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Designprocesser
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That-which-does-not-yet-exist
“Design is the ablility to imagine that-which- does-not-yet-exist, to make it appear in concrete form as a new, purposeful addition to the real world.
  (Nelson & Stolterman, 2002:10)
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That-which-does-not-yet-exist
“Design is the ablility to imagine that-which- does-not-yet-exist, to make it appear in concrete form as a new, purposeful addition to the real world. Design is the first tradition among the many traditions of inquiry and and action developed over time, including art, religion, science, and technology.” 
(Nelson & Stolterman, 2002:10)
We “cannot escape speaking from a position.
... designers need to understand the position of from which their stakeholders understand their world.
This recursive understanding of understanding is a second-order understanding.
...human-centred design is fundamentally design for others.” (Klaus Krippendorff, the semantic turn, 2006:66)
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• There is no stopping rule.
• The solutions to wicked problems cannot be true or false, only good or bad.
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(a) challenges, troublesome conditions, problems, or conflicts that have escaped (re)solution.
(b) opportunities to change something for the better - not recognized by others - to contribute to their own or other communities’ lives.
(c) possibilities to introduce variations into the world that others may not dare to consider, creating something new and exciting - just as poets, painters, and composers do - aimlessly and for fun.
only (a) includes problem solving but it acknowledges also the possibilities of wicked problems for which the solution is the problem (see h. rittel). (Krippendorff)
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induction shows that something actually is operative;
abduction merely suggests that something may be.’ (Peirce, in Cross 2007:37)
a designerly way
(John Dewey)
Reflection-in-action, reflection-on-action
(Donald Schön)
Judgment knowledge *
‘Learning to make judgments is not a matter of learning to follow steps of a technique, or to follow directions dictated by a method ...
...designers can learn to make better judgments, but can not learn - a priori - the kind of knowledge necessary for particular judgments at the moment they occur.’
(Nelson, Stolterman, 2003: 184)
Naming and framing
“This kind of ‘problem setting’ is a characteristic of reflective practice identified by Schön:
‘Problem setting is the process in which, interactively, we name the things to which we will attend and frame the context in which we will attend to them’.” 
(Donald Schön i Cross, Nigel, (2004) Expertise in design: an overview, Design Studies Vol 25, 2004, p432 )
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(Cross, Nigel, (2004) Expertise in design: an overview, Design Studies Vol 25, 2004, p432 )
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The designer re-creates the future situation of use
“The designer’s inquiry concerns the situation that is not present to the designer, and therefore not available to her interactive cognitive process.”
“...design can be described as an inquiry into this future situation of use.”
(Gedenryd, How designers work, 1998:156 ff)
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The designer re-creates the future situation of use (2)
“There is a range of design techniques ... sketching, prototyping, mock-ups, scenarios, storyboards, simulation, and use testing, ... to enable the designer to get at the future situation of use.”
“... situating strategies. They serve to make the world a part of cognition.”
(Gedenryd, How designers work, 1998:156 ff)
51 method cards, IDEO
All the possible solutions,
something to aim at,
cannot be fully described,
Desires, possibilities, opportunities
Working ‘backward’ from the future situation of use (Henrik Gedenryd 1998)
‘Wicked’ problems have no definitive formulation (Horst Rittel 1973)
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Constraints
Design work involves understanding the borders of the design space, i.e. constraints.
• Completely rigid: Legislated constraints
• Somewhat flexible: Client-imposed constr.
• Completely flexible: Designer-imposed constraints “one of the most important skills a designer must acquire is the ability critically to evaluate their own self-imposed constraints ...” (Gedenryd)
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An exploratory approach has the “emphasis on clarifying requirements and desirable features ... and where alternative possibilities for solutions are discussed”
In an experimental approach “the emphasis is on determining the adequacy of the proposed solution”. (Floyd, 1984)
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2000-2003, Stockholm and Paris, EU-funded
Approach: Cooperative design w real families for 3 years Multidisciplinary team that Works together in all activities
Example 1, interLiving, 2000 - 2003
Example 2, IDEO shopping cart
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premise, deadline multidisciplinary all participate lists (naming and framing) real experts - information, from stakeholders share - demonstrate brainstorm, (ideas for solutions) vote time-out (seniors) re-focus several ideas prototype fail often test hard teamwork
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Example 3, Convivo summer school
People-Centered Design of Interactive Systems Two week summer school for PhD & Masters
I experimened with the ‘design space model’ in my atelier. It designed the design process.
The assignment (design space): Second Friday morning have a presentation that adresses the themes and seems meaningful to the visitors and the locals.
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Example 3, Convivo summer school
The idea behind this atelier is that the group together with other people in Split will use a mixture of methods to describe a design space and propose one or more designs to exemplify that space.
Summer school 3, Process illustration from the final presentation
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Approach
Horst Rittel
Edvin Land
• Designers tackle 'ill-defined' problems.
• They create real, whole artefacts.
References
Argyris, C. & Schön, D. A. (1974) Theory in practice: increasing professional effectiveness, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
Carroll, John (2000) Making use, scenario-based design of human-computer interactions, MIT P
Cross, Nigel, (2004) Expertise in design: an overview, Design Studies, Volume 25, Issue 5 (m.fl)
Cross, Nigel, (2007) Designerly Ways of Knowing, BIRD, Birkhäuser
Floyd, C. (1984) A systematic look at prototyping, in Budde, R. (ed.) Approaches to Prototyping: Proceedings of the Working conference on prototyping. Springer Verlag, Berlin 1984. pp 1-18.
Gedenryd, H., (1998) How Designers Work. Making Sense of Authentic Cognitive Activities. Lund University Cognitive Studies [No.] 75. Lund, Sweden.
Krippendorff, K. (2005) The semantic turn: new foundations for design, Boca Raton, Fla., CRC. 
Lawson, B. (2004) What designers know, Oxford, Architectural Press.
Nelson, H & Stolterman, E. (2003) The Design Way: intentional change in an unpredictable world, Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey
Donald Norman (1988) The Psychology of Everyday Things, (also published as: The Design of Everyday Things, New York, Basic Books
Rittel, H. & Webber, M. (1973) Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning in Public Sciences 4, pp 155–169, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Schrage, M, (1996) Cultures of Prototyping in Bringing Design to Software, Terry Winograd, 1996
Schön, D. (1983) The reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action, Basic books, NY
Mer ref
Buxton, Bill (2007) Sketching User Experiences: Getting the Design Right and the Right Design (2007) by Bill Buxton, Morgan Kauffman. A great book about the importance of exploring many different possibilities early on in projects with the help of sketches.
Moggridge, Bill (2006) Designing Interactions, MIT Press
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problem solving and other strategies’ focus is only on that-which-is
without considerations for that-which-is-desired