FEED FORMULATION PROGRAM

VERSION 2.98

SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd. P.O. Box 48

RIVONIA

2128

Tel: (011) 803 2050

Fax: (011) 803 8210

www.spesfeed.co.za

July 2010

i

CONDITIONS OF SALE

COPYRIGHT 1989,1999 and 2010 by F.J. Kleyn, SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd

and Martial Computing cc.

The information in this document is subject to change without notice

and should not be construed as a commitment by either SPESFEED

(Pty) Ltd or Martial Computing cc. SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd grants a non-exclusive and non-transferable

licence for the use of the SPESFEED EXPRESS package to the person

or company who has purchased that right. SPESFEED EXPRESS is

never sold. SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd retains all rights, ownership of and

all the title to the software recorded on the original disk or copies

thereof. It is not permissible to make or supply any copy of the

package to any other person whatsoever as this would be an

infringement of copyright. All rights reserved.

No part of this manual may be reproduced or distributed in any form

or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system without

prior written permission of SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd.

All software is licensed for use on an annual basis. This licence fee

will fall due on the anniversary your previous installation. The cost of

this licence will be increased at a rate equivalent to the annual

inflation rate. On receipt of the licence fee by SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd.,

the user will be issued with a unique code number which will enable

the system to continue to be used.

Licence holders are entitled to free off site support during working

hours. This support includes telephonic, email or facsimile assistance.

All standard software enhancements will be made available free of

charge. Custom designed enhancements will be charged for at a

negotiated rate.

ii

Should on site training or support be required, travelling costs, a

consultancy fee and local living costs are for the customers account.

A free utility to convert data from SPESFEED Ver8 to SPESFEED

EXPRESS is provided. SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd is prepared to help with

this task but it is not covered by the licence fee. This function will

only be performed at an agreed upon consulting fee.

Neither F.J. Kleyn, L.G. Kleyn, SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd or Martial

Computing cc. shall be liable for any loss or damage sustained by the

users of the SPESFEED EXPRESS Feed Formulation Program arising

out of any cause whatsoever.

Sample data is supplied with the SPESFEED EXPRESS package. It is

not intended that this data be used for feed formulation purposes,

rather it serves only for demonstration purposes. SPESFEED (Pty)

Ltd can take no responsibility for the data used together with

SPESFEED EXPRESS. The user is responsible for data integrity,

backup and security.

Installation of SPESFEED EXPRESS software on a computer implies

the user‟s acceptance of this licence agreement.

iii

LIST OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

CONVENTIONS and CONCEPTS 4

SETTING UP THE PROGRAM 8

System Requirements 8

Installing the program 8

Licensing the software 9

Making Backups 10

Conversion of Version 8 data 10

A QUICK START TO USING THE PROGRAM 12

Getting around the program 12

Using the Help Function 13

Windows Functionality 13

Selecting a Database 13

User Settings and Options 14

An Overall View 15

PROGRAM DETAILS 18

Files 18

The Library 19

The Nutrients 21

Feed Ingredients 24

Feed Specifications 25

iv

Client Files 25

Feed Specifications 27

Bounds 29

Formulate Feed 30

The Information Bar 31

The Feed Specification Window 32

The Ingredient Window 33

The Formulation Process 34

Saving the Solution 36

The Solution Screen 37

Reports 37

Solution 38

Compare 40

Stock 40

Batch Mix 41

Export Solution 41

MODEL DETAILS 42

SPESFEED Dairy Model 42

Beef Model 48

Horse Model 50

APPENDIX

Effective Feed Formulation for Feed Millers and Farmers 55

Hoards Rules of Thumb for Dairy Feeding 63

1

INTRODUCTION

This document was written as a user guide for the SPESFEED

EXPRESS Feed Formulation Package. It will guide the user through

the installation of the software, conversion of any exiting data and as

at quick start guide to the use of the program.

The SPESFEED EXPRESS Feed Formulation package has been written

to replace the SPESFEED Ver 8 Feed Formulation program, the old

DOS based SPESFEED package.

SPESFEED EXPRESS was written in VB.NET ™, on SQL Server 2008

™. These are development tools written by Microsoft Corp,

expressly for use on computers that use the Windows XP (Service

Pack 3) or newer operating system. This means that the package will

not run on earlier versions of Windows. Due some changes brought

about by Microsoft, SQL will not run on “Home Basic” versions of

either Windows Vista or Windows &.

Those making the transition from Version 8 of the SPESFEED Feed

Formulation system will find that basic logic of the program has not

been changed. However, the functionality provided by the new

operating system makes the program quicker and easier to use than

ever. A conversion utility has been written to convert all library and

client file data from SPESFEED Version 8 for use with SPESFEED

EXPRESS.

It is assumed that the user has sufficient knowledge of nutrition and

the principles of feed formulation to use the program, and these will

not be covered in this document.

SPESFEED EXPRESS provides a means of formulating diets, using

available ingredients, to meet predetermined nutritional requirements

at the least possible monetary cost.

2

Before a detailed discussion on program use is entered into, an overall

view of the objectives of the program is given. Broadly speaking, the

program has been developed to formulate "least-cost" diets for any

type of food or feed. The concept of "least-cost" feed formulation is

widely accepted in animal agriculture and it is used extensively in the

production of "balanced" feed and to produce balanced diets on farm.

The program has four basic components:

Firstly, it stores data in one of two formats. Data may be

stored in the form of “libraries" of technical information

which can be built up by the user. The program is sold with a

limited but fully valid library. Alternatively, the user may

build up subsets of data in “client” files for any number of

production units. This is useful for the agricultural advisor or

veterinarian who formulates feeds for a number of different

clients.

Secondly, it incorporates a mathematical component called

linear programming (LP) which is used for the optimisation or

"least cost" process.

Thirdly, the program is capable of storing and retrieving

information about the feeds or diets to be manufactured.

This recipe management functionality allows the user to

determine the ingredients to be used (bill of materials), to

work out costs and margins and to create batch report.

Lastly, the program incorporates mathematical models that

can estimate the nutrient requirements of various classes of

animal.

In order to get the most out of the program the following basic

principles must be adhered to at all times:

3

All data to be used when running the program must be

prepared accurately. Minimise guesswork. Enter data into the

computer correctly. In order to accurately balance any diet,

information about the available ingredients and the required

feed specifications needs to be built up.

Do not take the results of the program at face value. Old-

fashioned "gut feel" and practicality still play an important

role in feed formulation and you may find it necessary to

make modifications to the recommended diets.

As far as is possible ensure that the recommendations given

by the program are correctly applied. A good formulation is

only the starting point of successful feeding and nutrition.

A certain degree of familiarity with the LP concept will have to be

developed in order to get the most out of the SPESFEED program.

It is important to understand why a particular solution has been

derived if you are to fine-tune your diets. To this end, it is important

to understand the concepts of sensitivity and ranging (see below).

SPESFEED are a company that provide a nutritional consultancy

service in addition to supplying software. We may well be able to help

our clients in this regard. However, this it will be appreciated that

nutritional consultancy is separate from purchasing and using

SPESFEED EXPERESS.

4

CONVENTIONS AND CONCEPTS

A number of conventions and/or concepts were used in the

development of SPESFEED EXPRESS:

The program makes use of an SQL relational “data base”. It is

not expected that a user would ever use more than a single data

base, but there may be occasions where a user may wish to use

data generated by another user. Provided that the database

used has a unique name it is possible to access multiple data

bases. It is also possible to “export” and “import” data between

different data bases.

“Nutrient” is the term used to describe the nutrient make up of

any diet. This would normally included aspects such as protein or

calcium, but it is also possible to assign non-nutrient constraints.

For example, it could be used to set an ingredient constrain, such

as the percentage of fish meal in the diet. The nutrients viewed

or printed for any type of animal or purpose may be specified in

the “mask”.

The SPESFEED EXPRESS program is somewhat unique in that

only the data with values are shown. By default, all 0‟s (zeros) are

shown as a blank space. It is possible to “Show All” nutrients.

Once in the show all mode, it is possible to revert to a reduced

list by using the “Filter” button

The term "ingredient" is used to for all raw materials. Each

ingredient has an “analysis” of its nutrient content.

The term "feed specification" is used to describe the details

pertaining to each product (feed) that is to be formulated. For

each specification a set of ingredient “bounds” or limits are

stored.

5

“Models” are a series of mathematical programs that model

different animal‟s nutrient requirements. In this instance they

are used to generate feed specifications.

“Daily Diet” is the term used to describe an animals‟ daily intake

of both ingredients and nutrients

A “library” or master file may be built up. Any number of subsets

of this library may be created and these are known as “client

files”. Any number of different libraries may be used.

All data in the program, be it a nutrient, an ingredient or a feed

specification may be added to a “group”. A group would normally

form a logical entity such as “Cereals” for all cereal grains.

In order for the program to function effectively, each ingredient

requires a “cost” as the program generates a "least-cost"

solution. Some discussion as to costing and feed formulation is

appropriate. The determination of the cost of each ingredient is

important. In order to optimise a diet, the landed cost of each

ingredient should be used. This would need to include the cost of

transport or milling loss. Farm produced ingredients can be more

difficult. If costs are too low, they will mask an uneconomical

production system.

All ingredients can be set to “round” to the nearest kilogram or

part there off. It is also possible to allocate a “pack size” to an

ingredient for use when mixing sheets are to be generated.

It is possible to “scale” a diet to a particular size, be this to meet

the requirements for a daily diet of for a change in mixer size.

Any ingredient may be “available” for use in a specific client file.

Ingredients that are not available will not be considered for any

formulation carried out in a particular client file. It is also

6

possible to choose to “use” an ingredient in a specific feed

specification. An ingredient may well be available but unless it is

marked to be used, it will not be included it in the solution.

The program will ”formulate” what are known as “least-cost”

diets using LP.

“Models” are small pieces of computer code, written either by

SPESFEED or by a third party, which generate nutrient

requirements for any feed specification.

When using models, it is possible to carry out post formulation

“Evaluations”, these calculate data for non-linear and other

relationships.

The program will formulate on either an “As is” basis or a “Dry

Matter” basis, with conversion between the two being simply

achieved. It is also possible to formulate a “Daily Diet” for an

individual or group of animals.

Once a feed has been formulated and the results of that

formulation have been saved, a ”solution” comes into existence.

These solutions are then used to generate any reports that are

required.

The program will automatically save any number of solutions of a

single product, by date and time of formulation. Any new solution

that is saved automatically becomes the “live” solution, which is

the solution that is currently being used. It is possible to select

which solution is live.

Once a formulation has been initiated the program normally

returns a “feasible” solution. Be aware that this describes the

mathematically feasibility of the solution and not necessarily the

nutritional adequacy.

7

Should there be an error in the data used, or should the

constraints set are too high, the program will return an

“infeasible” or invalid solution.

The "Reduced Cost" is generated as a part of LP. In the case of

ingredients these reduced cost indicate the cost effectiveness of

the various ingredients on offer and they serve a very useful

function as they indicates how much you can pay for a particular

ingredient. The “range” is an extension of this concept. It

indicates the upper and lower cost range for an ingredient before

the formulation will change.

By using minimum and maximum bounds it is possible to determine

an "acceptance" price for any particular ingredient. That is, the

price that you can afford to pay for an ingredient without making

your diets any more expensive. The acceptance price of any

particular ingredient is very variable, and is determined by a

complex interaction of factors. These include the specification of

the feed, the restrictions put on its use in the feed and the cost,

nutrient specifications and availability of the other available

ingredients. Therefore, before you purchase any ingredient,

determine if it is cost effective to do so.

Nutrient constraints have”sensitivity” values. By definition,

these are the cost per unit of a particular nutrient.

Once formulation is complete it is possible to “round” formulation

off, either manually or by automatically rounding to the nearest

amount set by the user.

When making use of some of the mathematical models (the dairy

model in particular), it is possible to “evaluate” the diet that you

have just formulated, or indeed to look at any particular mixture

of ingredients in terms of animal performance.

8

A further aspect of feed formulation is that of “parametric”

evaluation. This entails the repeated solution of a problem in

which a single parameter has been modified.

9

SETTING UP THE PROGRAM

System Requirements SPESFEED EXPRESS has been written using Microsoft .Net 3.51

Framework and SQL Server Express 2008. These programs will only

run under the Windows XP, Windows Vista or Windows 7

environments. All of these programs require a reasonable amount

computer resource and the more powerful your machine the faster

the system will run. In addition, in order to make full use of the

SPESFEED EXPRESS reporting facility, it is required Microsoft Excel

be loaded on you machine.

Installing the program

1. Insert disc into drive D: (CD-ROM)

2. Auto Start should run the setup program automatically. If not,

use Windows Explorer or My Computer to browse the files on

the disk. Double Click on “setup. The setup program will run.

3. If .Net 3.5 Framework, SQL Server Express 2008 or Windows

Installer 3.1 are not installed on your machine by other

programs, „Install Spesfeed Express‟ will install these now from

the CD supplied. However, you may well find that it is best to

download a version‟s of these programs from Microsoft

(www.microsoft.com) as this automatically loads the correct

version for your machine. This may take some time. You will

need to follow the instructions and Accept the Licence Terms of

each program.

4. Once these pre-requisite programs have been loaded or

confirmed present on your machine, a Spesfeed Express window

will open on the screen. Click on the option “Install Spesfeed

10

Express” and the program files and data will be copied to your

machine onto the drive you select under the folder “Spesfeed

Express”.

5. If it has not already been created, create a shortcut onto your

desktop from the C:\Spesfeed Express\Program\Spesfeed

Express application file with the Spesfeed Logo.

6. Run the program. Note, that when the program is run for the

first time the SQL database is configured and this may be slow.

You may need to restart the program.

7. Click on the “Register Spesfeed Express Program”. Choose a

Registration Name (at least 4 letters, without any spaces or full

stops) and note the code. Contact Spesfeed at +27 11 803 2050

or sales@spesfeed.co.za to obtain the License Number.

Licensing the software

The final step required to run SPESFEED EXPRESS is to legitimise

your user licence. In order to register your software you are required

to choose a registered user name. This, together with the unique

code returned by the computer on which you wish to load the program

needs to be sent to the SPESFEED Office. Once we have this

information, we will be able to calculate a code that will let you

proceed and use the system. You will be required to enter this code

into the space. Your program will now be licensed for the next

colander year. Demonstration software is licensed for 90 days.

Should you change data bases, you can “Recall” your licence number.

11

Making Backups Maintaining data integrity is not SPESFEED‟s responsibility. However,

we have provided you with a tool for backing up your data files each

time you exit the program. This is to be found on the INSTALL

SPESFEED EXPRESS utility which is can be found on the original CD on

which the program was supplied as well as on your computer itself (look

under All Programs).

As discussed above, all of you data will be stored in a single relational

database. This file may be copied to another sub-directory on your

machine or onto another device (which is what we recommend). The

data files from the program are to be found at C:\Spesfeed

Express\Data. Simply copy the contents of this file to another

device using Explorer.

You may want to use the Export facility to create backups of your data

in CSV format. This is the standard way of creating text files.

Conversion from Version 8

It is possible to convert data from Version 8 of the SPESFEED Feed

Formulation Program. A small “stand alone” utility has been provided on

your installation disk, called “dumpdos.exe”.

12

The DUMPDOS needs to be saved into your SPESFEED Ver 8 working

directory (usually called c:\form\) and then “run” from the Windows

XP run utility as follows:

Run c:\form\dumpdos.exe

The DUMPDOS utility automatically defaults to the data paths that

you are using in the user options section of the SPESFEED program.

You then need to choose whether you want to dump either <L>ibrary

files or <C>lient files. You must select the name of the file you wish to

dump. The program then creates a file that can be read by SPESFEED

EXPRESS.

These files can then be read and loaded directly into SPESFEED

EXPRESS. The user must be aware that any group information that

you add to a library will not be applied to imported files. However,

when you create new files this information will be contained.

13

QUICK START Having installed and licensed the program you are now ready to use it.

On clicking on the SPESFEED EXPRESS icon on your Windows

desktop you will enter the program at the main screen, which is shown

below. This screen serves as the control centre for SPESFEED

EXPRESS and allows you to choose the task/function you wish to use

by simply choosing the correct menu item or icon. Should you not

have registered the program now is the time to do so.

Getting Around the Program

There are a number of basic functions that form an integral part of

the software. Mouse functionality is the same as all other Windows

XP packages. Move the cursor onto your area of choice and click on

the left mouse key to make a selection.

The first three lines that appear on the screen are all important.

In the header bar the Version of the software and the licence holder

are shown. In the second row a simple menu appears. This menu

enables the user to move around the software the program and

between program modules. Lastly a line of icons appear. The first of

these allows the user to edit and update the central database or

library of the program. The remaining icons allow the user to select a

particular client and work with that client‟s information.

14

Using the Help Function

Help is provided in the form of a PDF document – which can easily be

printed.

Windows Functionality

SPESFEED EXPRESS was developed in the Microsoft Windows XP

environment. This means that most of the windows functionality that

users are familiar with, is available in the program. Some of the key

points to remember are:

Reports may be printed out of SPESFEED EXPRESS itself, or

alternatively they may be exported to Excel, from where they

which can be read by most other applications.

It is possible to select multiple products or nutrients using

the standard Windows procedures (Control + Click & Shift =

Cursor).

Data can mostly be sorted by simply clicking in the Column

Head button of choice.

Throughout the program the use of the Right Click on the

mouse will bring up the list of commands available at that

particular part of the program.

Selecting a Database

Under normal circumstances it is not anticipated that a user should

ever use more than a single database. Where it becomes useful is

when you want to share data with a colleague. Each person can use a

different database (different name), which maintains data integrity.

You can rename your data files in c:\spesfeed express\data using

Explorer.

15

User options and settings

The user stores and retains information about the user under the

Files/User Options menu. Here it is possible to enter the data which

will appear on each report. It is also possible to enter a message that

will appear at the bottom of each report.

The licensing details are also included on this screen. You are also

able to select the preferences that you wish to use when running the

program. At this stage there are only a few of these, but as the

system develops it will be possible to add more of these options.

The other information that the user can/should enter are to be found

in the Client Maintenance section of the program

The program will always return you to the same place that you last

worked in. In other words the same client and feed as the last

session.

16

It is also possible to tell the program how you would like to view your

data. Under the Files option you can set the Sort Order as follows:

In essence, this allows all screens and reports to appear in the manner

in which is selected.

The final option in the file menu are the Export Data and Import Data

options. It is possible to export and import data from another

SPESFEED Express data base or to do the same from Format

International‟s Single Mix system. Lastly, it is possible to dump the

ingredient matrix into an Excel spreadsheet.

17

An overall view

Before using the program it is important that the user gain an overall

understanding of the data/program flow used by the SPESFEED

EXPRESS program. There are a number of steps that need to be

taken in order to formulate a diet. A diagram of the process flow

appears on the next page.

Step 1: Before you start using the program for the first time it is

important that you set up both the user options (Under the

Files/User Options on the main menu) and the client options.

Step 2: Select the library you are to work with. This is the central

repository for all of your nutrient, feed ingredient and feed

specification data. Use the Library Maintenance button.

Step 3: Ensure that the nutrients that you wish to use for your

formulations are correctly entered. Make sure that the units that

you use are correct. You may use any unit that you like, so long as the

data is consistent throughout the program. In other words the units

must stay the same in both the ingredient analysis and the feed

specifications. It would be advisable to group your data into some

form of logical grouping order.

Step 4: You will need to create or open a client file. Here you may

either enter client specific data, or import data from the library and

then modify it or not.

Step 5: Ensure that the ingredients to be used are made available,

that they have a cost and that they have nutrient values. It is

especially important to ensure that each ingredient has “Volume”.

Feed specifications and their associated bounds also need to be

added for each formulation that you wish to carry out. Feed

18

specifications may either be stored on an “As Is” basis, which is the

default, a “Dry Matter” basis or on a daily diet basis.

Step 6: You now able to optimise your diets, change the inputs live on

the formulations screen, round them and or scale them. When using

model generated specifications, it is possible to run the post

formulation evaluation calculations. These will tell you more about the

formulation that you are contemplating using, which standard linear

programming cannot do.

Step 7: The changes that were made under step 6 need to be saved.

It is possible to save the ingredient and feed specification details.

You may also create a new specification, solution or feed ingredient.

Step 8: Using the solutions that were created in step 6, you are able

view the formulation history, compare different solutions or generate

reports of single or multiple formulations. These may be printed or

exported to other Microsoft applications.

Step 9: You may download solution to process control computers at

this stage.

19

Options

The Library

Client File/s Formulation Area

1. User Information

2. Client Options

1. Optimise

2. Make Changes

3. Round

4. Evaluate.

5. Save

Output Solution

Bound

s

Spe

cifications

Clie

nt Detail

Ingredie

nts

1. Create History

2. Compare

Solutions

3. Round by hand.

4. Reports

5. Create Output

1. Printer

2. Excel

3. Batch sheets

4. Process

control

Nutrie

nts

Ingredie

nts

Spe

cifications

20

PROGRAM DETAILS The remainder of this document is devoted to how to use each

component of the program in more detail.

Files The first area of the program that needs to be set up occurs under

the files option. As these options do not form part of the normal

workflow of the system they have not been included on the toolbar,

however it is important that they be set up correctly.

The setting up of the user options and preferences has already been

discussed.

Other options that are available at this point have to do with the

importation and export of nutrients (NE), ingredients (RM) and

specification (LP) files out of and into Format International’s

Single-Mix® program. In order to create the correct files in Single-

Mix®, you need to use the correct convention, as set out below:

1. Nutrients should be exported in a file called NE.EXP. To

create the file, go into the Single-Mix® Nutrient

Editor/External/Export an ASCII file. Select “All nutrient

data” and create the correct file name.

2. Raw Materials (ingredients in SPESFEED EXPRESS) are

exported into a file called RM.EXP. To do this go to Single-

Mix® RM/External/Export an ASCII file. Select the

ingredients you wish to export, select “Nutrient Analysis”

and create the correct file name.

3. Specifications are exported into a file called LP.EXP. To do

this go to Single-Mix® LP/External/Export an ASCII file.

Select the specifications you wish to export, select “Nutrient

Limits” and “Raw Material Limits” and create the correct file

name.

21

4. SPESFEED EXPRESS now has a utility for exporting data

from one database into another. It is important that the

nutrient names in the two databases are the same.

When exporting files out of SPESFEED EXPRESS for use in Single-

Mix® the three file mentioned above are created and these can then

be imported into a “plant” in Format.

It is also possible to import delimited profiles from Single-Mix®.

Should you wish to use this feature, you will need to get the details

from us.

In addition, it is possible to export library out of one SPESFEED

EXPRESS library and then copy it into another library. It is

important that all of the nutrient names used are the same otherwise

the program will not recognise the library contents.

The Library

The first component of the program that needs to be attended to is

the library. Clicking on the library maintenance icon takes you into

the library maintenance screen. SPESFEED EXPRESS is distributed

with a demonstration library called the SPESFEED DEMO library. It

is however possible for the user to create as many different libraries

as required. It is also possible to import an existing SPESFEED Ver8

library into SPESFEED EXPRESS. Each library allows you to build up

a data base of up to 250 different ingredients and feed

specifications. It is possible to create a New Library, Edit Library,

Copy Library or Delete Library.

22

There are a number of important conventions that have to do with the

use of library files in the SPESFEED EXPRESS program. These are:

All client files are associated with a library and may not

be used with a different library.

It is possible to copy data from a library into a client file,

or from a client file to a library. Once you have copied

and ingredient or feed specification from a library it

creates a new record. Any future changes to the data in

either the library or the client file will not lead to a

change in the data used in the other.

Under normal circumstances a user will use a single

library, so once this has been set up, it will not need to

be changed.

There are three areas that need to be maintained in each library.

These are the Nutrients, the Ingredients and the Feed

Specifications. The layout and functionality of each of the three

areas is similar.

23

All of the library data can be allocated to a group and you will note

that in each area you can Add Group, Edit Group or Delete Group.

Importantly, you can change the display order using the UP and

DOWN arrow keys on the screen. There is nothing to prevent you

from creating a group for each nutrient or ingredient and specifying

its display order.

When data is imported from SPESFEED Ver8, all information is

included in a group called “Other”. It is possible to continue to

formulate in this manner, but we feel that it would be best to allocate

your information to some groups.

Unlike the previous version of SPESFEED, the SPESFEED EXPRESS

package works using the full name of each nutrient, ingredient or feed

for reference purposes, rather than a code number. It is however

possible to enter a code for each ingredient or feed for management

purposes. This code may be alphanumeric.

All items within the library may have an alternative name. Hence it is

possible to use a second language if so desired.

Any changes that have been made in a work session will either be

automatically saved when you exit the window that you are working on,

or cancelled by using the Undo button.

There are some specific information/conventions that you need to be

aware of in each of the three data areas.

The Nutrients: The manner in which nutrients are entered into the

program is fundamental to how each nutritionist does his or her job.

In each library allowance has been made for 60 different nutrients.

These may be applied to all of the ingredients or specifications in

that library. The library allows the user to define both the nutrients

and the nutrient groups that are to be used when that library is being

used.

24

There are a few simple conventions that are used in the creation of

the nutrient file. Nutrient number 1 is designated as VOLUME. In

essence every ingredient has "volume" and the total volume of a diet

may not exceed 100%. Put another way, there must always be a ton of

feed in a ton. There are occasions when you may wish not to use

volume for an ingredient. For example, some medications are

designed to be added to a ton of feed. They are therefore not a part

of that ton, but are merely added on top of the specification.

Nutrients number 2 and 3 must be Dry Matter and Moisture contents

respectively. This is used when formulating diets on a dry matter

basis for calculation purposes.

Nutrient masks may be built up for each feed specification group in

this area. These are the nutrients that will be displayed on the

screen by default when you formulate a diet. Remember that the

groups need to be created first.

25

From the screen dump above it will be seen that nutrients can either

be displayed by Group or by the default which is Show All. You will

note that for each group it is possible to Add, Edit, Copy, Delete

nutrients. It is also possible to move them using the Change Group

command.

The manner in which items are moved from group to group is standard

throughout the program. The two groups to be considered need to be

chosen using the drop down boxes. The object to be moved is then

selected with a click of the mouse and the appropriate arrow key is

then used. Remember that it is possible to make multiple selections.

You are able to use alternative names when you use the program.

This is useful should you wish to use a second language for

example. A third set of names that has been defined we have

26

called the Model Variable. These are the names used in the

development of the simulation models used in the program.

Should you wish to use the models that are supplied with the

SPESFEED EXPRESS program, these should not be changed. If

you do, the models will simply not work. Should you wish to

develop your own models, it is possible to define these nutrient

names. We will be able to help you in this regard.

Feed Ingredients: Each library may contain up to 250 feed

ingredients. The manner in which data is manipulated in this screen is

used throughout the program and is described in some detail here. In

broad terms three windows are involved:

The first (left hand side) window indicates the group with

which you are working. Remember that it is possible to

choose to Show All information. This window is not shown

here but is self explanatory.

The second window occurs in the centre of the screen. In

this window the ingredients in the selected group are shown

and the actual feed ingredient being worked on is highlighted.

The third window (right hand side) is where the actual data

pertaining to each ingredient is displayed. It may be changed

by highlighting the item to be changed and then typing in the

new value. You may use the cursor keys to move up and down

the record. Importantly, if you use the Left and Right cursor

keys you jump to the next or previous ingredient. The

“selected” ingredient in the centre window will change

accordingly. Note that when you move from one ingredient to

27

another any changes that you have made will automatically be

saved. At any time before an ingredient is saved (or before

you move to another ingredient) it is possible to Undo any

changes that you have made.

The SPESFEED EXPRESS program is somewhat unique in that

only those nutrients with values are shown. By default, all 0‟s

(zeros) are shown only as a blank space. It is possible to Show

All nutrients. Once in the show all mode, it is possible to

revert to a reduced list by using the Filter button. This

method of working with data, is standard throughout the

program.

It is possible to change the manner in which ingredients are

stored using the Dry Matter/As Is button.

28

Feed Specifications: Up to 250 feed specifications may be

entered into the library. Bounds are not stored because there is no

logical way of linking the ingredients in a client file to a library. These

may be allocated to groups. The manner in which theses are edited is

consistent with the way in which the feed specification details are

edited above Most people find it easiest to assign specifications to

group by species type.

Client Files

In order for the program to work, it is essential that a client file be

selected. This selection may be made in a number of places, the first

of which is in the right hand window of the main screen. In addition,

there is a client selection drop down box at the top of each data

screen.

29

For each client selected you may specify a number of details. If you

click on the Client Maintenance icon you enter this area of the

program. It is possible to include address detail as well as the

language used (English or Alternative language) for reports as well as

other information. In addition, it is possible to Add new clients,

Delete redundant client files or Copy a client file in its entirety.

Each "client" file contains of up to 60 ingredients for use in a

particular circumstance. These ingredients may either be copied from

the ingredients stored in the Ingredient library, or they can be

entered manually using you own data.

The reason why SPESFEED EXPRESS was developed using the client

file concept, is so that each client can use ingredients, ingredient

costs and feed specifications that are unique. In addition, each client

file allows the reports generated under the solution component of the

program to be tailor made for a specific feed milling operation.

Feed Specifications

For each client the user is required to maintain the ingredient data

and the feed specification data. Ingredient data is maintained in

exactly the same manner as the ingredient library, which was

previously explained. The feed specification data for each client has

been split into two screens. The fist of these is the Feed

Specification screen, which is again identical in function to the library

screen.

You will note that there is a Formulate All option at the top of the

feed specification screen. What this button does is to formulate

each feed, starting at the top of the list, in a client file. Each feed is

formulated, rounded and then saved in the solution file. Beware – this

option can make your database very full in a very short space of time.

30

It is at this stage that the user needs to decide if the feeds that are

to be formulated will be carried out on an “As Is” basis, a “Dry

Matter” basis or if the feed is to be formulated as a “Daily Diet. If

you are formulating feeds to be manufactured in a feed mill you will

probably only ever formulate on an “As Is” basis. If on the other

hand you are formulating diets for dairy cows or beef animals, using

ingredients such as silage or wet brewers‟ grains it would probably

suit you best to formulate on a “Dry Matter” basis. “Dry Matter”

formulation is SPESFEED EXPRESS is somewhat different to other

programs. Ingredients can be entered into the program on an “As Is”

basis. Once formulation is initiated, all ingredients are converted to a

“Dry Matter” basis. Reports then show the results as both “As Is” or

“Dry Matter”. Formula manipulation, such as rounding or scaling, is

always carried out on an “As Is” basis.

Importantly, it is possible to Formulate a diet directly from this

screen by simply double clicking on an individual specification.

If your formulation is to be carried out on a “Dry Matter” basis, you

must indicate this to the program by clicking on the DM tag. If you

wish to formulate “Daily Diets” making use of one of the mathematical

31

models supplied with the program, you first need to select the model

to be used under the Models option.

Here it is possible to enter the model parameters to be used. These

parameters are specification specific. Once the parameters that you

wish to use have been entered, you will need to Run Model. The

program will then estimate the nutrient requirement of the animals in

question. We use the word “estimate” advisedly. It is simply not

possible to produce a model that takes all of the parameters that

occur on a farm into consideration. This requires nutritional skill and

experience. For this reason the user is able to edit the model

generated values on screen. Once you are satisfied that the

requirements are correct, you can Save the Model feed as a

specification. Some of the models allow for economic analysis of the

feeding program. These will be ignored if no prices are used, but

32

should they run, the results appear in a popup window, from where

they may be printed.

Bounds

The Bounds used for each feed specification are dealt with

separately under the Bounds screen. Here the minimum and maximum

inclusion rates are entered for each feed. The convention here is to

make the ingredient available for “use” and then to enter either a

minimum or maximum value if you wish to constrain its inclusion. If an

ingredient is to be freely available, simple click on the Use flag to

indicate to the program that it can be used. A blank space (null value)

always indicates that no limit has been set on ingredient use.

Importantly, if you will be formulating “Daily Diets”, bounds need to

33

be entered on a kg per animal per day basis, and not as a percentage

of the diet.

Formulate Feed

The heart of any feed formulation system is the feed formulation

screen. We believe that the SPESFEED EXPRESS program differs

from most of the other programs on the market in that the entire

formulation process, both the inputs and the solution are available on

a single screen. The formulation screen replaces 8 different screens

in the SPESFEED Ver 8 package.

The whole idea of creating a single screen formulation module is so

that the user go see exactly what is happening to the formulation at

all times, make any of the required changes and then save not only the

optimal solution but also any other changes, such as rounding, that

were made.

The Feed Formulation screen comprises 3 major areas. These are the

Information Bar, which runs along the top of the screen and is

coloured grey; a window (on the left hand side) containing feed

specification information which is coloured orange; a window (the

right hand side) containing all of the ingredient information for the

specification which is coloured yellow.

As a lot of information is contained on this screen, a fairly detailed

description of each area follows:

The Information Bar: In effect the information bar controls the

formulation process. Information is required before formulation can

begin. On formulation, the answers are returned and further

processed in this area. For practical reasons the information bar is

described in two sections below.

34

Before any diet can be formulated, there is certain information that

needs to be selected (on the left hand side) of the information bar.

The first area that needs to be addressed in the information bar is

that the client file, which must be selected. Each client file is of

necessity related to a library, the name of which appears to the right

of the list of client file names.

The second important piece of information that the program requires

is that the feed to be formulated be selected. By default, all “live” or

current feeds are shown in the drop down box. It is also possible to

select feed from the different groups that have been set up. When

formulating a list of diets it is possible to select the Next or Previous

diet as well.

The actual formulation may be initiated by using the Formulate

button, although this is not the only manner in which this can be done

(see below).

35

The Feed Specification Window: Once you have selected a feed

that is to be formulated you will note that the feed specification

window has become populated. To this end, those nutrients contained

in the mask for the species group being used will be displayed,

together with any other nutrient that have had limits set for them.

It is possible to use the Show All button to display all of the data, or

to return to the restricted view using the Show Mask button.

Each specification will be formulated either on an “As Is” basis, a

“Dry Matter” basis or as a “Daily Diet”. This is indicated.

The order in which the nutrients appear and may be view may also be

changed. The standard format is that nutrients will be shown in

Group Sort format, in the order that was selected in the library

setup. If you click on the Column Head button called “Nutrient” the

nutrients will be displayed in alphabetical order. Most of the other

column heads will result in a reordering of data in ascending or

descending order. Clicking on the Group Sort button will return the

nutrient to group order.

Once you have formulated your selected diet, the answer (actual

solution) is returned to the Feed Specification window in blue.

One of the most powerful features of the SPESFEED EXPRESS

program is that the user is able to change nutrient values, either

minima or maximums, and then reformulate by simply hitting the

enter key. It is also possible to include nutrients that were not

included (not shown) in any previous runs by simply using the Show All

function and then adding the nutrient required.

An explanation of how to use the sensitivity data is required. By

definition, the sensitivity is the amount the cost of a solution will

change if the value were to be changed by 1 unit. A negative value

always indicates that a minimum specification (ME Poultry for

example) is constraining, while a positive value (Calcium in this

example) means that a maximum is constraining. Any constraint that

36

has a sensitivity value is adding cost to the solution. In the example

below, if energy was to be reduced from 11.5 MJ/kg to 10.5 MJ/kg

the price of the solution would drop by R 70.50/ton. In a similar vein,

if the energy of the diet were to be dropped from 11.5 MJ/kg to 11.4

MJ/kg then the saving would be R 7.05.

What is perhaps more useful for formulators is that the magnitude of

the values gives us an immediate idea of what is costing money in the

formulation or even what is causing and the solution to be infeasible.

In this example, energy is the most costly nutrient, followed by

Isoleucine. Although the maximum Calcium constraint is costing

money, it has the least impact on the overall cost of the solution.

37

The Ingredient Window: The ingredient window will be populated

with data once a feed has been selected. By default the ingredients

will be displayed in group order that you have chosen from a

particular client. If you have imported client information from

SPESFEED Ver8 you will need to set this information up for the

client that you are working in. If you create new clients, and draw

the information from the library, the current library grouping will

automatically be used.

The ingredients that will appear are filtered by the availability at the

plant and/or if they have been selected for use in a particular

formulation. Alternatively all ingredients on a particular client file

may be viewed. You may toggle between the two views by using the

Show All and Filter buttons. If you click on Column Head button

marked Ingredient or As Is, then the solution will be displayed in

alphabetical order or in descending or ascending order by weight. It

is possible to use the Copy Library button to import new ingredients

directly from the library into the formulation.

38

The Formulation Process: Once you are satisfied that all of

your data is correct, it is possible to initiate formulation by clicking

on the large blue Formulate button. Formulation may also be initiated

by using the Right Click on the mouse and selecting the correct

option. In addition, when you make changes to any of the data fields,

it is possible to hit the Enter key to initiate formulation.

When formulating, one of two events may occur. The solution (result)

may be either feasible or infeasible.

In the case of an infeasible solution, a red box will flash up indicating

this status. Those constraints that are violated will be displayed in

RED. Problems may occur in two forms. Firstly, if there is a

constraint (bound) which has been exceeded or not been met you will

be informed about it and, secondly, if a specific nutrient requirement

has not been achieved. Often, a combination of these messages will

appear. To complicate matters, the constraint that is causing the

problem will sometimes solve. For example, too high an energy

specification in a broiler diet may well result in an infeasible solution.

The problem is, the energy limit will be met, but not the calcium.

If the solution is feasible then the cost is displayed in the cost box in

red. Should you make a change to any of the inputs and reformulate,

the new solutions\ cost is displayed in this position, but the previous

cost and the difference between the two is also displayed (see below).

The other data that you may wish to change at this stage are the

batch size and the tons to be manufactured.

The specification window (right hand column) of the window holds the

sensitivity data. This value represents the cost per unit of a

particular nutrient. If a constraint has a negative value next to it, it

means that a reduction of the constraint would result in a saving. A

positive sensitivity value indicates that a maximum constraint is

limiting and costing money.

39

The reduced cost and minimum and maximum ranges are displayed in

the three right hand columns of the ingredient window. A positive

reduced cost appears when an ingredient is forced into the

formulation by means of a minimum bound. The value would indicate

how much the cost of that ingredient would have to be reduced by if

the total cost of the diet were to remain the same. A negative cost

on the other hand, appears when an upper limit is placed on the

inclusion of a certain ingredient. This value indicates how much more

you can pay for a particular ingredient without the formulated diet

changing in composition. The range indicates the upper and lower

cost range for an ingredient before the formulation will change.

Having successfully formulated a diet, the user has the option of

rounding the formulation manual. By simply moving to the As Is

column, it is possible to type in your own value in the column. The

impact that this has on the cost of the formulation as well as the

change in the nutrient profile of the feed is immediately calculated

and displayed. This is a very easy way to evaluate or cost a diet

supplied by a third party. As mentioned above, it is also possible to

Round the formulation to the nearest number as set by the user in

the ingredient section. It is possible to define the manner in which

the program rounds a solution in the User Options, to balance on the

“Largest Ingredient”. This will always result in a solution that is

exactly 100% (or one ton).

The Scale button allows the user to change the size of the mix. Here,

the batch size needs to be set correctly, and then the formulation

needs to be scaled. This is a useful function if for example you wish

to remove the maize from a formulation to make a concentrate.

Some mode functionality exists in the solution screen. If you have

already selected a model to use and you then use the Calc option, it is

possible to run the model, make changes and update your

specifications from within the feed formulation area of the program.

If you are formulating a diet using the SPESFEED Dairy Feeding

40

model, it is possible to Evaluate a formulation to determine how well

balance the diet is, how much moisture and roughage it contains, and

what the economic implications of the feeding system are.

By right clicking on either an ingredient or a specification it is

possible to invoke the parametric option. Here the user may set up

stepwise formulations for specification level, ingredient cost or

ingredient inclusion. After each step the solutions are saved to the

solution file where they may be viewed. It may be useful to graph the

results using Excel.

Just a reminder – you may formulate all diets in a client file by using

the Formulate All option in the specification screen.

Saving the Solution: Once you are satisfied that your formulation

is correct, it is possible to do a number of things with it:

Using the Save Solution button, to immediately save the new

solution to the solutions file (where it becomes the new live

formulation). Alternatively, you may use the Save As button.

This option allows the user to save any or all of the data that

41

was changed, to create a feed specification and solution or to

create a new ingredient to be used in other formulations.

One of the user defined functions (User Options), is that it is

possible to set an option that always rounds the solution

before saving it.

The last option in this regard is to use the Save All button.

This option save all the changes as set out in the figure,

without having to do any selections.

It is also possible to Compare the current formulation to

either the previous version (default) or to any formulation in

the solution file.

If you have made changes that you do not wish to keep, it is

possible to revert to the original formulation using the Reset

button.

It is possible to Print a report directly from this screen, but

note that the solution will always be saved first.

determine how well balance the diet is, how much moisture

and roughage it contains, and what the economic implications

of the feeding system are.

42

The Solution Screen

The solution screen also has three windows. These are the list of

feeds stored in the solution file, the physical formulation and the

nutrient analysis of that formulation.

SPESFEED EXPRESS is fairly unique in that it retains all versions of

a formulation that have been formulated – in date and time order. By

default, only the live formulations are always shown. By toggling on

the Show All and Show Live buttons it is possible to view all versions

of all formulations particular formulation. It is possible to manually

select which formulations are to be considered as live. In addition, it

is possible to Group Sort formulations or sort them by formulation

date, alpha-numeric code or cost.

The program sorts on an alphanumeric basis. This also applies if a

number code is used. This creates a problem in that the sort order

will look like this, 1,11,12,2,21,3.... There is an easy way to overcome

this. Simply make 1 01 and so on. The sort will then look like this,

01,02,03,11,12,21....

43

Reports: The second half of the solution screen (right hand window)

displays the actual formulation for the ingredient that has been

selected. By selecting different solutions (using the standard

Windows XP methods) it is possible to generate reports.

Importantly, it is possible to edit the solution at this stage – without

reformulating it. The nutrient analysis will be recalculated.

It is possible to print a single Solution or multiple solutions. These

can either be printed directly to your Windows printer or they can be

exported to Excel and then be modified, saved or printed.

44

45

The order in which ingredients are to be printed can be selected.

The program will remember your last selection

Having selected the solutions required, a Summary report which

shows the current cost of the formulations (using current ingredient

prices). It also shows the tonnage and value of each ingredient used.

This report may also be exported to other Microsoft applications. If

selling prices are added to the Ingredient file, the program will

calculate the margin and will print a gross margin report.

It is possible to compare a number of different solutions side by side.

Simply select the solutions that you wish to compare, be they

different versions of the same feed or different feeds and hit the

Compare Button. The formulations are place side by side in a table,

which can either be printed or exported to Microsoft Excel.

46

A new Stock report has been included. In the Ingredient file it is

possible to add an opening stock, the quantities of ingredient received

and to then calculate a theoretical stock holding. The Update Stock

button moves the stock on hand into the opening stock column,

All solutions may also be exported to other software and process

controller packages from this area using either the Batch Mix

command or the Export Solution commands. As the requirements for

this type of report differ greatly from mill to mill SPESFEED will

gladly write the code required to do this for a specific application.

This is usually not a complicated process and requires minimal

programming.

Other functionality available is the ability to Select Live feeds. This

highlights all the feeds currently being manufacture. It is possible to

Delete or Multiple Delete any redundant solutions at this stage.

47

MODEL DETAILS The SPESFEED EXPRESS program makes use of mathematical models

to generate the nutrient requirements of animals. This short section

of the manual gives a more detailed description of the models, and

more importantly, the input that is required to run them. In broad

terms, all of the SPESFEED models calculate the daily nutrient

requirement for an animal so that a daily diet can be formulated.

Before any of the models in SPESFEED EXPRESS are used, it is

important to point out that the models (as do all computer programs

for that matter) use specific variable names in order to carry out

their calculations. In this instance, the variable names (the nutrients

in particular) used are those that were supplied with the demo data

for this program. If you change the variable names, it is incumbent

upon you the user to indicate to the program which name you have

used (see page 23 of this manual).

In addition, the SPESFEED models using the nutrient units supplied

with the demo data. For example, all protein requirements are

expressed in grams. This requires that your data be entered into the

program in g/kg – otherwise the models will not ever work.

SPESFEED Dairy Model The lactating cow model of the SPESFEED program caters for all

cows in milk. Specific detail is required for a number of items, which

appear below.

Animal Number: This is number that is required if you wish

to calculate the total feed usage of a group or herd.

Cow Mass: Has a direct influence on the animals nutrient

requirements and her dry matter intake. Problems will arise

48

if mass is either under or over estimated. Overestimation

results in an expected dry matter intake which is higher than

the cows are able to consume, while underestimating mass

makes formulation with poor quality ingredients difficult and

will result in unnecessarily expensive diets.

Milk Production: All calculations are based on milk production.

In the case of a large group use the mean milk output and an

appropriate lead factor. For small groups and individual

animals the highest production level should be used. A lead

factor, in litres of milk, may be entered. The value used will

depend on the group size and the level of milk production. A

lead factor may be used as a "safety margin" for all groups.

If you wish to carry out any economic modelling for a group,

ensue that the milk production figure is as accurate as

possible. Use the lead factor to change this for formulation

purposes.

Butter Fat: Milk content has a direct bearing on the

nutrient requirement of the cow. Individual values may vary

considerably, and it is best to use the average for the group

or herd. The other important milk component used is the

protein content (MP) of the milk. From this figure the

Solids Non Fat (SNF) can be estimated. It is of interest

that the NRC (1988) does not make any allowance for SNF.

Past experience has shown that if this aspect is not

considered in Jersey cows, it is easy to under estimate the

animal‟s requirements for protein and energy.

Lactation Number: First and second lactation cows require

additional nutrients for growth and this facility ensures that

these nutrients are allocated.

Lactation: First and second lactation cows require additional

nutrients for growth and this facility ensures that these

49

nutrients are allocated. Do not use this option as a means of

increasing the condition score of the animals.

Body condition scoring: This is a subjective practice, but this

facility has been included in the SPESFEED program despite

this. Fat and thin cows have different nutrient requirements

and will consume differing amounts of feed, and the use of

condition scoring allows one to overcome the anomaly of a

small framed, over weight cow which weighs the same as a

thin large framed animal. In general a value of 2.5 is taken as

the ideal. A value of 2 can be used for slightly thin animals,

while 1 should be used for badly under conditioned animals.

On the other hand, use 3 for cows that are slightly over

conditioned and 4 or more for fat animals. Desirable

suggested score are dry off - 3.25 to 3.5; calving 3.25 to

3.75; peak milk 2.5 to 3.0; mid lactation 2.0 to 3.0.

The way in which the program handles BCS is perhaps of

relevance. Body mass is adjusted according to the following

formula:

adjusted mass = mass/(.75 + BCS/10)

Additional daily gain or loss (.18 kg/day) is added per .5 units

of BCS.

Temperature: The operating temperature is taken as 2/3 of

the maximum and 1/3 of the minimum temperature. If a

value of "zero" is used, no adjustment is made for

temperature. In the case of low temperature, additional

energy is made available to the animal, while under warm

conditions dry matter intake is adjusted downwards. Under

warm conditions it is of particular importance to feed high

quality roughage as poor quality ingredient depresses feed

intake further.

50

Exercise: Cows use considerable amounts of energy through

normal daily exercise. Some allowance has been made for

this in the program, but this is not adequate if the cow has to

walk more than 1.5 km per day or if she has to climb steep

hills.

TMR: It is possible to adjust the DMI by a certain

percentage when TMR diets are being fed. This is obviously

useful for adjusting feed intake for other environmental

considerations as well. It is important to note that you may

use negative figures to reduce the calculated feed intake

figure.

Pregnancy: When a cow has been pregnant for more than 210

days, additional nutrients are model available to sustain the

foetus.

Moisture: The moisture level of a cow‟s diet is important. If

it is too low it inhibits intake, while on the other hand, if too

high it prevents sufficient quantities of dry matter from

being consumed. It is important to note that the Dry Matter

and Moisture values in the feed ingredients must be entered

correctly. If an ingredient is being offered on an “as is”

basis, for example silage with a35% dry matter content, then

the moisture content will be 650 g/kg. If an ingredient is

being offered on a dry matter basis, for example rye grass at

100% DM, the amount of moisture consumed per kg of dry

matter consumed will be determined by the amount of

moisture in the ingredient. If the real moisture content is

25%, then for every kg of rye consumed on a DM basis 3kg of

moisture (3000 g/kg) is also consumed. From a mathematical

perspective it is difficult to take this into consideration. The

user will need to make use of the Evaluate button (see below)

to determine the moisture content of the diet. He/she will

then need to either add moisture to dry diets, or restrict the

51

intake of high moisture ingredient such as wet brewers grains

if the moisture content of the diet is too high.

The estimation of feed intake is the most difficult part of working

out a diet for dairy cows. The user is required to input the

ingredients available to each group. These guidelines may help: -

Always supply the lactating cows with the best quality

roughage available.

In general, intake is lower in early lactation than one would

expect, and increased intake often lags behind production.

Estimating the dry matter intake of cows on pasture is

perhaps the most difficult aspect of all. Cedara have

published the following figures: -

HOURS GRAZING Kg DM ONSUMED

2 3 to 4

3 5 to 6

5 7 to 8

8 10

DAY AND NIGHT 12,5

These are daytime figures. Animals will consume 2/3 of their

intake during the day.

Always try to establish the exact moisture content of

roughage as very moist ingredient may result in a depressed

intake.

52

Bearing the above details in mind a decision has to be made as

to how much of each roughage is available to each cow. The

maximum expected intake would be derived from a realistic

assessment of how much of each roughage is available to each

animal.

If minimum values are to be used, these should be at least

the amount that an animal will assuredly eat. In some cases it

may be necessary to ensure that an animal consumes a

minimum amount of an ingredient such as hay.

This version of the model will automatically set both a minimum

roughage usage (25%), and a maximum concentrate usage (65%),

based on the expected maximum dry matter intake of the cow.

Roughage and concentrate values need to be entered into the

ingredient analysis on a kg per kg of DM basis. An ingredient could

contain both components. For example, if Wet Brewers Grain (30%

DM) was considered to contain 25% roughage and 75% concentrate,

then the matrix value for roughage would need to be .075 kg/kg DM

and the concentrate value would be 0.225 kg/kg DM. A word of

warning! These constraints can make it difficult to formulate diets

for high producing cows and may well need to be relaxed (this is a

nutritional problem, rather than a problem with the model or

program). The problem is, that the infeasible ”nutrient” is unlikely to

be concentrate, rather one of the other nutrients (most probably

energy), will not meet the desired levels.

Evaluation Button: The SPESFEED Dairy model includes a component

of post formulation evaluation. This would include a calculation of the

expected sustainable milk production on any specific feeding program.

Remember that if you have formulated according to model generated

figures these figures should be in balance, but if an “own mix” is used,

deficiencies and/or excess in the diet will be highlighted. In

addition, the amount of moisture contained in the diet will be

displayed, as will the percentage of roughage. In short, this function

53

serves as a “expert system” for the evaluation of a formulation. In

addition, it will carry out an economic evaluation of the feeding

system. In order to run the economic evaluation, the prices and

other economic data need to be entered before the model is run.

Beef Model The beef model has three major functions. Firstly, it calculates the

nutrient requirements for a given situation. Secondly, it will predict

animal performance of a specific diet and lastly it will do a complete

economic evaluation of a feeding system. In order to make full use of

the model, the following information is required:

Animal Number: This is number is required if you wish to

calculate the total feed usage of a group or herd.

Animal Mass: The program allows the user to enter the actual

animal mass. In addition, it will estimate the animal mass from

the induction mass and the end mass should no value be entered.

Average Daily Gain: The daily gain is crucial for determining the

nutrient requirements of a feedlot animal. If you know what the

expected ADG is use this. If you do not enter a value, the model

will estimate and ADG using the Feed ME (in mega joules). Should

neither of these values be enetered, it is assumed that the ADG

is 1 kg per day.

Condition Score: The body weight is adjusted for condition score

in precisely the same way as is done in the Dairy Model, with a

value of 2.5 being construed to be “Normal”.

Breed: It is possible to specify the of breedn animal (<1> =

Angus : <2> = Afrikaner : <3> = Brahman : <4> = Charolais : <5> =

Hereford : <6> = Simmentaler : <7> = Devon : <8> = Friesland :

54

<9>= Friesland Cross). It is known that different breeds have

different nutrient requirements.

Implant: It is possible to indicate whether an anabolic

stimulant (ear implant) is being used <0> = none <1> = is used.

Ionophore: The model will adjust nutrient requirements

depending on which ionophore is being used (<1> = Monensin

@ 33 g/ton : <2> = Monensin @ 22 g/ton : <3> = Lasalocid).

Temperature: The model will adjust the expected feed

intake according to the ambient temperature. If you use a

value of Zero, this function will be ignored.

Mud Depth: The mud depth in the feedlot has a direct

effect on energy requirements and this figure may also be

indicated.

Sex: The sex of the animal is also required <1> = Male, <2> =

Heifer and <3> = Steer.

The concept of frame size is not well established in South

Africa. However, by adapting American standards it has

been possible to draw up a table of frame codes to be used.

Code 5 is assumed to be average and if you do not wish to

use this feature use this as a default.

Economic Detail: In order to calculate the cost

effectiveness of the feeding operation, certain economic

detail need to be entered before the model is run.

55

WEIGHT AT SUPER GRADE

FRAME CODE STEERS HEIFERS

1 300 265

2 318 280

3 337 297

4 356 313

5 375 330

6 394 347

7 413 363

8 431 380

9 450 396

Horse Model

A horse model has been developed based on the 2007 edition of the

NRC. A new edition of the NRC has just been published and it

includes the code for a computer program to calculate the nutrient

requirement of the various classes of horse. It is strongly

recommended that this model be run in conjunction with the NRC

publication itself.

Some of the features of the earlier horse model (1987), have been

left out of the newest publication. It is our belief that this is an

error, and we have included some of the functionality of the older

model.

Most notable of the features left out of the new NRC, is that the

model no longer specifies a minimum roughage level in the diet. To

56

this end we have included one simple equation to calculate the

minimum allowance of roughage. In essence, the roughage

requirement is a minimum of 1% of the horse‟s body weight. As with

the dairy model, and feedstuff may contain a combination of

roughage and concentrate. Roughage values need to be entered into

the ingredient analysis on a kg per kg of DM basis – as described

above.

The second deviation from the NRC model is that we have made an

allowance for the condition score of the animal (explained below). In

essence, this means that a fat animal will be treated as a smaller

animal while a thin animal will be treated as a larger animal in terms

of nutrients requirements.

Lastly, the NRC model expects the user to enter the expected feed

intake of the animal, where previously this value was calculated. We

have taken the liberty of adding the default values used in Table 16

of the NRC.

Another deviation that has been made from the NRC 2007, is that in

SPESFEED EXPRESS we express energy in Mega Joules (MJ) and not

Mega Calories (MCal). A simple conversion is used:

MCal* 4,185 = MJ

The exact inputs required, the conventions used and the defaults

that have been applied for the model are explained below:

Animal Number: This figure may be used if the total feed

requirement of a stable is required.

Animal Mass: The program allows the user to enter the actual

horse mass as well as the expected mature mass. The NRC model

requires that the expected mature mass and the horses age be

entered, and it then calculates and an actual mass which is used

to determine the nutrient requirement. In our experience, this is

57

perhaps not the best way to do this, and for this reason, if the

user enters an actual horse mass, the program will use this figure

to calculate the nutrient requirements, rather than the estimated

mass as described above.

Stallion: Stallions have different nutrient requirements than

mares. The program allows for three options. A zero <0>

indicates to the program that the animal in question is not a

stallion at all. A value of <1> is used for a non-working animal

where a <2> indicates to the program that a working animal is

indeed being fed.

Condition Score: As mentioned above, condition score is

something that is not taken into account by the NRC 2007 model.

However, Table 1-7 in the NRC publication displays “A Condition

Scoring System for Horses”, with a score of 1 being a very poorly

conditioned animal, a score of 5 being moderate (or normal) and a

score of 9 being extremely fat. Using the same type of equation

as used in the dairy model (above), we have adjusted the body

weight of the animal according to its condition score. Thus, a

poor (score 1) animal weighing 350 kg, would in all likelihood weigh

438 kg under normal conditions (score 5). On the other hand, a

very fat animal (score 9) weighing 525 kg, would also be expected

to have a normal weight of 438 kg. By adjusting the body weight

back to “Normal”, the model will automatically determine a higher

nutrient requirement for thin animals, and a lower requirement

for fat animals. If you do not enter a body condition score value

(use a 0) or you use a “Normal” value of 5, the model will not make

this adjustment.

Age: The age in months is required to calculate both the

expected weight at any age, and the nutrient requirements for an

animal of a certain age. If you are feeding a growing animal, it is

essential that you enter the age as this is the only way in which

the model can determine that you are feeding a growing animal.

58

Expected Gain: The model will calculate the expected gain of the

animal, along with the expected weight. If you enter and actual

value is will over-write the model generated value.

Expected Intake: As mentioned above, the program will use

default values if no value is entered.

Maintenance Level: Animals that are not pregnant, lactating,

growing of performing work are often considered to be in a

physiological state of maintenance. The amount of dietary energy

needed to prevent a change in the total energy contained in the

body of an animal (determined by its weight and condition score),

can be considered to be the maintenance requirement. Many

factors impact on the maintenance requirement of a horse,

including breed, size, age, body composition (condition score) and

environmental conditions. The NRC suggest that minimum <1>,

average <2>, and elevated <3> be used as guides in formulating

diets for maintenance horses and that adjustments be made to

meet individual situations. This is where the nutritionists skill and

experience comes in to play, but it is suggested that for normal

circumstances the average be used. This is the program‟s default

value.

Work Load: The work load of a horse is determined on an

individual basis by its oxygen demand. This is impacted on by its

body weight, the weight of the rider and the individual work

program. For practicality, the NRC suggests that four categories

of work (shown in Table 1-10) be used. These are <1> light, <2>

moderate, <3> heavy and <4> very heavy workloads.

59

Table: Weekly Workloads of Horses (NRC, 2007) Exercise

Category

Heart Rate

(beats/min)

Description Types of Events

Light 80 1-3 hours/week. 50%

trot, 10% canter.

Recreational riding

Beginning of training

Show horse (occasional)

Moderate 90 3-5 hours/week. 30%

walk, 55% trot, 10%

canter, 5% low jumping

School horses

Recreational riding

Breaking

Polo

Heavy 110 4-5 hours/week. 20%

walk, 50% trot, 15%

canter, 15% gallop and

skill work

Ranch work

Polo

Show horse (frequent)

Evening

Race training (middle stage)

Very

Heavy

110-150 1 hours speed work to 6 –

12 hours slow work.

Racing

Elite 3-day event

Pregnancy and Lactation: Breeding mares require additional

nutrients for both the conceptus and for lactation. The model

requires the stage of both of these important physiological

activities in order to calculate the correct nutrient requirement.

Table 16 of the NRC publication is a little confusing, in that the

weight of the conceptus is added to the weight of the mature

horse in the table. This means that it is difficult to compare the

model generated figures with those published in the table. Rest

assured that we have checked the model calculations under these

conditions and that they are indeed correct.

60

Appendix I

EFFECTIVE FEED FORMULATION FOR FEED MILLERS AND FARMERS

Feed formulation is the means by which commercial nutritionists

apply both their technical and commercial skills in practice.

Although formulation is a science rather than an art form, more

experienced formulators who have developed “gut feel’ tend to

be more effective. By employing the correct formulation skills

and techniques the nutritionist can bring about cost savings

and/or improvements in animal performance. These two aspects

can make huge differences to the overall profitability of both

milling companies and integrators.

Although the objectives of feed formulation for feed millers and

integrators may differ, with the former being more concerned

about maintaining product quality at as low a cost as possible

and the latter being concerned with maximizing profit in the

animal production enterprise, the same basic principles apply.

The nutritionist needs to carefully consider what she/he is

currently doing with regards formulation techniques, the

ingredients used, matrix values and feed specifications.

This article will consider some general thoughts on feed formulation

and will then deal with some formulation techniques. It covers some

of the more commercial aspects of ingredient usage and will

highlight some of the nutritional aspects that should be considered.

The complete formulator needs to have competences in each of

these areas.

61

General Aspects:

New perspectives: Firman (2003), points out that many nutritionists

are relatively speaking, self-taught with regards feed formulation.

It is simply not possible for Universities and Colleges to provide the

kind of experience that a commercial formulator requires.

Experience usually takes a number of years and many hundreds of

formulations to achieve. However, it is possible to have 5 years

experience, (one year 5 times over) and never be exposed to other

ideas. As a result it is easy for a formulator to get in a rut and not

look at other ways of doing things. A new perspective is always

valuable. Concerns about the sensitivity of a company‟s data

(secrecy) often prevent any meaningful exchange of ideas from

taking place. In reality there are few secrets in our industry, only

different perspectives on similar problems. Interaction is essential.

Administration: In an age where the paper trial and traceability

have become all important, it is essential that the formulator has

the correct tools, both electronic or otherwise, to maintain full

traceability of all that she/he does.

Keep it simple: It is true that modern feed formulation systems

allow the nutritionist to use an almost limitless number of nutrient

constraints. It is also possible to constrain nutrients in terms of

ratios, use them to constrain groups of ingredients or in some cases

to use them as a non-nutritional (dummy) variable. However, all of

these additional constraints can and do cost money. Not only is it

sometimes difficult to understand exactly how much money ratios

cost for example, but if large numbers of constraints are used it is

almost impossible to check them meaningfully.

Regular revision: When things are going well we tend to forget to

reevaluate our formulations. They may not need to be changed, but

a regular evaluation of ingredient costs, ingredient quality and

ultimate animal performance is always a good idea. Always use your

most experienced nutritionists to check the work of the formulator.

62

Feed formulation is an interactive process, and I do not believe that

it is possible to re-evaluate your formulations simply by making use

of a printed report. It is essential that the more experienced

individuals get their hands dirty and actually spend time on the

formulation system.

Check all formulations: It is tempting to assume that computer

generated formulations are correct. Nothing could be further from

the truth. A formulation may well meet its nutritional constraints,

but may be completely wrong from a cost perspective. More

dangerously, it may well exceed a set constraint by several fold. All

formulations should be checked, either by some form of intelligent

software, such as Format International‟s Biosecurity® module,

and/or by hand. Make sure that each formulation conforms in the

following manner:

Compare the current cost with that of the previous

formulation. A huge variation often indicates a problem with

the formulation.

Ensure that all nutrients fall within with normal nutrient

tolerances. Often a nutrient that has been over included

indicates a problem elsewhere.

Ensure that no harmful ingredients have been included, such

as urea in a pig or poultry diet.

Ensure that premix and medication inclusion is correct.

Feed Formulation Technique:

Use a limited number of constraints: Nutrient and ingredient

constraints are part of the formulation process. Each limiting

constraint leads to an increase in the cost of the diet. Constraints

can always be added back after we have seen the effects that they

have on cost.

Examine sensitivity data: Those nutrient constraints that are

“costing” a lot in a formulation will always have a high reduced cost

63

or sensitivity. In most cases the nutritionist would not want to

change these as any change would be construed as “stealing out of

the bag”. However, there are instances when a redundant maximum

constraint - for example, crude fibre in a broiler diet, can result in a

significant increase in cost. Bearing in mind the high variability in

fibre determination, we need to make sure that using a fibre

maximum is really justified.

Remove redundant constraints: The nutritionist should always be

sure to remove any redundant constraints. For example, if you are

formulating diets on a digestible amino acid basis, be sure to remove

any total amino acid constraints – these will only cost you money

without improving animal performance.

Safety margins: Safety margins are a commonly used method of

ensuring that all nutrient requirements are being met. They are

ways of overcoming the variation in nutrient levels through a variety

of mostly uncontrolled factors. By reducing the variability of

ingredients (buying from a single source for example) or accurately

monitoring incoming ingredient quality, they can be reduced or

eliminated. Variability can be further reduced by accurate weighing

and batching and complete mixing.

Look for pressure points: When an ingredient or nutrient bumps up

against a constraint there is often a reason. This may well have to

do with the specification of the diet itself, but equally could be

caused by an error in the matrix. Check your matrix for those

nutrients that are limiting and make sure that the values used are

within normal tolerances.

Ingredients:

Use all Ingredients: The most important concept of formulation is

that we supply our animals with nutrients, rather than on an

ingredients basis. Ingredients should be viewed as a means of

providing digestible nutrients at the correct levels. Always start

64

the formulation process with as many ingredient choices as possible.

This would include unusual bi-products, purified ingredients such as

amino acids and any other alternatives available. Remember though

that additional ingredients complicate mill management and have a

way of increasing the working capital requirements. Dealing with

unusual ingredients does present challenges in that the exact

nutrient composition of the ingredient is often unknown. If this is

the case, it is perhaps better not to use it.

Ingredients must conform: A diet is only as good as the ingredients

used in its manufacture. All of our ingredients must conform to the

quality parameters we set – in short, know your ingredients. These

would include nutrient content and variability, the physical form of

the ingredient and its biological quality. Know the origin of your

ingredients! You need to know not just the country, but the factory

of origin as well. Poor quality ingredients are probably the single

biggest cause of feed related losses.

Use the correct prices when formulating: Although open to debate,

it is always good practice to formulate your diets using the

“replacement” costs of different ingredients. There is a simple

reason for doing this. If, for example, if the price of an ingredient

suddenly increases, it is a) likely that the ingredient is in short

supply and b) the value of any stock that you are carrying is worth

significantly more than it was previously. If you formulate at a

lower price, you run the danger of over using what is in effect a

scarce and expensive resource. Obviously, exactly the opposite will

apply when the price of an ingredient softens dramatically. Use the correct ingredients in the correct diets: Under commercial

conditions, ingredients may be in short supply, or very expensive

which is much the same thing. The nutritionist therefore needs to

decide where best to use restricted ingredients. For example, if

Full Fat Soybean supplies are limited, it makes little sense to use it

in Broiler Starter or Layer diets – rather use it in high density

Broiler Grower and Finisher diets. The use of Multi-Mix®

65

techniques eliminates the guesswork from this particular aspect. It

allows for the optimization of an entire range of diets,

simultaneously considering their relative volumes together with

ingredient availability and cost. Use of Multi-Mix® technology gives

the feed miller an overall picture of the business and allows for

meaningful ingredient purchasing strategies to be developed.

Experience has shown that the use of Multi-Mix® will reduce overall

feed costs by 2 to 3%.

Make use of ranging data: Modern feed formulation programs will

mostly show a “Range” of ingredient costs between which the

formulation will not change. The nutritionist can use this

information for both buying and formulation decisions. The use of

some form of parametric evaluation may be useful in this instance.

Parametric evaluation is a technique whereby a number of

formulations to be carried out over a range of prices. It is possible

to draw step supply curves with this information to better

understand the impact that changing cost will have not only on an

individual diet, but also the whole feed milling operation.

Use enough premixes: For logistical reasons we are often tempted

to use a limited range of premixes. Ideally, we should use different

premixes for every diet, so realizing significant savings. For

example, we tend to use a Broiler Grower premix in Broiler Finisher

diets as a routine practice. This practice has no nutritional basis

and is an expensive practice.

Nutritional Aspects:

There are a number of techniques that fall under the heading – Use the Correct Feed Specifications. This is a huge topic and will only

be dealt with briefly. In practical terms, nutritionists are often

faced with a dilemma of choosing which diets to feed. The breeding

companies (who supply the genotypes that we use) publish values but

they make little allowance for maximizing returns or for local

conditions. Other sources would include recent scientific literature

66

and old standards such as the NRC (1994). Mostly, these are of

little help, because nutritionists are either interested in the level of

animal performance that will lead to maximum profit, or in

formulating diets that will allow their companies to compete in the

market place. All decisions regarding feed specifications need to be

made bearing these two aspects in mind.

Evaluate and use feed additives carefully: There are a wide range

of feed additives on the market. Although they may not always

show the type of response that nutritionists like to see, or

represent good value for money, ignore them at your peril. A good

example of a “new” additive is phytase. This is an ingredient that

has allowed for a reduction of the phosphorus levels in our diets at

considerable cost saving. As a rule of thumb - for every Euro spent

on an additive, expect a two Euro return.

Use meaningful nutrients: Costs can be reduced by using the

appropriate nutrient profiles when formulating. Formulating diets

using digestible amino acid constraints is now widely practiced. This

saves money and makes using alternative ingredients easier and

more predictable in terms of animal performance. It also enables us

to more accurately determine and meet the animals‟ nutrient

requirements. The use of more advanced energy systems, such as

the Net Energy system for pigs will lead to additional savings.

Use enough diets: Using the correct number of phases allows us to

meet the animals‟ changing requirement for nutrients as they age.

In broad terms phase feeding eliminates the over and undersupply

of protein and energy during the different life stages. Increasing

the number of phases leads to reduced feeding costs and improved

animal performance. However, the greater the number of different

diets used on a farm, the greater the chance is of mistakes being

made.

Use the correct nutrient density: Diets that contain a high

nutrient density (high in energy and amino acids) often result in the

67

best growth and technical performance. However, these diets may

not always result in the most profitable production systems. It is

therefore essential to consider the value of enhanced performance

relative to the cost of the diet. The optimum nutrient density is

circumstance unique and should thus be determined for each

production system.

Reduce crude protein constraints: The NRC protein constraint for a

Turkey Starter ration is 28%. This can be safely reduced by several

percentage units. The same can be shown in the case of laying hens.

Do not to reduce the protein specification of broiler diets too much

as current research shows that there is a finite requirement for

protein relative to lysine (amino acid).

Examine Calcium and Phosphorus levels: From a nutritional

perspective, Ca and P are regarded together. There is increasing

pressure to reduce the levels of P in animal waste: as a result of

which there is a large amount of research currently being carried

out in this regard. From this, it would appear that for most

monogastric animals the levels of P that are currently being used in

our diets are too high. There are sound reasons for reducing P and

Ca levels in all of our diets. However, the latest data being

published by the breeding companies is at odds with these findings,

with most companies increasing their recommendations for Ca and P.

68

Appendix II

HOARD'S RULES OF THUMB FOR DAIRY FEEDING

How much cows should eat?

Cows should be eating at least 4 percent of their body weight

(BW) per day at peak intake. Example: 600 kg cow x 0.04 = 24

kilograms dry matter intake per day.

Cows milked three times per day will eat about 5 to 6 percent

more dry matter per day than if milked twice.

With proper feeding, estimate dry matter intake in kilograms as

:

DMI (kg) = A x .02 BW + 0.3 FCM\day + B gain\day; where A

(days in milk adjustment)

= 1.0 - 0.2 x [(80-DIM)/80],

FCM (4% fat-corrected milk) = (kg milk x % fat ) 15, and B (gain

adjustment)

= 1.0 if the cow is gaining weight and

0 if losing weight.

Example: DMI for a 600 kg cow milking 45 kilograms of 4% milk,

70 days in milk and losing weight

= {1.0 - 0.2[(80-70)80]} x 0.02 (600) + 0.3(45) + 0 = .975 x 12 +

13.5 + 0 = 25.2 kilograms DMI per day.

For every 2 kg of expected milk production, cows should eat at

least 1 kg of dry matter. Eating less than this causes excessive

body condition loss and caws more prone to metabolic disorders.

Cows will usually eat after milking, so have fresh feed available

in the feed bunk or manger immediately to encourage total DMI.

High producing cows will eat up to 12 meals per day each

69

averaging 23 minutes. Adapt your feeding program to the eating

behaviour of your cows.

If possible, have a separate milking/feeding group for first

calvers. First calvers will spend 10 to 15 percent more time

eating when housed separately from older cows.

The best total ration dry matter is between 50 and 75 percent.

Wetter or drier rations limit consumption. If silage is fed

heavily, expect dry matter intake to decline 0.02 percent of

body weight for every 1 percentage unit increase in total ration

moisture above 50 percent. This is due to wetter feeds

fermenting longer and raising acid levels and protein degradation

products. Example: 60% moisture ration - 50% upper limit = 10 x

0.0002 x 600 kg cow = 1.2 kg less DMI/day causing up to a 2.5

to 3 kg drop in daily milk.

If fermented feeds constitute a major portion of the diet, the

amount of dry matter should be reduced by 0.02 kg/100 kg of

liveweight for each 1 percent increase in the diet moisture

content above 50 percent.

If using a TMR mixer with weigh scales, check silage moisture

on a routine weekly basis with a microwave and gram scale to

ensure weighing in the proper amount of silage dry matter.

Provide a chart in the feed room as to how much silage to add,

depending on silage moisture levels. Silage moisture changes can

alter the roughage : concentrate ratio of the ration causing off-

feed and lowered fat test.

If intakes are below normal, begin by checking the non-fibre

carbohydrate (NFC) and fibre length and levels in the ration.

Also, check water intake and whether feed is mouldy.

Expect cows to reduce dry matter consumption about 2.7

percent for every 1o rise in temperature over 24o. Cows begin to

70

experience heat stress when temperature exceeds 27o or

relative humidity exceeds 80 percent.1

Provide clean water within 15 meters of the feed bunk. Expect

cows to drink about 4 litres for each kilogram of milk. If you

have electric fences or water heaters in winter then periodically

check waterers for stray voltage. If water tests indicate high

bacterial counts, consider water chlorination.

Consider feed bunk\manger design. Cows spend more time

eating, waste less feed and produce more saliva to buffer the

rumen when forced to eat in a grazing-like, head-down position.

Feed at least 60 percent of the ration at night during hot

weather.

Silage pH (acidity) should be less than 4.2 for maize or cereal

silage and less than 5.0 for legume silage. Silage with higher pH

(less acid) are more prone to excessive spoilage and poor bunk

life.

Feeds with mould counts in excess of 10 000 colony forming

units (cfu) per gram may cause digestive upsets. Counts are of

little use unless the individual moulds are identified. Mould

growth does not automatically indicate mycotoxins are present.

Test for mycotoxins if dangerous mould populations have been

identified in the feed.

Feed should be available to cows at least 20 hours per day. Try

to manage so it takes less than 3 hours total per day to feed

cows.

Provide each cow 600 to 750 mm of bunk space. Sweep feed

bunks or mangers clean daily, especially during hot weather.

71

Encourage eating by sweeping up feed, routinely getting cows up

to eat and providing periods of light during evening hours.

Income over feeds costs is a more important profitability

measure than simply monitoring feed costs per litre of milk.

Look at peaks

Cows should peak in milk in 8 to 10 weeks. First calvers peak a

week or two later than older cows and have greater persistency.

First calvers should peak within 25 percent of older cows.

For each extra l kilogram of milk at peak a cow will produce 200

- 225 kilograms more milk for the entire lactation.

If cows are peaking well but not persistent, check energy.

After peak milk, first calvers will drop about 0.2 percent milk

per day, and older cows will drop about 0.3 percent milk per day

(or 3 percent every 10 days). High-genetic-potential cows tend

to peak higher, reach that peak later and show more

persistency.

Summit milk (average of highest two milk yields during first

three Official milk recording tests) should be within 2.5 kg of

the average milk yield of all cows fresh less than 100 days.

Greater differences indicate problems with maintaining

early-lactation production.

Milk protein:fat ratios should be near 0.90 for Brown Swiss and

Milking Shorthorns, 0.85 to 0.88 for Holstein and Ayrshire‟s and

near 0.80 for Guernsey‟s and Jerseys. Higher values could

indicate fat test problems. Lower values could mean protein

72

test problems from too much fat or too little total or

undegradable protein in the ration.

When feeding to improve milk components, milk fat will respond

the most, protein will change much less and lactose will hardly

change at all.

To maximise milk protein, rumen microflora must provide

adequate protein\amino acid production to the small intestine.

Watch protein ration levels, degradable intake protein (DIP);

soluble intake protein (SIP); undegradable intake protein (UIP)

and rumen fermentable carbohydrates (NFC). This will help

reduce protein problems associated with supplementing fat.

To boost butterfat test, maximise roughage intakes and the

digestibility of roughage‟s by harvesting at proper maturities.

The better the quality of roughage‟s, the larger portion of the

ration they will be able to provide. Also watch "effective fibre"

so cud chewing is maintained to buffer the rumen.

To improve butterfat test, balance the types of carbohydrates

and their degradation rates. For example: Barley is more

quickly fermented in the rumen than maize. Monitoring ration

fibre levels and feed sequencing can help offset potential rumen

acidosis problems with rapidly degraded grain or commodity

feeds.

To maintain butterfat test through the heat of the summer,

encourage roughage intakes by keeping feed fresh in the feed

bunk, feeding more during evenings and considering additives

such as direct-fed microbials and yeast cultures which can

improve roughage intake and digestibility. Buffers also can

compensate for reduced buffering from lowered roughage

intake during hot weather.

73

Target protein levels ...

Provide 180 to 190g/kg crude protein (CP) in the total ration dry

matter. Excess protein is costly, will not significantly raise

protein test and may reduce breeding efficiency.

Provide 60 to 65 percent of the entire ration CP as degradable

intake protein (DIP).

Provide soluble intake protein (SIP) levels to equal about half

(34 to 32 percent of CP) of the DIP levels. This ensures readily

available nitrogen for rumen bacterial growth.

Provide undegraded (bypass) intake protein (UIP) levels of 35 to

40 percent in the total ration CP. The upper range is suggested

if feeding supplemental fat. Fat is not metabolised in the

rumen, thus reducing nutrients for microbial growth. To make up

for less microbial protein flow to the intestines, higher levels of

bypass protein are required.

Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels exceeding 25 mg percent2 or

milk urea nitrogen (MUN) levels over 20 mg percent, may

indicate improper ration formulation for degradable and

undegradable protein. Conception may be affected.

In maize silage or maize-based rations, restrict maize

by-product feeds as a source of undegraded protein. Consider

carcass meal, blood meal, Full fat Soya or dried brewers' grains

to provide potentially limiting amino acids such as lysine and

methionine. Commercial "blends" of protein sources attempt to

prevent amino acid deficiencies.

For cows milking more than 34 kg of 4 percent fat-corrected

milk per day (36 kg, 37 percent), consider providing 0.5 kg of

74

protein from an animal or marine source to lower the risk of

amino acid and peptide deficiencies.

Silage‟s with nitrate levels up to 400 mg/kg nitrate - nitrogen

should be diluted with other low-nitrate feeds to achieve 1000

mg/kg or less concentration in the total ration available to

cattle.

Fibre for rumen health...

Roughage dry matter consumption should be near 2 percent of

the cow's body weight (BW). Example: 600 kg cow x 0.02 = 12

kg dry matter from roughage‟s.

Provide at least 19 - 21 percent acid detergent fibre (ADF) in

the total ration. Levels at 17 percent are adequate for

high-maize silage-based rations or herds using total mixed

rations.

Provide at least 280 to 300 g/kg neutral detergent fibre (NDF)

levels in the total ration.

Make sure that roughage‟s provide at least 210 g/kg NDF in the

total ration DM. Boost this to 240 g/kg if maize silage makes up

more than one-quarter of total roughage dry matter. Example:

If roughage in the ration average 440 g/kg NDF, then 210 x 100

/ 440 = 47.7% of the total ration DM should come from

roughage‟s.

Roughage NDF should be about 0.9 percent of body weight.

Example: 600kg cow x 0.009 = 5.4 kg of ration NDF supplied by

roughage‟s.

Make sure that 65 to 75 percent of the total ration NDF is

supplied by roughage‟s.

75

The maximum kilograms of total ration NDF should be about

1.25 percent of BW. Example : 600 kg cow x .0125 = 7.5 kg

NDF. 7.5 kg/total DMI = upper limit for NDF in the ration.

7500 g NDF/24 kg typical DMI = 310 g/kg upper limit for NDF

in the total ration. Exceeding these NDF levels may result in

lower dry matter consumption.

Provide at least 2.5 kg of fibre per day (by weight) that is more

than 40 mm long. Underfeeding of "effective" fibre can cause

off-feed and milk fat test problems.

Rumen pH should be above 6.0. A lower pH (more acid) could

limit fibre digestion and protein synthesis, and the potential for

acidosis could cause reduced feed intake.

Fibre particles should be long enough to stimulate 30 minutes of

cud chewing time per kilogram of dry matter. This will provide a

cow eating 24 kg of dry matter with 130 - 150 litres of saliva

production to buffer the rumen environment.

Silage‟s should be chopped at 10 to 12 mm theoretical length of

cut (TLC) to ensure that 15 - 20 percent of the silage particles

are more than 40 mm long. Finer-chopped silage‟s do pack

better in storage structures, but high silage based rations need

adequate particle length to stimulate rumen buffering from cud

chewing based rations need adequate particle length to

stimulate rumen buffering from cud chewing.

Sodium bicarbonate, or its buffer equivalent should be added at

0.75 percent of the total ration dry matter, especially in

high-maize-silage or high-moisture-corn rations.

Example: 24 kg of dry matter x 0.0075 = 0.180 kg or 180

grams/cow/day.

76

To meet energy needs ...

Energy density of your top cow ration should be up to 7.2 MJ,

net energy of lactation (NE) per kg of dry matter in rations

containing no added fat, up to 7.36 MJ NE for rations with

added fat and up to 7.55 MJ NE, for rations adding ruminally

inert (bypass) fat. In ME terms these ration densities are 11.4,

11.68 and 11.98 MJ ME/kg DM.

If you're lead feeding, cows should be eating 2.5 to 3.5 kg of

concentrates at calving. Boost concentrates 0.5 to 1 kg per day,

from three days after calving until you have reached desired

concentrate levels.

Don't feed more than 2.3 to 3 kg of concentrate at any feeding.

This reduces the changes in rumen acidity and prevents off-

feed problems.

At less than 18 kg milk, concentrate intake for Holsteins and

Brown Swiss should be about 0.5 kg concentrate (as fed) per 2

kg milk, between 18 and 32 kg it should be near 0.5 kg

concentrate for each 1.5 kg milk and above 32 kg it should be

near 0.5 kg concentrate for each 1.25 kg milk. Higher-solids

breeds should receive about 0.5 kg concentrate per 1.5 kg milk

(up to 14 kg milk), 0.5 kg concentrate per 1.25 kg milk (14 to 27

kg) and 0.5 kg concentrate per 1 kg milk (over 27 kg).

Concentrate intake should not exceed 60 percent of ration dry

matter.

If too much maize passes undigested into the manure, check

concentrate level, extent of processing and harvest maturity

(harvest maize silage at 1/2 to 2/3 milkline). Also check levels

of DIP and SIP protein (important to rumen bacteria) and

77

amount of fibre intake that's more than 40 mm long (important

for the rumen mat).

Provide non-fibre carbohydrate (NFC) levels of 35 to 42

percent in the total ration. NFC (by difference) = 100 - (% crude

protein + % NDF + % fat + % ash). Providing excess sugars and

easily fermented carbohydrates can result in acidosis and fat

test problems.

Provide between 30 to 40 percent starch in the total ration.

Manure pH levels should not be less than 6.0. Lower pH (more

acid) mean excess starch is escaping the rumen and being

fermented in the small intestines.

Consider feeding added fat to cows milking more than 34 kg of 4

percent FCM milk per day (36 kg, 3.7 percent). As production

rises, it becomes more difficult for cows to physically consume

enough feed to meet energy requirements. Older cows generally

will respond better than 2 year olds. Fat levels in excess of 5 to

6 percent of the ration are not recommended during the first

five weeks of lactation. Supplement the first 100 g in the

transition ration, up to a 450 g at freshening and, if needed

additional fat after five weeks in milk.

Limit total fat to no more than 7 - 1/2 percent of the ration dry

matter.

Example: 1.8 kg total fat in the ration per 25 kg typical DMI = 7.2

%. Too much fat interferes with fibre digestion and lowers fat

test.

Provide the same amount of fat in the ration as kilograms of

butterfat produced.

Example: 45 kg milk per day x 4 % fat = 1.8 kg butterfat and 1.8 kg

total fat in the ration.

78

Provide one-third of fat in the ration from normal ration feeds,

one-third from oilseeds or fats and one-third from rumen inert

(bypass) fats. Example: If 1. 8 kg of fat are to be provided in

the ration, about 1.8 x 33 % = 590 g of fat should be from

oilseeds such as whole cottonseed or Soya beans. If Soya beans

are 20 percent fat, then 590 g/20% = 2.95 kg whole Soya beans

in the ration. Any additional fat should be provided by

commercially available inert courses because they bypass the

rumen.

Boost calcium to 1 percent and magnesium to 0.3 percent of

ration dry matter when feeding supplemental fat. Fats bind

with calcium reducing calcium and magnesium availability.

If feeding a TMR...

Total mixed rations (TMR's) conservatively can result in 1 kg

more fat-corrected milk per day for older cows and up to 1.8 kg

more milk in first calvers from improved feed consumption and

utilisation. This will vary, depending upon the feeding program

before switching to a TMR.

A "poor man's TMR" consisting of blending roughage‟s and

multiple feedings of concentrates (3 to 4 x per day) can

approximate the benefits of a TMR mixer. However, it is not

quite as efficient or precise and may not allow for using or

masking of more unpalatable commodity feeds.

TMR mixers generally pay for themselves in 12 to 18 months

through more milk, lower feed costs and improved animal

digestive health.

TMR's are only as good as the quality of the individual feed

components. Roughage quality and feed bunklife still are

critically important.

79

Base mixer capacity on 60 to 70 percent of the struck level

capacity with a minimum requirement of 0.25 cubic meters per

cow, assuming two feedings per day. Recommended mixing two

feedings per day. Recommended mixing time is 3 to 6 minutes.

Have magnets at feed-outs. Accurate scales are a must, and

silage moisture should be monitored weekly. Several

manufacturers have mixers with knives that permit the use of

unchopped, long-stemmed hay.

Using a single-group, TMR system in herds above 9000 kg milk

may offer advantages in feeding simplicity, labour, cow

movement and production potential but will result in more costly

use of special ingredient and has the potential over condition

some cows.

Having two milking groups and a single dry group is workable for

most herds. This also can be easily adapted to a tie stall barn

by the use of a mechanised feed cart.

To prevent digestive upsets, there should be a 15 percent

change in nutrient density between TMR groups. Early-lactation

cows will rebound from off-feed problems and re-establish

production much more quickly and easily than mid to

late-lactation cows.

Cows moved to a new TMR group in later lactation usually drop in

milk more than cows moved in early lactation. A workable

system proven overseas challenges all cows for 45 days to

establish milk potential. High-potential cows are maintained in

the high group, and low cows are shifted to a lower TMR group.