ow n prom ises, how ever, is th e c o m b in a t io n o f th is physical lo c a tio n a n d o th e r ideas a b o u t the “n a tu r a l” m arg iria lity o f in d ig e n o u s p easan ts .

T h e te m p o r a l c o n f ig u ra t io n a n d e x p e r ie n c e o f su c h e n c o u n te r s w ith the a rb i tr a ry p o w e r o f th e s ta te can also b e th o u g h t o f as th e h ighly m o b ile sp aces th a t P ra d e e p J e g a n a th a n ap tly d e sc r ib e s in h is c h a p te r as “m a p s o f a n t ic ip a t io n .” T h e s e a r e spaces w h e re th e p e d a g o g ic claim s a n d a ssu ra n c e s o f law a n d th e n a t io n b e c o m e u n s e tt le d by s ta te p rac ­tices. For J e g a n a th a n , as fo r o th e r a u th o rs in th e v o lum e, th e m ilitary o r p o lice c h e c k p o in t e m e rg e s as a site f ro m w h ic h th is t r o u b l in g o f e x p e c ta tio n s a n d leg ib ilities ru b s u p ag a in st th e n o rm a lcy o f th e every­day. J e g a n a th a n evokes th e m o s t o rd in a ry o f e v e n ts in th e p ro c e s s o f a d a ily c o m m u te in th e city o f C o lo m b o in S ri L a n k a : a c o m m u te r is s to p p e d a t a c h e c k p o in t fo r h is id e n tity card . W h a t c o u ld th is m e a n in a c o u n try th a t u n t i l re c e n d y w as in th e m idst o f a civil war? W h e re te r ro r­ists, in su rg e n ts , m ilitan ts , o r f r e e d o m fig h te rs ( th e a p p e lla tio n d e p e n d s u p o n how o n e re a d s th e c o n f lic t) u se te c h n iq u e s o f te r r o r /m a r ty rd o m su c h as su ic id e b o m b in g s a n d w h e re security fo rc e s , in tu rn , u se sim ilar te c h n iq u e s o f t e r r o r c o u n te r in s u rg e n c y , th e q u e s t io n , w h e re a re th e b o rd e rs o f th e s ta te? is f r a u g h t w ith u n c e r ta in ty a n d risk, f o r b o rd e r ­m a k in g p ra c t ic e s r u n w ith in t h e p o litic a l a n d so c ia l t e r r i to r y r a th e r th a n o u ts id e it.

17

T h is m o b ility in h e r e n t to the sp aces a n d settings in w h ich b o rd e r ­m a k in g p ra c tic e s e m e rg e d e s ta b iliz e s th e in h e re n t ly te r r i to r ia l l a n ­guages o f c o n ta in m e n t a n d sovereign ty th a t seem to b in d th e n a tio n to th e s ta te . W ritin g a b o u t c h e c k p o in ts in c o n te s te d te r r i to r ie s in C o lo m b ia , fo r ex am p le , V ic to ria S a n fo rd d escribes h o w d iffe re n t m ili­tary fo rces c o m p e te fo r c o n tro l o f c o n c re te te rrito rie s . In th ese te r r i to ­ries th a t h av e b eco m e in so m e ways tru ly “m a rg in a l” to th e s ta te , th e u n c e r ta in tie s o f o n e ’s ow n position w ith re sp e c t to th e g u a ra n te e s a n d p ro te c tio n o f s ta te law a re fu r th e r c o m p lic a te d by th e d e lib e ra te ly illeg ­ib le id e n t i t ie s a n d lo c a t io n s o f th e p a ra m il i ta r ie s w h o a re s im u l­ta n e o u s ly o f a n d n o t o f th e sta te . In h e r re f le c tio n s o n P e ru v ia n c h e c k p o in ts , D eb o rah P o o le describes h o w th e in te n tio n s a n d even th e e x is te n c e o f th e s ta te b e c o m e s u d d e n ly illeg ib le d u r in g th e te n s e m o m e n ts w h e n id e n ti ty c a rd s a re s u r r e n d e r e d to s ta te o ffic ia ls . A lth o u g h s u c h spaces a r e o fte n f le e tin g a n d u n p re d ic ta b le — as w h e n so m e o n e in a p o sitio n o f a u th o rity s u d d e n ly stops s o m e o n e to re q u e s t d o c u m e n ts in th e s tre e t— th e y can also b e c o m e in a se n se ro u tin iz e d in the p e rm a n e n c v an d v isib ility o f phvsica l c h e c k p o in ts . As J e g a n a th a n poin ts o u t in his ch a p te r , i t is th ro u g h th e s e “m aps o f a n t ic ip a t io n ” th a t re s id en ts o f a city o r w a r z o n e com e to a n tic ip a te a n d in te rn a liz e th e u n p re d ic ta b i l i ty o f v io le n c e p rec ise ly th r o u g h th e p re d ic ta b i l i ty o f physical s ite s w h ere th e s ta te exerts its o w n seem ingly a rb itra ry 7 c la im s to so v ere ig n ty over te r r i to r ie s th a t it c le a rly c a n n o t c o n tro l .

T h e m a rg in s so e v id e n t in the c h e c k p o in t can a lso p re s e n t th e m ­selves in th e b u r e a u c r a t ic ro u tin e s o f m o d e r n da ily life . L a w re n c e C o h e n p ro v id e s an e x a m p le o f su ch a s p a c e in h is c h a p te r o n th e te c h n o -s c ie n tif ic im a g in a ry o f the o p e r a t io n fu n c t io n s in In d ia . H e d escribes th e fu n c tio n in g o f a trade in o rg a n s that, like th e space o f th e e x c e p tio n , effec tively b lu r s th e lin e b e tw e e n the le g a l a n d illeg a l. B ecause b o th th e sale a n d d o n a tio n o f o rg a n s by n o n -k in w ere legally b a n n e d in 1994 in In d ia , su rg e o n s a n d o th e r s w ho o p e r a te d in th e n a tio n a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n m a rk e t p u t p re ssu re o n th e sta te to define p ro c e d u re s fo r a u th o r iz in g p e rm iss ib le form s o f o rg a n d o n a tio n ou tside legally d e fin e d d e g re e s o f k in sh ip . T h e re su ltin g a u th o r iz a tio n co m m ittee s w ere assig n ed th e task o f c o n s id e r in g e x c e p tio n a l cases in w hich o r g a n s c o u ld b e d o n a te d o u ts id e th e s a n c t io n e d d e g re e s o f k in sh ip . C o h e n gives a s u b t le analysis o f th e wavs th e s e c o m m itte e s

V e ena D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

8

T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

o p e ra te to c re a te fictions o f o v erw h e lm in g a ffec tio n b e tw een u n re la te d p e o p le in o r d e r to a llow o r g a n “d o n a t io n s .” T h e p u b lic s e c re t, o f co u rse , is th a t th e fic tio n s o f re la te d n e ss a n d o v e rw h e lm in g a ffec tio n b e tw een r e c ip ie n t a n d d o n o r a re c re a te d to co v e r th e ille g a l sale o f o rgans. Effectively, th e s t ru c tu re o f e x c e p tio n s o p e ra te s to d raw a line be tw een m e m b e rs h ip a n d in c lu s io n th a t id e n tif ie s th o se c itizen s w ho a re “b io a v a i la b le ” a n d th u s c o u ld b e c o m e fic titio u s “d o n o r s ” in an u n d e rg ro u n d eco n o m y .9 M oreover, it e n a b le s ce rta in d iscu rsiv e form s to e m e rg e in w h ich c itiz e n sh ip is c la im ed th ro u g h acts o f “sac rifice” on th e p a rt o f th e p o o r— a p o in t we e x p lo re in g re a te r d e ta il la te r in this in tro d u c tio n .

M A R G I N S A R E N O T I N E R TIn th e p re c e d in g se c tio n , we tried to sh o w th e in tim a te c o n n e c tio n

betw een law a n d states o f e x c e p tio n . We a rg u e d th a t in s te a d o f p riv ileg­in g m e ta p h y s ic a l fo rm s o f r e a s o n in g in u n d e r s ta n d in g so v ere ig n ty , a n th ro p o lo g y fo cu ses o n th e w o rk in g s o f th e everyday. I t is in th e se p rocesses o f everyday life th a t we see h o w th e s ta te is re c o n f ig u re d at th e m arg in s . M arg ins a re n o t sim ply p e r ip h e ra l spaces. S o m etim es , as in th e case o f th e b o rd e rs o f a n a t io n ’s s ta te s , they d e te rm in e w hat lies in side a n d w7h a t lies o u ts id e . O th e r tim es, as in th e case o f c h e c k p o in ts , th ey ru n th r o u g h th e p o li t ic a l body o f th e s ta te . B o rd e rs a n d c h e c k ­po in ts, as we saw, a re sp aces in w hich sovere ign ty , as th e r ig h t over life a n d d e a th , is e x p e r ie n c e d in th e m o d e o f p o te n tia lity — th u s c re a tin g affec ts o f p a n ic a n d a s e n s e o f d a n g e r e v e n if “n o th in g h a p p e n s .” P aradoxically , th e se sp aces o f e x c e p tio n a re a lso th o se in w h ic h th e c re ­ativity o f th e m a rg in s is v is ib le , as a l te rn a tiv e fo rm s o f e c o n o m ic a n d po litica l a c tio n a re in s titu te d . T o suggest th a t m arg in s a re sp aces o f c re ­ativity is n o t to say th a t fo rm s o f po litics a n d eco n o m ics o n th e m arg in s , o ften fa sh io n e d o u t o f th e n e e d to survive, a re n o t f ra u g h t w ith te rrib le d an g ers . I t is, how ever, to d ra w a tte n tio n to th e fac t th a t th o u g h ce rta in p o p u la tio n s a re p a th o lo g iz e d th ro u g h v a rio u s k in d s o f p o w e r/k n o w l- ed g e p rac tice s , th ey d o n o t su b m it to th e se c o n d itio n s passively. W hile th e w ork o f s u b a l te rn h is to r ia n s has d o n e m u c h to e m p h a s iz e th e ag en cy o f s u b a l te r n g r o u p s in im p o r ta n t h is to r ic a l j u n c tu r e s , th e c a n o n ic a l s ta tu s o f r e s is ta n c e in th e se s tu d ie s o b sc u re s th e re la t io n b e tw een th e s e c ritica l m o m e n ts a n d e v e ry d a y life (D as 1 9 8 9 ). E ven

J 9

w h en e v e ry d a y life b e c o m e s th e fo cu s o f an a ly sis , as in th e w ork o f Ja m e s S co tt (1985) on everyday fo rm s o f p e a s a n t res is tan ce , it a p p ea rs th a t a g e n c y is se e n p r im a r i ly in acts o f re s is ta n c e . O u r e m p h a s is , in stead , is o n th e ways in w h ich th e c o n c e p tu a l b o u n d a r ie s o f th e state a re e x te n d e d a n d re m a d e in se c u rin g surv ival o r s e e k in g ju s tic e in th e everyday. T h is d o es n o t m e a n th a t we c o n s id e r all k inds o f m arg in s to b e so m eh o w h o m o g e n e o u s , w ith c a te g o rie s o f m in o ritie s , re fu g ees , o r im m ig ran ts essen tia lly sim ilar. R ather, w e ta k e th e in d e te rm in a te c h a r­a c te r o f m a rg in s to b re a k o p e n th e so lid ity o f te n a ttr ib u te d to th e state.

T ake R o i tm a n ’s d e s c r ip t io n o f e c o n o m ic s tra te g ie s fo llo w e d by m a rg in a liz e d y o u th s as th e y d e a l with v a r io u s reg u la to ry ’ p ro c e sse s o f th e s ta te . W ith th e d e c l in e o f t r a d i t io n a l m a rk e ts in C h a d , i t is th e e m e rg e n t m a rk e ts in d ru g s , sm all arm s, c o n tra b a n d , a n d m e rc e n a rie s th a t p ro v id e o p p o r tu n i t ie s fo r se c u r in g liv e lih o o d s in r e g io n s devas­ta te d by o n g o in g wars, d ro u g h ts , an d o t h e r e c o n o m ic d isa s te rs . F o r obv io u s re a s o n s , th e se m a rk e ts f lo u r is h o n th e b o r d e r s b e tw e e n n a tio n s . R e fu s in g to n a m e th e se e c o n o m ic o p p o r tu n i t ie s as p a rts o f “in fo rm a l” o r “b la c k ” e c o n o m ie s , R o itm a n c o n c e p tu a liz e s th e y o u th s ’ stra teg ies as b o rd e r-m a k in g p rac tice s in w h ic h we witness, n o t so m uch th e co llap se o f re g u la tio n , b u t th e p lu ra liz a tio n o f re g u la to ry a u th o r i­ties. Such p lu ra liz a tio n le a d s to an in s titu tio n a liz a tio n o f r e n t e x trac ­tio n by th e s ta te , even w h e n th is p ro cess o c c u rs o u ts id e its fo rm a l legal p ro c e d u re s . T h e fo rm s o f sociality d e v e lo p e d o n these b o rd e r s a re , o f cou rse , e x tre m e ly d a n g e ro u s . B u t they sh o w th a t m arg ins, as th e litera l b o u n d a r ie s o f th e s ta te , a r e also th e sp a c e s o n w iiich th e c o n c e p tu a l b o u n d a r ie s o f th e e c o n o m y a re c ra fted a n d e x te n d e d . M u c h po litical rh e to ric w o u ld c h a ra c te riz e su c h form s o f e c o n o m ic activity as “c o r ru p ­t io n ” a n d in t e r p r e t it as e v id e n c e o f th e w e a k e n in g o f th e sta te . H ow ever, f ro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e y o u th s R o itm a n s tu d ie s , such stra teg ies o f se c u r in g liv e lih o o d by u tiliz in g th e in d e te rm in a te ch a rac ­te r o f th e b o r d e r s p ro v id e a m e a n s o f c la im in g e c o n o m ic r ig h ts . At stake is th e c h a lle n g e to s ta te m o n o p o ly o v e r tax a tio n o r c o m m e rc ia l licenses a n d th e e ffo rt to a p p ro p r ia te so m e o f th e se p rac tice s to secure eco n o m ic survival. T h e p lu ra liz a tio n o f re g u la t io n does n o t c re a te sim ­ply a b in a ry o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n th e sta te a n d m arg ins, n o r c a n we say th a t th e s ta te is u n a b le to have its w rit o v er th e m arg ins, fo r it, to o , m a n ­ages to e x tr a c t r e n t th ro u g h th is p lu ra l iz a t io n a n d e x te n s io n o f c o n ­

V e e n a D a s a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e _

2 0

T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

c e p tu a l b o u n d a r ie s o f th e e c o n o m y . W hat th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f m arg in s e n a b le s us to se e is how e c o n o m ic c itizen sh ip , r e n t e x tra c tio n , a n d m u l­tip le re g u la to ry re g im es a re n ecessa ry p a r ts o f th e fu n c t io n in g o f th e s ta te , m uch as th e e x c e p tio n is necessary fo r th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f law.

In F e rm e ’s c h a p te r we g e t f u r th e r e v id e n c e o f th e “a rb itra r in e s s at th e h e a rt o f commandement ” w h ic h she show s to b e c h a ra c te r is tic o f th e c o lo n ia l s ta te . H ow ever, th is a rb i tr a r in e s s b e c o m e s a r e s o u rc e , as F e rm e ’s in f o r m a n t reveals, f o r it h as fa c ili ta te d a lte rn a tiv e c itiz e n sh ip o p t io n s fo r S ie r r a L e o n e a n s . M ig ra n ts e x p lo i t e m e rg e n c y m e a s u re s ta k e n to p r o te c t th e m as w ar re fu g ees , a n d in so m e cases th e y a re suc­cessful in u s in g o p p o r tu n it ie s p ro v id ed by th e ca p ric io u s a n d a rb itra ry law s, fo rg in g n e w fo rm s o f e c o n o m ic a n d p o li t ic a l c i t iz e n s h ip th a t so m etim es go w ell b ey o n d th e te rr ito ria l b o u n d a r ie s o f th e sta tes. For o th e rs , such a sT e fu g e e s w h o a re re fu sed asy lu m o r w ho d ie in tran sit, th e o u tco m es a re te rrib le— a tte s t in g to th e d a n g e rs o f w ork a t th e b o r­d e rs (see M alkk i 1995). T h u s , fo rR o itm a n a n d F erin e , th e p ossib ilities a n d lim its o f th e s e new b o rd e r -b e n d in g p ra c tic e s p ro r id e a n im p o r ta n t v an tag e p o in t fo r u n d e r s ta n d in g tra n s lo c a l p ro c e sse s th r o u g h w h ich th e state is e x p e r ie n c e d .

S im ila r e v id e n c e o f th e c rea tiv ity o f th e m a rg in s a t th e p o litic a l level m ay b e s e e n in th e w o rk o f P eace C o m m u n itie s set u p by d isp laced p o p u la tio n s in C o lu m b ia . S a n fo rd d esc rib es h o w p o p u la tio n s d isp laced by th e a c tio n s o f th e p a ra m ili ta ry have t r ie d to c re a te z o n e s o f safety, o ff-lim its to b o th g u e rr i l la s a n d a rm e d p e r s o n n e l a u th o r iz e d by th e s ta te . W ith in c re a s in g s u p p o r t fro m h u m a n - r ig h ts g r o u p s a t th e n a tio n a l a n d in te rn a t io n a l lev e l, such c o m m u n itie s (aga in fu n c tio n in g a t th e lite ra l m a rg in s o f th e s ta te ) have r e c o n f ig u r e d th e i r sp a c e s to re f le c t th e ir o w n im p e ra tiv e s . T h e ir fo rm s o f p o litic a l a c t io n u se th e g lo b a l rh e to r ic o f h u m a n r ig h ts . H ow ever, in s te a d o f m a k in g cla im s th ro u g h c o u r ts o f law o r in te rn a t io n a l tr ib u n a ls , th ey give u rg e n c y to the n e e d to s e c u re safety at th e c o m m u n ity r a th e r th a n th e in d iv id u a l level.

A sh fo rth ’s c h a p te r o ffe rs a n o th e r e x a m p le o f th e sp ecific lo ca l ways in w hich id e a s o f ju s tic e o p e ra te . H e a rg u e s th a t a n in c re a se in w itch­c ra ft ac c u sa tio n s a m o n g b la c k p o p u la tio n s in S o u th A frica rav ag ed by in to le ra b ly h ig h A ID S p re v a le n c e a n d m o r ta l i ty ra te s is e x p re s s e d in d e m a n d s th a t th e p o s t-a p a r th e id s ta te sh o w its re sp o n s iv e n e ss to th e su ffe rin g by d o in g s o m e th in g a b o u t b o th A ID S a n d w itch c ra ft. B ut as

A sh fo rth n o te s , p u n is h in g o ffen d e rs fo r p e r fo rm in g w itc h c ra f t w ould r e in s t i tu te co lo n ia l a n d a p a r th e id - re g im e p re ju d ic e s a g a in s t p o p u la r p ra c tic e s o f b lack p o p u la t io n s a n d w o u ld c rim in a lize th e s e p rac tices. T h u s , w itc h c ra f t a c c u s a tio n s have to b e r e fo rm u la te d as s o m e th in g else— k id n a p p in g , a b d u c tio n , o r m u rd e r . T h e p o in t is th a t p re ssu re to re c o n fig u re state system s tow ard d if fe re n t n o tio n s o f ju s tic e is g e n e ra te d from th e everyday c o n c e rn s o f th o se in h a b i t in g a d i f f e r e n t m o d e o f sociality f ro m th a t im a g in e d in the ra t io n a l b u re a u c ra tic a p p a ra tu s of the sta te . I t is in te re s tin g to recall h e re th a t even in the classic W eberian n o tio n o f ra tionality , law in c lu d e s lay ju s t ic e w ith in its p ro c e sse s th ro u g h the ro le o f th e ju ry , fo r W eb er saw the ju r y as hav ing ta k e n o v er th e ro le o f th e o ra c le . (“B ecause o f th e ju ry , so m e p rim itive ir ra tio n a lity o f the te c h n iq u e o f decision a n d , th e re fo re , o f th e law itself, h a s th u s c o n tin ­ued to su rv iv e in E n g lish p ro c e d u re e v e n u p to th e p r e s e n t t im e ” [W eber 1978 :763].) S in ce th e “prim itive irra tio n a lity ” th a t so irr ita te d W eber fu n c tio n s a t th e h e a r t o f state law, o n e cou ld t r e a t th e state , for ce rta in p u rp o se s , as lying o n th e m arg in s o f th e citizen-body.

S everal o th e r a u th o rs in this v o lum e a rg u e th a t a d if f e r e n t p ic tu re o f ju s t ic e o r c o m m o n g o o d an irnates*activ ities th a t tak e p la c e o n the m arg in s o f th e state . T h is is n o t sim ply a m a tte r o f “fo lk” n o t io n s o f law a n d ju s t ic e versus s ta te -sa n c tio n e d id e a s o f ju s t ic e . R a th e r , w h a t is at stake in th e se sites is fo rm e d th ro u g h th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f lo ca l w orlds— a lth o u g h we m ust be c le a r th a t local w o rld s a n d th e s ta te d o n o t s tan d as b in a ry o p p o site s . E ven th o u g h they a re lo c k e d in u n e q u a l re la tio n s, they a re e n m e s h e d in o n e an o th e r. T h u s , o n th e o n e h a n d , law is seen as a sign o f a d is ta n t b u t o v erw h e lm in g pow er. O n th e o th e r h a n d , it is a lso s e e n as c lo se a t h a n d — so m e th in g to w h ich local d e s ire s c a n be a d d ressed . T h u s , P oo le show s how p e a sa n ts in P e ru invest th e ir d esire fo r ju s tic e in th e sta te , ev en as the illegibility ' o f th e state a n d its p ro c e ­d u re s f ru s tra te s th ese d e s ire s , in th a t d o c u m e n ts n e c e ssa ry to secu re ju s tic e te n d to d r if t e n d le ss ly b e tw een d if f e r e n t ju r is d ic t io n s . W e are no t saving th a t p o p u la tio n s a t the m arg in s a re always su ccessfu l in m ak­ing th e s ta te responsiv e to th e ir n o tio n s o f ju stice o r th e c o m m o n good , an d we d o n o t wish to ro m a n tic iz e the creativity ' o f th e m a rg in s . In fact, as N e lso n ’s c h a p te r d e m o n s tra te s , the sa m e s ta te id e n tif ie d as th e p e r­p e tra to r o f te r ro r a n d sc o rc h e d -e a rth p o lic ie s in G u a te m a la c a m e to be invested w ith th e d es ire fo r ju s tic e . W h at m ig h t have b e e n fix ed posi-

V e e n a D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

T he S t a t e a n d I ts M a r g i n s

d o n s , su ch as v ic tim s a n d p e rp e tra to rs , cam e to b e h igh ly m o b ile . T h e p o in t is n o t w h e th e r th e desires, fea rs , a n d h o p e s n o u r ish e d in th e m a r­g in s a n d th e n p ro je c te d o n to th e s ta te a re so m eh o w m o re e th ic a l, ju s t , o r p u re . R a ther, th e co m p lex ity o f lived e x p e r ie n c e inflects n o t io n s o f ju s t ic e a n d law w ith d if fe re n t k in d s o f im ag in a ries f ro m those ava ilab le in th e official sites a n d re p re s e n ta tio n s o f justice a n d law.1"

T h e c h a p te r s by D as a n d N e ls o n p ro v id e a d d it io n a l e x a m p le s o f h o w sta te law is c o lo n iz e d by o th e r fo rm s o f le g a l / ju r id ic a l id eas . D as c ite s th e p o ig n a n t case o f w idow s from th e S ig lik a r c o m m u n ity in D e lh i w hose h u s b a n d s w ere k ille d in the 1984 rio ts . T hey t r ie d to c la im c o m p e n s a tio n m o n ey a w a rd e d to them by th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e S ig likars lived o n th e p e r ip h e ry o f th e city. B ut m o r e im p o rtan tly , th e ir n o t io n s o f c o m m u n ity a n d ju s t ic e w ere g ro u n d e d in d iffe re n t n o t io n s o f sociality. T h e g o v e rn m e n t t r e a te d th e w idows as th e p ro p e r re c ip i­e n ts o f th e c o m p e n s a tio n , b u t th e d o m in a n t o p in io n in th e c o m m u ­n ity was th a t th e f a th e r s o f th e d e a d m e n s h o u ld h av e re c e iv e d th e m o n ey . T h e c o n f lic t was finally re so lv e d by th e c a s te P an ch ay a t o f the S ig likars, a n d th e m o n e y was d iv id e d equally b e tw e e n the d is p u ta n ts . W h a t is in te r e s t in g is th a t th e a g r e e m e n t was s e e n as a c o m p ro m is e a n d was e x e c u te d o n s ta m p e d c o u r t p ap er, as if th a t w ould m a k e th e a g r e e m e n t v a lid in th e eyes o f th e law. T h u s , le g itim a c y was s o u g h t th ro u g h sta te law; th is c o m p ro m ise was n e ith e r a t t r ib u te d to c u s to m a ry law7 n o r tre a te d as a p riva te a g re e m e n t betw een th e c o n c e rn e d p a rtie s . T h e m im icry o f th e s ta te to give leg itim acy to a n a g re e m e n t th a t wTas c o e rc iv e in m a n y re sp e c ts m ig h t b e re a d as in s t i tu t in g th e s ta te as a fe tish , b u t it a lso a tte s ts to c o m m u n ity a lleg ian ce to th e idea o f state- in s t i tu te d law a n d th u s m an ag es to c la im c itiz e n sh ip fo r these c o m m u ­n itie s . S uch m a rg in s w7h e re a d if f e r e n t p ic tu re o f th e co m m o n g o o d is p u t in to play a re n o t ju s t sp aces th e s ta te has y e t to p e n e tra te : ra th e r , th e y m ay b e se e n as sites o n w h ic h th e sta te is c o n tin u a lly f o r m e d in th e recesses o f ev ery d ay life .11

In N e lso n ’s c h a p te r , we see h o w th e illusory, trickster-like quality7 o f th e s ta te allows it to e scap e its p ro m isso ry n o tes in m a k in g ju s tic e o u t o f r e a c h fo r p e a s a n t su b jec ts . In h e r a c c o u n t o f p o s tw a r G u a te m a la , N e lso n d esc rib es ho w th e c o u n te r in su rg e n c y s ta te dep loyed im a g e s o f th e d u p lic i to u s o r “ tw o -faced ’’ I n d ia n to d e f e n d m ilita ry in c u rs io n s in to in d ig e n o u s a re a s , r e s e t t le m e n t o f in d ig e n o u s c o m m u n itie s in to

V e e n a D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

h a m le ts , a n d d e c la ra t io n o f e m e rg e n c y pow ers in la rg e sec to rs o f th e c o u n try . H ow ever, N e lso n tu rn s th is p ic tu re o f th e In d ia n back to th e p ic tu re o f th e s ta te a n d asks th e q u e s tio n , why is i t th a t th e state is also u n d e r s to o d to b e tw o -faced , b a m b o o z lin g , d e s ira b le , d e c e p tiv e , a n d d a n g e ro u s? T h u s tu r n in g th e s te re o ty p ic a l im age o f th e m asked m im - * ic rv o f th e s ta te by c u n n in g tw o -faced n a tiv es o n its h e a d , N e ls o n ’s e th n o g ra p h y o f th e s ta te p u ts it o n a h ig h ly m o b ile tra je c to ry in w h ich th e s ta te is b o th fe a re d a n d d esired .

N e ls o n ’s a c c o u n t w o u ld m ak e us h ig h ly sk e p tic a l o f th e id ea th a t th e s ta te is leg ib le w h ile th e p o p u la tio n s a re illeg ib le . Yet m u ch a n th ro ­p o lo g ic a l th e o ry h as c o n c e n tr a te d o n th e ways th e s ta te deploys te c h ­n o lo g ie s o f k n o w le d g e a n d p o w e r to m ak e p o p u la t io n s le g ib le (A p p a d u ra i 1996; C o h n 1987; T ro u il lo t 2001). H o w ev er, as we say in e a r l ie r sec tions, th e very d o c u m e n ts th ro u g h w hich id e n ti ty is so u g h t to b e fix ed th em selves a c q u ire a d if fe re n t k in d o f life as b o th fu n c t io n a r ­ies o f th e sta te a n d o rd in a ry c itizens m a n ip u la te th e m tow ard d if fe re n t e n d s . As P o o le so effectively d e m o n s tra te s in h e r c h a p te r , th e p o ssib ili­ties o f fo rg e rie s a n d c o u n te r f e i t d o c u m e n ts lead to a su sp e n s io n o f c iti­zen s b e tw e e n th e p o le s o f th re a t a n d g u a ra n te e . In tu r n , o n e o f th e m o d a litie s in w h ich th e s ta te is p r e s e n t in th e m a rg in s is c a p tu re d in re g io n s o f la n g u a g e th a t c o m e in to e x is te n c e w h e n access to c o n te x t b e c o m e s frag ile . T h u s , th e re is a f lo u r is h in g o f ru m o r : th e sta te h o ld s th a t i l l i te ra te a n d p o o r ly e d u c a te d p o p u la t io n s a re easily m is led . As N e lso n a rg u es, th e s ta te is seen as tw o-faced , u n k n o w a b le , a n d in m an y ways th e space a t w h ich th e u n c a n n y is e x p e r ie n c e d . Yet th e sta te a t t r ib ­u te s p ass io n (a n d w e m ig h t a d d c re d u lity ) to its su b je c ts , th e reb y c o n ­s tru c t in g itse lf as “r a t io n a l ,” as a r g u e d by b o th D as a n d C o h e n in th is v o lu m e . In A s h fo r th ’s c h a p te r , we f in d th a t m e a su re s to c o n tro l H IV tran sm iss io n a re in te r p r e te d a m o n g b la c k subjects o f th e S o u th A frican s ta te as m e a s u re s to b lo c k r e p r o d u c t io n o f b la c k p o p u la t io n s . T h is in te rp re ta t io n seem s to b e th e legacy o f th e a p a r th e id re g im e a n d its p o litic s o f d e a th . T h u s , ru m o rs a n d th e a u ra o f s u s p ic io n a b o u t th e s ta te ’s “r e a l” in te n tio n s in in s titu tin g p o lic ie s th a t invo lve th e body, sex ­uality , a n d r e p r o d u c t io n n e e d to b e u n d e r s to o d in th e specific lo ca l h is to r ie s o f this society. T h e fact th a t w itch c ra ft a c c u sa tio n s sh a re m an y c h a ra c te r is tic s w ith r u m o r — its lack o f s ig n a tu re (B h a b h a 1994a; D as 1998; G esc h ie re 1997), its p e r lo c u tio n a ry fo rce— w eaves th e m in to th e u n c e r ta in ty o f r e la t io n s w ith in w h ic h th e d e v a s ta tin g e ffec ts o f th e

24

T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

AIDS e p id e m ic a re e x p e r ie n c e d . T h e q u e s t io n is n o t th a t r u m o r is a specifically “s u b a lte rn ” fo rm o f c o m m u n ic a tio n ^ 'a s su g g e s te d by G u h a (1 983), b u t r a th e r th a t th e s ta te ’s ow n m o d e o f r e p re s e n ta t io n o f its sub jec ts as g iv en to p ass io n r a th e r th a n re a s o n is tu r n e d b a c k o n th e sta te , as i t w e re . (See a lso N e ls o n ’s c h a p te r o n this p o in t .) T h e le th a l e x p e r ie n c e o f A ID S a n d its e n ta n g le m e n t w ith a c c u s a tio n s o f w itch ­craft, ru m o r , a n d p an ic tak es us back to th e q u e s tio n o f th e s ta te as th e site on w h ic h b io p o litics a n d th a n a to p o litic s a re in s titu te d to g e th e r . We c o n te n d th a t th is re la tio n , w h ich is a t th e h e a r t o f th e m o d e r n sta te , is m u ch m o re visib le on th e m a rg in s th a n a t th e cen te r. W e no w tu rn to these c o n s id e ra tio n s .

B I O P O L I T I C S A N D T H E M A R G I N SE arlier, w e a rg u e d th a t sovere ign ty is b e s t d e f in e d in te rm s o f pow er

over life a n d d e a th . It is im p o r ta n t to u n d e rs c o re th a t th e f ig u re o f life is n o t a p ie c e o f an im al n a tu re w ith o u t any re la tio n to law, b u t is p ro d u c e d bv law. As b o th A gam ben (1998, 2000) a n d F o u c a u lt (1976, 2003) have a rg u ed in d if fe re n t ways, th e sta te is c o n s ti tu te d in m o d e rn ity th ro u g h th e in c lu s io n o f m a n ’s n a tu ra l life in to th e m e ch an ism s a n d ca lcu la tions o f pow er. D e sp ite this a g r e e m e n t a b o u t b io p o litics , how ever, th e re are p ro fo u n d d iffe re n ce s in th e way these two a u th o rs co n ce iv e o f th e re la­tion b e tw e e n b io p o litics a n d th a n a to p o litic s . T h e n eg a tiv e re fe re n t o f th e new b io p o li t ic a l so v e re ig n ty fo r A g a m b e n is th e f ig u re o f h o m o sacer— life th a t m ay be k illed b u t n o t sac rificed — a n d th e p a ra d ig m a tic exam ple o f th a t in m o d e rn ity is th e c o n c e n tra tio n cam p . F o r F oucau lt, th e nega tive re fe re n t o f b io p o litic s seem s to b e th e p o in t a t w h ich a cu t is m a d e b e tw e e n th o se w h o se lives a re m a n a g e d a n d e n h a n c e d a n d those w h o se lives a re ju d g e d as n o t w o rth liv ing a n d w h o a re th u s “le t d ie .” B o th a u th o rs seem e q u a lly c o n c e rn e d w ith a s e e m in g c o n tra d ic ­tion in th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e b io p o litica l s ta te — nam ely, h o w can a state c o m m itte d to m a n a g in g life p ro d u c e a c a te g o ry o f p e o p le w h o a re d e e m e d k illab le . F o r A g am b en , w hat jo in s b io p o litic s w ith th e politics o f d e a th is th e e n d le ss re so r t th a t th e s ta te h a s to th e s ta te o f ex c e p tio n , w hile fo r F o u c a u lt , th e c o n c e rn is m u c h m o re w ith p o w e r in th e ro u ­tines o f th e o rd in a ry a n d th u s th e p ro d u c tio n o f th e “n o rm a l .” T h is is n o t the p la c e to en g ag e th e se d iffe ren ces in d e p th — ra th e r , we use them to d irec t a t te n t io n to th e way in w hich th e e th n o g ra p h ic m e th o d allows us to o p e n u p th ese q u estio n s.

As is w ell k n o w n , F o u c a u lt’s w ork on b io p o w e r re p la c e s th e privi­lege o f law a n d p ro h ib itio n -w ith an em phasis o n tactical efficacy w ithin a m u ltip le a n d m o b ile field o f fo rces. H e show s th a t the e ffec ts a re far- re a c h in g b u t n e v e r stable. H is m e ticu lo u s d e sc r ip tio n o f th e im p ac t o f statistics a n d th e inven tion o'f p o p u la tio n as an o b je c t o f k n o w le d g e an d re g u la tio n o n c h a n g in g n o t io n s o f so v e re ig n ty has led to im p o r ta n t ways o f re c o n c e p tu a liz in g th e s ta te , especially in sh ifting th e em p h asis fro m te r r i to r ia l ju r isd ic tio n s to th e m a n a g e m e n t o f life (see a lso P erro t a n d W oolf 1 9 8 4 ). T h u s, in r e c e n t l ite ra tu re w e see a p ro l i f e ra t io n o f ad jectives u s e d to c h a ra c te r iz e th e state— th e hygienic s ta te , th e immu- nizing sta te , th e therapeutic s ta te — each p o in tin g to a d if fe re n t m odality fo r m a n a g in g life. S im u ltan eo u sly , th e prefix bio has b eco m e d e ta c h e d fro m p o w er to s ignal o th e r k in d s o f sociality, s u c h as the biosocial, as well as o th e r k in d s o f capab ilities, su c h as biocapital, a n d to re fe r to new wavs o f e n g a g in g p o w e r— for e x a m p le , p a tie n t g ro u p s o rg a n iz in g to in flu ­e n c e a llo c a tio n o f re so u rces a n d d ire c tio n o f re se a rc h fo r m itig a tin g c e rta in b io lo g ic a l c o n d itio n s . T h is h e te ro g e n e ity o f ways in w h ich the s ta te is e n g a g e d in a d m in is te r in g life (a n d th e c o n c o m ita n t le t t in g d ie ) , as well as c la im s that c a n b e m a d e on th e s ta te in the re g io n s o f life a n d d e a th by c la im in g new c a te g o r ie s o f c itizen sh ip , p ro v id es a rich ter­ra in in w h ich a n th ro p o lo g y c a n e n g a g e the e m e rg e n t fo rm s o f b io p o li­tics (P e try n a 2002).

O f c o u rs e , th e locus classicus fo r ex a m in in g th e pow er o f th e state w ith re fe re n c e to co n tro l o v e r p o p u la tio n s is fo u n d in th e l i te ra tu re on ep id e m ic s a n d s ta te fo rm a tio n . As P e te r B a ld w in (2001) h a s recen tly a rg u e d , th e p a r t ic u la r s tra te g ie s o f co n tro l d e v e lo p e d by th e s ta te in E u ro p e in th e la te n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s w ere closely tied to th e issue o f m a n a g e m e n t o f c o n ta g io n . F u r th e r , c o n c e rn w ith re g u la tin g th e health o f p o p u la tio n s im m ed ia te ly takes u s to co n ­n ec tio n s b e tw e e n m e tro p o lita n c e n te rs an d c o lo n ie s , fo r c o n tro l o f ep i­dem ics was a necessary c o n d i t io n o f o v erco m in g b a rrie rs to E u ro p e a n ex p lo ita tio n o f colonies. T h u s , a p re o c c u p a tio n w ith the h e a l th co n d i­tio n s o f c o lo n ie s a n d te c h n iq u e s o f m an ag in g d isease b e c a m e p a r t o f s ta te r e p e r to ire s o f action . As ex am p les , we m ig h t th in k o f th e vast leg­islative c h a n g e s e ffec ted th r o u g h such a c ts as th e C o m p u lso ry V accinations A cts, V agrant L e p e r Acts, Lunacy AcLs, C a n to n m e n t Acts, a n d various fo rm s o f C o n tag io u s D iseases Acts e n a c te d in th is p e r io d bv

V e e n a D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

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T h e S t a t e a n d I ts M a r g i n s

E u ro p e a n sta tes, b o th in m e tro p o li ta n cen te rs a n d in co lon ies. W h a t is im p o r ta n t f ro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e c o lo n ie s is th a t b o th p u b lic d e b a te s on th ese issues a n d th e sc ien tif ic ra tio n a le s given for th e m c o n ­s tru c te d th e in h a b ita n ts o f th e c o lo n ie s as c re d u lo u s , u n h y g ien ic , ir ra ­tio n a l, a n d in n e e d o f d isc ip lin e . I t w as F o u c a u lt’s g re a t a c h ie v e m e n t to sh o w n o t on ly th a t b io p o w er was a b o u t p a th o lo g iz a tio n o f p o p u la tio n s b u t also th a t w h a t was a p p lic a b le to m arg in s c o u ld b e c o m e g e n e ra liz e d a n d n o rm a liz e d fo r w h o le p o p u la tio n s '. N e v e rth e le ss , th e c o n tin u o u s p ro d u c t io n o f p a th o lo g y is a n im p o r ta n t te c h n iq u e o f pow er— fo r in th is rea lm , as in th o se e x p lo re d e a rlie r , it invites u s to look a t th e in ti­m a te c o n n e c tio n s b e tw een so v e re ig n p o w er a n d d isc ip lin a ry pow er.

T h e m a n a g e m e n t o f p o p u la tio n s in spaces th a t C o h e n in h is c h a p ­te r calls “just-so m o d e rn ity ” show s th a t we c a n n o t a ssu m e an in e x o ra b le lo g ic in th e m a n a g e m e n t o f life th a t u n fo ld s in th e sam e m a n n e r across all societies. P o s tc o lo n ia l so c ie tie s su c h as In d ia a n d S ou th A frica have sp ec ific h is to rie s in w h ich th e g ra m m a r o f re la tio n sh ip s shapes th e way b io p o litic s is in s ti tu te d . T h u s, th e sto ry o f m o d ern ity ' becom es c o m p li­c a te d in th is as in all o th e r s p h e r e s (G e sc h ire 1997; G ilro y 1993; M itc h e ll 2 0 0 0 ). P o p u la tio n s , as we a rg u e d in th e p re c e d in g s e c tio n , m ay exist only as e n tit ie s to b e a d m in is te re d in th e s ta te im ag inary , b u t th e in h a b ita n ts o f th e se m arg in s a re n o t in e r t o b jec ts: form s o f g o v er­n a n c e , social re la tio n sh ip s a r o u n d d iffe re n t z o n es o f e x p e r ie n c e , a n d th e c u ltu ra l g e n re s w ith in w h ich la n g u a g e a c q u ire s life g e n e ra te ways o f e n g a g in g th e b io p o li t ic a l s ta te th a t c a n n o t b e a rr iv e d a t th r o u g h m etap h y sica l s p e c u la tio n . T h e c h a p te rs by C o h e n , A sh fo rth , D as, a n d S a n fo rd show th a t a lth o u g h th e b io p o litica l s ta te w orks with n o t io n s o f m ass b o d ie s in o n e fo rm o r a n o th e r , te c h n iq u e s o f m a n a g e m e n t across th e s e contexTs a r e q u i te d i f f e r e n t . Even m o re im p o r ta n t , th e ways “m a n a g e d ” p o p u la t io n s w ork w ith s tra teg ies o f c o n tro l to claim c itiz e n ­s h ip a re d e e p ly in fo rm e d by sp e c if ic e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e s ta te . T h u s , w h ile c a te g o rie s o f “re fu g e e ” a n d “d isp laced p e r s o n s ” exist as sp ec ia l le g a l c a te g o rie s in in te rn a t io n a l in s tru m e n ts th a t b o th c o n tro l th e m a n d give th e m r ig h ts , th e n e g o tia tio n s e ffec ted by P eace C o m m u n itie s to k e e p b o th s ta te a n d g u erilla w arrio rs o u ts id e th e ir te rr ito rie s su re ly b e a r th e s tam p o f th e ir p a r t ic u la r e x p e r ie n c e o f v io len ce . Sim ilarly, th e m a n a g e m e n t o f th e AIDS e p id e m ic in S o u th A frica m u st n ec e ssa rily a d d re s s w itch cra ft accu sa tio n s as a p ro b le m fo r th e s ta te . In th e case o f

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V e e n a D as a nd D e b o r a h P o o l e

In d ia , th e p o litic s o f m ass b o d ie s w as in s t i tu te d th r o u g h fam ily- p la n n in g p ro g ram s th a t in c lu d ed c a m p s fo r m ass s te r iliz a tio n b u t w ere a lso p a r t o f a r e p e r to i r e o f c h a r ita b le a n d s ta te in s t i tu t io n s fo r o th e r c o n d itio n s , such as m ass h e a lth cam ps o r eye cam ps fo r c a ta rac t o p e ra ­tio n s . T h u s , how m a n a g e m e n t o f life b e c a m e an o b je c t o f p o litic s in d e e d d e f in e s th e b io p o li t ic a l s ta te , b u t th e sp e c if ic h is to r ie s a re d if f e r e n t e n o u g h to w a r ra n t th e o b s e rv a tio n th a t th is is n o t a lo a d e d m a trix . P erh ap s we c a n illu stra te this p o in t w ith C o h e n ’s specific e x a m ­p les a b o u t ways o f c la im in g c itizen sh ip th ro u g h th e t r o p e o f th e o p e ra ­tio n in In d ia .

C o h e n a rg u e s in h is c h a p te r t h a t th r e e c o n c e p ts — o p e ra b ility , b ioavailability , a n d s u p p le m e n ta b ility — e x p la in th e p a r t ic u la r fo rm in w h ic h th e b io p o litic a l s ta te is e n c o u n te r e d in In d ia . D iv erse p o p u la ­tio n s a t th e m arg ins, s u c h as th e hijras ( in te rse x e d , t ra n s g e n d e re d su b ­je c ts c o m m o n ly k n o w n as th e th ird s e x ) ; b o d ie s t r e a te d as a m ass in fam ily -p lan n in g o p e ra t io n s d o n e in m e d ic a l cam ps; a n d sellers o f k id ­neys in th e o rg an t r a d e — all a re d e f in e d by p a r t ic u la r in te r s e c t io n s b e tw e e n these th re e c o n c e p ts . As C o h e n says, the o p e ra t io n s b e c o m e n o t o n ly a te c h n iq u e a n d a site in s ta n tia tin g th e sta te b u t also a fo rm — m a rk in g th e p ossib ilities a n d lim its o f b e lo n g in g fo r p e r s o n s h a iled as a m ass b o d y — en d o w e d w ith passions b u t n o t reaso n in th e s ta te im ag i­nary'. T h u s , th e p e d a g o g y o f co n v e rtin g th d in h a b ita n ts o f m ass b o d ies in to asce tic m o d e rn iz e rs in possession o f rea so n is sp ec ific to th e c u l­tu ra l g ra m m a r o f In d ia w ith in w h ich d e v e lo p m e n ta l p a ra d ig m s have ta k e n sh a p e . T h e m o s t in te re s tin g p a r t o f th is a rg u m e n t is th a t th ro u g h a log ic o f ex cep tio n , th e g e n e ric b o d y o f th e m asses is c o n v e r te d in to sp ec ific k in d s o f b o d ie s f ro m w hom o rg a n s can be re tr ie v e d th ro u g h sale, d e s p ite the b a n o n th e sale o f o rg a n s . T h e logic o f e x c e p tio n h e lp s c re a te th e fic tio n o f “o v e rw h e lm in g a f f e c t io n ” b e tw e e n b u y e r a n d seller, as we sta ted e a r lie r , d esp ite th e p u b lic sec re t th a t th is fic tion is c re a te d to provide c o v e r to th e sale o f o rg a n s th ro u g h th e m ythic fo rm o f th e g ift. T h e o p e ra t io n itse lf is seen by m a rg in a lized p o p u la tio n s as a way o f c la im in g c itiz e n sh ip th ro u g h th e tro p e s o f g ift a n d sacrifice. It is n o t th a t th e in c id e n c e o f k id n ey sales is very h ig h in In d ia , fo r th e se se llers a re c o n c e n tra te d in specific lo ca le s a n d reg io n s. T h e possibility o f tra n sp la n ta tio n , how ever, has e n a b le d d iscursive fo rm s a n d netw orks o f ta lk s to em e rg e a t ev e ry level, f ro m th e d o m e stic to th e n a tio n a l.

T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

B ro th e rs ta lk o f se llin g k id n e y s to raise d o w rie s fo r th e ir sisters; wives, to re d e e m th e fam ily from d e b ts . T h e m ost m a rg in a l o f c itizen s claim th a t they w o u ld d o n a te k id n e y s to save th e lives o f a ilin g n a tio n a l o r re g io n a l lead e rs .

T h e c o n c e p t o f b ioavailability , in tro d u c e d by C o h en , d ev ia te s qu ite sh a rp ly from th e n o tio n o f k illa b le bodies th r o u g h the s c e p te r o f ho m o sace r— fo r th e s e a re th e p o o r w h o a re n o t so m u c h k illed as allow ed to d ie . In d e e d , th e rh e to rica l fo rm u sed by th o se w ho ad v o ca te sales is to m ak e these b o d ie s available fo r m ed ica l in te rv e n tio n , b u t th e y cast this id e a in te rm s o f ind iv id u a l a u to n o m y an d c a re fo r th e p o o r. T h is exam ­p le p rov ides a s tu n n in g d e m o n s tra t io n o f h o w to m ove away f ro m m eta­physical c o n c e p tio n s o f h o w th e e x c e p tio n “o p e ra te s ”— to th e task o f m a k in g th e b io p o litic a l s ta te a n o b je c t o f e th n o g ra p h ic in v estig a tio n . If F o u c a u lt’s 'c o n c e p t o f th e d a n g e ro u s in d iv id u a l show ed us h o w law was co lo n iz e d by d isc ip lin es in F r e n c h forensic p sy ch ia try (F o u c a u lt 2003), th e c o n c e p ts o f fe re d by C o h e n show how g if t a n d sa c rific e have n o t b e e n d isp la c e d by c o m m o d ity fo rm s b u t r a t h e r allow th e c o m m o d ity fo rm to fu n c tio n in ta n d e m w ith o the^w ays o f c la im in g c itiz e n sh ip .

C O N C L U D I N G T H O U G H T SWe can d o n o b e tte r in th e s e c o n c lu d in g th o u g h ts th a n to r e fe r the

r e a d e r to c h a p te r 11, in w h ic h T alal A sad p ro v id e s a s u c c in c t a n d p rovocative c o m m e n ta ry o n th e th e o re tic a l issues re la tin g to th e state a n d th e m a rg in s . Two p o in ts o f im p o r ta n c e m ay b e stressed h e re . First, A sad a rg u e s t h a t th e n o t io n o f th e s ta te in c o n te m p o r a r y th o u g h t invests it w ith a life o f its ow n , d is tin c t from b o th g o v ern o rs a n d th e gov­e rn e d . B ecause o f th is a b s tra c tio n , th e sta te c a n claim a lle g ia n c e from b o th sides. W h e n th e re la t io n b e tw e e n th e s ta te a n d th e p o p u la t io n th a t is g o v e rn e d is im ag in ed as o n e in w h ich th e sta te e m b o d ie s sover­e ig n ty in d e p e n d e n t ly o f th e p o p u la t io n , i t b e c o m e s a u th o r iz e d to m a in ta in c e r ta in spaces a n d p o p u la tio n s as m a rg in s th ro u g h its a d m in ­is tra tiv e p ra c tic e s . C onverse ly , a n im a g in a t io n o f th e s ta te as th a t to w h ic h p o w er is d e le g a te d , r a t h e r th a n a l i e n a te d fro m th e su b jec ts , w o u ld allow th e s ta te itself to b e im ag in ed as th e m arg in s o f th e citizen- body. T h e p o in t is n o t to sh o w th a t th e s ta te h a s a fe tish is t c h a ra c te r b u t ra th e r to sh o w th a t th e im a g in a tio n o f so v ere ig n ty can sh if t th e rel- a iiv e p o s itio n o f th e c e n te r a n d th e p e r ip h e ry : m a rg in s m o v e , th e n .

V e e n a D as a n d D e b o r a h P o o l e

b o th w ith in a n d o u ts id e th e sta te . O f c o u rs e , th is m o v e m e n t is w hat m ak es th e m a rg in s so c e n tr a l to th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e sta te . T h e in d e te rm in a c y o f th e m a rg in s n o t o n ly allow s fo rm s o f re s is ta n c e b u t m o re im p o rta n tly e n a b le s s tra teg ies o f e n g a g in g the s ta te as so m e k in d o f m a rg in to th e body o f citizens.

S e c o n d , A sad in tro d u c e s th e im p o r ta n t id ea th a t th e fo rm a l e q u a l­ity a n d substitu tab ility7 o f c itizen s in lib e ra l th eo ry , in fact, re s t o n u n c e r­ta in ties in h e r e n t in th e p ro c e ss o f a b s tra c tin g from o n e g iven ca tego ry to a n o th e r . H e gives a b e a u tifu l d e sc r ip tio n o f how su sp ic io n com es to occupy th e space b e tw een law an d its a p p lic a tio n , a p ro c e ss th a t all th e c h a p te rs e n g a g e in , o n e way o r a n o th e r . T h is d iscu ssio n inv ites us to th in k o f th e ca teg o ries o f po ten tia lity , a n tic ip a tio n , a n d sh ad o w s— cate ­go ries tHat c a p tu re th e e x p e r ie n c e o f m a rg in s ac tu a lized in th e spaces o f e x c e p tio n . O u r im a g in a tio n o f th e m a rg in s shows th e m n o t as in e r t spaces a n d p o p u la tio n s th a t sim ply have to b e m a n a g e d b u t r a th e r as b ris tlin g w ith life th a t is c e rta in ly m a n a g e d a n d c o n tro lle d b u t th a t also flows o u ts id e this c o n tro l. T h u s , while we hav e m uch to le a rn fro m th e b rillia n t c o n tr ib u t io n s o f A g a m b e n a n d F o u c a u lt on h o w n a tu ra l life com es to b e tre a te d as a n o b je c t o f p o litic s , a n th ro p o lo g ic a l fo rm s o f k n o w led g e d o n o t sim ply tak e these c a te g o rie s a n d ap p ly th e m to d if ­fe re n t s itu a tio n s . R ather, in th e p a r tic u la r g en ea lo g ie s a n d h is to ries o f th e m o d e s o f sociality th e y studv, a n th ro p o lo g is ts show h o w d iffe re n t desires, h o p e s , a n d fears s h a p e th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e b io p o litic a l state. T h e a u th o rs in th is v o lu m e a re fully aw are o f th e p re c a rio u sn e ss o f lives o n th e m a rg in s , b u t th e y a r e eq u a lly c o n c e r n e d w ith s h o w in g how form s o f e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l ac tio n , a n d ideas o f g ift a n d sacrifice th a t have b e e n re le g a te d to th e m arg in s , m ay, in som e m o m e n ts , also re c o n fig u re th e sta te as a m a rg in to th e c itizen-body. In o n e o f h is p o lit­ical re f le c tio n s , A g am b en says th a t on ly by b re a k in g th e n e x u s , a t any p o in t b e tw e e n th e “vicious e n ta n g lin g o f la n g u a g e , p e o p le , a n d state ," will th o u g h t a n d p ra x is b e e q u a l to th e e n o rm o u s ta sk “a t h a n d ” (A gam ben 2 0 0 0 :6 7 -6 9 ). T h e task “at h a n d ,” we h o p e , is th a t th e w ork d o n e o n th e m arg in s will b e reco g n ized fo r w h a t it is. It m ay n o t be ab le to b re a k su c h a nexus o n c e a n d fo r all, b u t it d o es show th a t th e defeats a n d v ic to r ie s o f everyday life have th e a b ility to r e tu r n us f ro m th e m etaphysica l to th e o rd in a ry . T his, at any ra te , is how we see th e e th n o ­g rap h ic ob jec tive re c o n s titu te d .

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T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

N otes1. T h e lite ra tu re o n th e failed-state th esis is extensive. F or critica l reviews on

th is thesis, see, fo r in s ta n c e , Bose a n d ja la l (1997), D unn (1 9 9 5 ), Kohli (1990), M b e m b e (2000, 2 0 01 ), a n d P an th am ^2003). C o m m en tin g o n th e sta te o f theory in re la tio n to the fa iled -s ta te thesis in A frica, C elestine M onga has this to say: ‘'In r e c e n t years the c o n tin e n t has becom e th e El D o rad o o f wild th o u g h t, the best p la c e fo r d a rin g in te lle c tu a l safaris, the u n re g u la te d space o n w hich to engage in th e o re tic a l incest, to v io la te th e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f lo g ic . to tran sg ress discip linary p ro h ib itio n s ; in .short, to give o n ese lf o v e r to in te llec tua l d e b a u c h e ry ’' (M onga 1996:39).

2. R ecen t c o m m e n ta to rs have n o te d th a t an th ro p o lo g y h as trad itionally n e g le c te d the study o f th e sta te , but they have failed to noLice how th e p rob lem s o f po litica l an th ro p o lo g y w ere d e fin ed w ith in th e fram ew ork o f th e state (see, fo r in s ta n c e , Fuller a n d H a rr is 2000).

3. T his im m in e n t o r spectral quality o f th e state was p e rh a p s m ost clearly a r tic u la te d by C lastres (1974). Its genealogy , however, can be tra c e d th rou g h evo­lu tio n is t an d d e v e lo p m e n ta l ap p ro ach es in a n th ro p o lo g y w h ere such early fo u n ­d a tio n a l theorists as M organ (1877), M ain e ([1866] 2002), a n d Engels ([1884] 1972) h e ld ou t th e e m e rg e n c e o f the s ta te as a decisive m o m e n t in the p rog res­s ion o f cu ltu res tow ard a co n d itio n o f c iv ilization m ark ed by w riting , private p ro p ­erty, a n d the e m e rg e n c e o f th e state. L a te r theo ris ts o f “po litica l ev o lu tion ” e x p a n d e d on this u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h is to rica l p rog ression to p o sit the state as an e n d p o in t in the d e v e lo p m e n t o f “co m p lex soc ie ties” d e fin e d as such based on c o n s id e ra tio n s o f soc ia l s tra tifica tion , p ro d u c tio n , an d th e div ision o f lab o r (see, fo r ex am ple , B an to n 1966; Fried 1967). In these ap p ro ach es , as in ea r lie r evolu­tio n is t m odels, th e s ta te was seen s im u ltan eo u sly as im m a n e n t in th e logic of soc ia l evo lu tion a n d as a lim it c o n d itio n fo r th e co n stitu tio n o f th e a n th ro p o lo g i­cal sub ject. At th e sam e tim e, em phasis o n eco n o m ic m odels o f social evo lu tion (fo r exam ple , W olf 1982) m e an t th a t th e sta te p e r se was n o t o ften taken as a su b ­je c t fo r an th ro p o lo g ic a l theory. M ore r e c e n t theo re tica l w ork has again relied on c o n s tru c ts o f the p rim itiv e draw n from C lastres (D e)euze a n d G uatta ri [ 1972] 1983:145-85) an d B a ta ille (Taussig 1997) to ex p lo re the m obility an d im m a n e n t c h a ra c te r o f the s ta te as a “basic fo rm a tio n [th a t is] on th e h o riz o n th ro u g h o u t h is to ry .” In these th e o r ie s , the spectral s ta te is env isioned, n o t as th e e n d p o in t o f a n evo lu tionary p ro cess , as in ea rlie r a n th ro p o lo g ie s , b u t r a th e r as a transhisto i i- cal “p rim ord ia l U rs ta ab th e e te rna l m o d e l o f every th ing th e S ta te wants to be an d d e s ire s” (D ele’Uze a n d G u a tta ri 1987:217).

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4. O n th e re g io n a l o r cu ltu ra l specific ity o f m o d e rn s ta te p ractices an d effects, see , a m o n g o th e rs , A bele (1 9 9 0 ); C h a tte ije e (1997); C o ro n il (1997); D as (1995); H eym an (1 9 9 9 ); H u m p h rey (2 0 0 3 ); L ornnitz (2 0 0 0); M au re r (1997); M essick (1993); M itch e ll (1988); O n g (1 9 9 9 b ); P a n th am (2 0 0 3 ); S anders a n d West (2002); G. S m ith (1999 :195 -227 ); a n d H an sen an d S te p p u ta t (2001). O n a n th ro p o lo g ica l a p p ro a c h e s to the s ta te as a “t ra n s lo c a r o r d e c e n te re d in s titu ­tional landscape , see G u p ta (1995); O n g (1999a); an d T ro u illo t (2001). F o r a co m parative p ersp ec tiv e o n sta te te rro r, see Sluka (2000).

5. O n d iso rd e r a n d m arg inality in an th ro p o lo g y , see especially Tsing (1 9 9 3 ). T h e idea o f a d iso rd e rly m arg in is n o t p e c u lia r to W estern th e o r ie s o f the s ta te , p'or instance, in M uqadam m ah , a fo u r te e n th -c e n tu ry A rab ic tex t, Ib n K haldun a rg u ed th a t B edo u in s p ra c tic e d a fo rm o f w eak en ed Islam as c o m p a re d to u rb a n M uslims because th e ir n o m a d ic c h a ra c te r m a d e them d is ta n t fro m reg u la to ry 'authorities (R osetw hal 1969). T h e re was a m a rk e d su sp ic ion o f n o m ad s in th e adm inistrative p rac tices o f colon ial ru le rs , a n d it co n tin u e s in p o stco lo n ia l p o litie s (for a review o f these p rac tices , see Rao a n d C asim ir 2002).

6. T h ou g h th e s ta te was c o n cep tu a lized as h a rin g a m o n o p o ly over leg iti­m ate violence, it s to o d in a p ro b lem atic re la tio n to o th e r k in d s o f vio lence, e s p e ­cially sacrificial v io lence . F o r exam ple , D u m ez il (1956) sh ow ed th e close c o n n e c ­tion betw een th e logic o f sacrifice a n d th a t o f p u n ish m e n t in h is ex a m in a tio n o f Indo-E uropean m ythology’. In an th ro p o lo g y , Taussig has d iscu ssed th e fetish istic charac ter o f the sta te in re la tio n to its q u a lity o f h a rn ess in g th e p o w er o f th e d e a d in the ‘exchange b e tw een th e absurd a n d th e official" (Taussig 1997:119). T h is m onopoly over v io lence c o n tr ib u te s to th e n o tio n o f th e t r a n s c e n d e n t c h a ra c te r of the state in the p o li t ic a l/ th e o re tic a l d isco u rse o f libera lism .

7. “M odern socia l d ev e lo p m en t, a s id e fro m the a lready m e n tio n e d p o litica l and internal p ro fessio n al m otives, has g iven rise to c e rta in o th e r fac to rs by w h ic h form al legal rationalism is b e in g w eakened . Irra tio n a l kadi ju s t ic e is exerc ised today in crim inal cases c learly an d extensively in the ‘p o p u la r ’ju s t ic e o f th e ju ry .It appeals to the s e n tim e n t o f th e laym an, w h o feels a n n o y e d w h en ev e r he m e e ts with formalism in c o n c re te cases, and it satisfies the e m o tio n a l d e m a n d s o f th e se under-privileged classes w h ich c lam or fo r su bstan tiv e ju s t ic e ” (W eber 1978:892).

8. For a discussion o f how the p ro cess o f a c q u irin g a n ew n a m e legally is tinged with the fa in t ta in t o f crim inality, even in th e m ost o rd in a ry o f c ircu m ­stances, see Cavell (1994:27—28). H ere is a passage a b o u t his e x p e r ie n c e w ith a name change at age s ix teen : “Probably I d id n o t sufficiently a p p re c ia te the irony in thinking what d eb ts th e law im ag ined a six teen-year-old m ig h t have reason to

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T h e S t a t e a n d I t s M a r g i n s

flee from , b u t 1 b eg an to know o r know that 1 knew , th a t th e d eed o f d ec la rin g a n am e o r m a k in g a n a m e , o r an y q u es tio n in g o f y o u r identity, was b e in g linked with crim inality , fo rg ed to g e th e r w ith it. Q uite as if th e reasons fo r b e in g singled o u t with a n a m e w ere n o t ju s t to b e traceab le in case o f w ro n gd o in g , bu t befo re tha t as its g ro u n d , to serve n o tic e th a t iden tifiab le ac tio ns, deeds, th e w ork o f h u m an b e in g s , a re th e so u rc e o f identity , and c o n se q u e n tly co n stitu te iden tity by accusation” (2 6 ). C avell’s re f le c tio n s on the re la tio n betw een m arg in s , n am es, and accusations a n tic ip a te th e e x p e r ie n c e o f ch eck p o in ts , which we discuss in m ore detail below, a n d show clearly th a t this e x p e rien ce is n o t a m a tte r o f physical m arg ins a lo n e .

9. It is im p o r ta n t to a p p re c ia te th a t the sale c o u ld only be possib le w ith in a larger c o n te x t in w hich th e re w ere rich p eop le w h o o p e ra te d in an e co n o m y with large u n d isc lo se d incom es.

JO. F o r a su b tle a rg u m e n t o n th e role o f a lte rn a tiv e ra tiona lities p rac ticed on the m a rg in s in in te rp re tin g s ta te te rro r, see H u m p h re y ’s (2003) a c c o u n t o f th e B uddh ist m yths o f r e in c a rn a tio n used by B u d d h is ts in M ongolia to exp la in Stalin 's re g im e o f te rro r. In th is fo rm u la tio n , th e th e o ry o f karm a is d ep lo y ed m e taph o rica llv to ack n o w ledg e th e inevitable co m p lic ity of the sub jects o f to ta li­tarian sta tes in reg im es o f t e r ro r— a subtle p o in t th a t is som ew hat sim ilar to N elson 's a rg u m e n t in h e r c h a p te r . Earlier, Tsing (1993) analysed th e im p o rtan ce o f m arg ins as a wav o f re la t in g d isc ip lin ary creativ ity w ith form s o f life lived at the m argins in th e c o n te x t o f th e s ta te in Indonesia . H ow ever, T sing’s idea o f m arg ins is strongly in f lu e n c e by spa tia l m o d e ls— thus, sh e d e fin es the m arg in as a place w here sta te a u th o r ity is m o st u n re lia b le an d th e g ap betw een the s ta te ’s goals and th e ir local re a liza tio n is th e la rg es t. She con trasts th is situation w ith th e p ro je c t o f ru le at th e c e n te r , w h ere s ta te a u th o r ity is s tro n g es t. T his way o f lo o k in g a t state an d m arg in s , o f co u rse , a ssu m es th a t sta te goals a n d a u th o rin ' a re t ra n sp a re n t in th e cen ter, o r th a t th e s ta te its e lf is n o t invested in m a in ta in in g th e m arg in s as “unru ly sp aces”— a p o in t o f view c ritiq u e d by all th e a u th o rs in this vo lum e.

l l . l t m ay b e re lev an t to p o in t o u t tha t w hile u n d e rs ta n d in g o f process was always c o n s id e re d ce n tra l to th e a n th ro p o lo g y o f law, th e em phasis was alwavs on arriving a t th e rules th o u g h t to b e im plicit in d isp u te se ttlem en t (see G luckm .m 1965; N a d e r 1969; a m o n g m a n y o th e rs ) . A sh a rp d is tinc tio n betw een W estern an d non-W estern fo rm s o f law o b sc u re d th e way in w hich legal co n cep ts traveled betw een th e d if fe re n t sites o n w h ich law was ev o k ed in the sam e societv.