Running head: THE STANDARD MODEL AND ITS FINANCIAL PROFITABILITY. 1THE STANDARD MODEL AND ITS FINANCIAL PROFITABILITY17

The standard Model and its Financial Profitability. Andrs OlmedoColegio Britnico de Cancn

Outline* Investigating the Particles Physics -CERN -The accelerator complex*Standard Model -Particles in the Standard Model -Matter and antimatter -Fundamental Forces -Strong Force -Weak Force -Electromagnetic force -Gravitational Force*Higgs Boson and the Higgs Field -Higgs Field -Higgs Boson *Physics beyond the Standard Model -Gravity and Strong Force -Grand Unified Theory -Theory of Everything -Strings Theory -Implications -Extra Dimensions -Baryon Asymmetry -Dark Matter and Dark Energy*Costs of the CERN and the Standard Model*Conclusion

AbstractIs discovering the particle that would complete a theorem of what are we made of really worth a peanut per person? Or are the investigations of dark matter really of any use for us? This paper explains the different concepts the CERN is investigating and if we should spend our taxes in it. Also, as a fundamental part of it, the paper gives details about this place, the Standard model (in a way a normal person with basic knowledge in physics can understand), a brief explanation of why its being researched and what the physics beyond the standard model are since all of this is being currently costing millions. If something isnt fully comprehensible, a little research about Gravity, particles such as electrons and neutrons, forces, and electricity is advisable.Keywords: Particle Physics, Standard, Model, CERN, Strong, Weak, Electromagnetic, gravity, force, Field, boson, fermion, Theory, grand, everything, strings, dark, energy, matter, Baryon.

The Standard Model, Where It Is Being Researched and What is Beyond its CapabilitiesThroughout the centuries, thousands of philosophers have asked the question: What are we? What are we made of? Even now, millions of us are asking that question right now. Today, scientists in the CERN are answering this question through the Standard Model. But, how much does this question is going to cost us? What are they doing with our taxes, is it really worthwhile? The Standard model of Particle Physics or just The Standard Model is a description of how Particles Work. It Works closely with particles Physics and many other branches of science. It is also a model that hasnt been completed and that still needs some polishing since it has many inconsistences like incongruences and unexplained phenomena. (Ruiz, 2015)Basically, the Standard model is about basic particles composing all of the matter (and antimatter) while elemental forces manipulate them. It doesnt explain complex phenomena but its the best theory to explain our universe. (Ruiz, 2015)Investigating the Particles PhysicsSeveral laboratories around the world are studying the particles physics, and thus, understanding one theory that describes them: The standard model. These laboratories include: The European Organization for Nuclear Research, Fermi National Laboratory, Universities and the J-PARC. (U.C, 2013) CERNThe Standard model of Particles, a theory that could describe our universe is actually being researched in the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). It is and organization founded in 1952 by 12 founder states: elgium, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Yugoslavia. It uses the most powerful and complex scientific instruments with the sole purpose of understanding particle physics and thus, proving the standard model (although, its not the only theory investigated). (CERN, 2015)CERN is a center where many brilliant minds from all around the world are gathered. In the CERN, many universities, countries and independent Scientists are trying to understand the universe. Here, about 2,500 scientists can try push the boundaries of understanding by answering some of the most complex questions ever made. Knowledge generated in this facility is shared freely in their webpage and anyone can try read the thesis and publications in it. (CERN, 2015)Throughout the years, CERN has influenced our everyday live. They invented the Internet (the connection between computers), touchscreens, medical hardware for the detection of cancer and many other inventions which are now part of our everyday life. (CERN & Society Foundation, 2015) CERN seeks to inspire tomorrows science and engineering graduates, who will contribute to scientific progress and the world economy. is one of the many missions CERN has. (CERN & Society Foundation, n.d.) The accelerator complex: To investigate the physics of particles, the CERN counts with high-tech accelerators and machines that accelerate particles to speed near the speed of light and then making them collide. These collisions are registered and analyzed by supercomputers connected to receptors. The complex which is about 27 km wide is shared between France and Switzerland. It counts with 5 stages which accelerate gradually the particles using magnetic fields. (CERN, 2015)The standard ModelThe standard model is the name of a theory predicted in 1970s which explains what the universe is made of. It states that the universe is made of seventeen fundamental particles governed by 4 fundamental forces. (Elert, The Physics Hypertextbook , 2015) Out of the seventeen particles (see appendix A), the last one to be discovered was the Higgs Boson, which will be explained in the next pages since it was discovered in the CERN and was the merit that gave Franois Englert and Peter W. Higgs the Nobel Prize in physics in 2013. (O'Luanaigh, 2013) The particles are divided into Leptons and Quarks. Only the Up and Down Quarks and the Electron form most of the matter we see in our everyday lives. Leptons and Quarks are Fermions while the Force carriers the bosons. (Fermilab, 2014)

Particles in the Standard ModelThe seventeen particles of the Standard Model are divided into two groups: The ones that compose matter (Fermions) and the ones that are the carriers of forces (Bosons). Fermions obey a simple rule that dictates that they cannot occupy the same space and time of another fermion. Bosons, on the other hand, have no problem doing this. Also, both of them are divided into quarks and leptons, which are arranged into groups of six and they all have their normal states (which compose normal matter) and their anti-state which are the building blocks of antimatter. (Elert, The Physics Hypertextbook , 2015)One difference between the Fermions and the Bosons is their spin which is an intrinsic property of these particles. While the Fermions have a spin of , the bosons have a spin of 1. But it can go up to 2, 3, 4 etc., its just that we havent found them yet. Also, Fermions tend to be symmetric while Bosons are pretty much asymmetric, when it comes to arrangement in wavelengths. ( G.S.U., 2015)Matter and Antimatter: As a derivate of the standard model, its imperative to talk about matter and antimatter. All matter particle has an antiparticle counterpart. Antimatter particles have exactly the same properties as normal matter with the difference that antimatter has the opposite charge. For exaple: An Electron has a negative charge while a Positron (the counterpart of an Electron) has a positive charge. (Alain Mazure, 2011)As they have the same properties, theorically antimatter can form anti-elements for exaple: Antihydrogen, which is a combitanion of one Positron and one antiproton. As one can see, and for unknown reasons, there is more matter than antimatter; this will be explained in detail in the Physics beyond the Standard Model section. (Alain Mazure, 2011)Fundamental ForcesWhile Fundamental particles compose pretty much everything in the universe, the Fundamental forces are the ones that govern the behaviour of these particles. The big difference between a force and an interaction (which is the real name for fundamental forces) is that all forces are a product of fundamental interactions. (Safa, 2015) These four forces are: the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the strong force. They all have different properties and ranges. For example: The strong interaction acts up to a rang of 10-13 cm while the gravitational force has an infinite range. (A.L., 2015)Strong Nuclear Force: Force that keeps protons and neutrons together in a nucleus (C.M.U., 2013) It has a very short range (although its range is technically infinite) It is an atrractive force although it can be repulsive sometimes. (Collins, 1989)Weak Nuclear Force: Force responsible for certain types of nuclear reactions (C.M.U., 2013) Its a force of interaction between quarks and leptons and, as the name says, its weaker than the Strong Nuclear Force and the Electromagnetic Force. (Collins, 1989)Electromagnetic Force: Force that keeps an electron in its orbit around the atomic nucleus; (i.e., attraction or repulsion between a charged plastic comb and a strand of hair) (C.M.U., 2013) It has an inifite range (as its particles have no mass (photons)) It doesnt affect neutral charges. (N.S.W.C., 2000)Gravitational Force: Force pulling together all matter (which is anything you can physically touch) (Biad, 2015) It has an infinite range, like the Electromagnetic Force. It also decreases it strength as the distance increases. It hasnt yet been completely described. (N.S.W.C., 2000)The Higgs Boson and the Higgs FieldWhy is it that there are four fundamental forces and not just one huge force that unifies them? Scientists from all around the world have tryied to understand this but they havent found an answer yet. They have already related the electromagnetic force and the weak force (The so called Eelctroweak force) but they havent related them to the strong force or the Gravitational force. (R. Nave, 2015)Although it may seem as if the Electroweak force is a step forward, scientists havent solve one huge problem: Why do the particles from the elctromagnetic and the weak force have so different masses if they are part of the same electroweak force? Photons (partiles of the electromagnetic force) are masless while the Fermions of the Weak Froce (W and Z) have mass. Heres where the Higgs Field and the Higgs Boson came into action. (R. Nave, 2015)Higgs FieldThe Higgs Field explain why some particles are massless and others do have it. It is not a force but a field where every particle swims through. Depending of the strength of the interaction one particle has with the Higgs Field, so the mass will be. The Higgs Field gives mass to particles. For example: A photon interacts poorly with the Higgs field, so it has no mass while the W and Z fermions interact more with it, so they have mass. (Riesselmann, 2014) Particles with different characteristics interact in different ways with the Higgs Field. Just like humans float differently in a pool depending of our weight, size, shape, etc. As we humans cant prove directly the Higgs field, we need and intermediator to do so: The Higgs Boson. (Riesselmann, 2014) Higgs BosonThe Higgs Boson is an unstable particle that collides with many particles (it doesnt interact with the ones with no mass since they dont interact with the HIggs field). Its the way scientists have found to prove the existance of the Higgs Field. It has Zero electric charge and no spin. To produce them, particles need t collide at high speeds in a very small space. (Wilczek, 2011) Its discovery was a huge boom in the scientific world, and it gave Peter W. Higgs (the person who theorized it) and Franois Englert the nobel prize in 2013 for: The theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (Nobel Media AB, 2015)Physics beyond the Standard ModelWhile its true that the Higgs Boson has explained many things in the Standard model, theres still many things that need to be prove yet, like the inclussion of the Strong Force (Since gravity is not taken into account) for a Theory of Everything, the assymetry of Matter and Antimatter, Dark energy and Dark Matter. (Womersley, 2015)Gravity and Strong ForceAlthough scientists have already unified the electromagnetic force and the weak force (Electroweak) theres still the Strong and Gravity forces yet to be included into one single theory of everything. The first step would be a Grand Unified Theory, which will include the Strong force into the equation (Langacker, 2012) and then the grand Theory of everything, a theory that would mix gravity with the other 3 forces. (Elert, 2015)Grand Unified Theory: This theory should unify the electroweak force with the strong force, which is vital in Quantum Mechanics. Nowadays, several theories have been proposed but none of them describe the data collected in experimentation. (T.P.A., 2015)According to investigations, High-energy particles interacting with the forces should converge at one point. This is the basis on which scientists are basing their investigations in order to achieve unification. (T.P.A., 2015)Theory of Everything: The theory of everything is the last step towards a unification of the forces (Although some scientists claim to have found a fifth force describing the Proton decay dilemma) (T.P.A., 2015) It should unify the four forces into a single force which could explain the bahaviour of particles with mathematicall precition. Its still one mayor unsolved problem in physics but many theories have emerged trying to achieve this. For example: The stringes theory and the M Theory. (Hawking, 2009)Strings TheoryOne cadidate to be a Theory of Everything is the Strings Theory. It hasnt yet been proven and its under strict speculation, but many scientists including Stephen Hawking have supported this theory by saying it should be the answer to the equation of the Theory of Everything. (Hawking, 2009) Implications: The string theory dictates that every particle is formed by tiny little strings oscillating in different quantum states. Each different oscillation gives particles their different properties, like mass or charge. While its true that it hasnt been proven, it has a lot of support since it includes Gravity in the equation. This theory also has some difficulties, for example: The necessity of extra dimensions. (P. C. W. Davies, 1992)Extra Dimensions: To achieve the consistence of the Strings Theory, theres the need of 36 dimensions, but many scientists claim that there is only the need for 11 of them. These dimensions give the strings movement freedom and thus, allowing them to exist. But then, as a consequence of the existence of the extra dimensions time travels must exist, which contradict Einsteins theory of relativity. (P. C. W. Davies, 1992) Baryon Asymmetry As stated before, matter is what composes our universe, but theres also Antimatter which has the exact same properties of matter. So, why is it that theres more matter than antimatter? This is what the Baryon asymmetry is all about and one huge unsolved theme the standard model needs to solve. (Sather, 2015)If we work out what the Universe was like one billionth of a second after it began, it turns out that for every billion particle-antiparticle pairs there was just one extra particle. To that particle we and stars owe our existence. (Sather, 2015)Explaining why there was more matter than antimatter is what scientists are trying to explain (Sather, 2015)Dark Matter and Dark EnergyGravity has an infinite range and it pulls together things, so it should slow the expansion of the universe, but recent discoveries have pointed that its the opposite: The universe is accelerating its expansion. Theorists have tried to explain this phenomena, but none of them have succeed, although theyve given already the solution a name: Dark Matter and Dark Energy. (Erickson, 2015) Both of them are yet incomprehensible, we cant see them. They compose roughly 95% of our universe (68% Dark Energy and 27% Dark Matter). Dark Matter for example: It cant be matter since we cant detect it, its not antimatter, otherwise it should collide with normal matter and thus making the universe bright as a diamond. Its still something to look forward to. (Erickson, 2015)Costs of the CERN and the Standard ModelThe cost of constructing the CERN facilities (explained before) between the 17 founder countries was of $4.75 billion dollars. Which includes the big magnets that accelerate the particles, laboratories and computers. Computing processes cost CERN about $286 Million dollars annually, while electricity alone gas a cost of $23.5 million per year. The Budget for the CERN (which 20% is self-paid by the organization while the 80% is paid by foundations and governments) is $1 Billion per year. (Alex Knapp, 2012)Until 2012, the cost of finding the Higgs Boson ran about 13.25 billion dollars (Alex Knapp, 2012) which is quite an amount but then again, Carlos Slim has a fortune of $66 billion dollars, almost 5 times the amount required to explain the basic concepts of life, expanding computer progress and having better medical equipment for cancer treatment. (Lin, 2013) Also CERN annually spends about $500 million is contracts for scientific equipment. Not including the several cutting-edge technologies they release every year and the Big Data collection CERN generates each year which is a new business currently being used by several multinational companies. (Ireland for CERN, 2015)Conclusion In 2009, Britains investment in CERN was $174 million dollars (about 15% of CERNs Budget) which is more or less 2 per UK citizen. (Baggott, 2012) This is the total cost a normal citizen is spending in the future of medicine. In the future of science. This is the real capital humanity is spending in the CERN. All of the topics mentioned before, all the data and new discoveries that are made each year, Nobel Prizes, International Unity, and of course, the knowledge humanity is acquiring by investigating the Standard Model is worth 2 per Person.The world has conflicts, its not necessary a profound research to be aware of that, but in the CERN people forget about that and start researching in what the future may be, what should we expect in the future and the difficult concepts people from all around the world are trying to understand. Imagine a rocket propelled by a matter-antimatter motor. Or going in a Hoverboard once we fully understand Gravity (Like the one used in Back to the Future). This is the future and we are not giving it the importance it needs.For further research about this topic and in some cases actualization, its advisable to read the official reports given by the CERN. Theyre free for all and they dont reserve themselves in terms of giving information. Theres also a Forbes page explaining in detail what the costs of the CERN are.

Appendix A

(Fermilab, 2014)

Appendix B

(T.P.A., 2015)

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