A TECHNICAL REPORT ON THE USES AND APPLICATIONS OF

ALL THECHEMICALS IN GGI INT’L (NIG) LTD WAREHOUSE

SUBMITTED TO

GROUP CHAIRMAN,CHIEF (DR) INNOCENT .I. AKUVUE (KSJ; MNSCHE)

BY

ANI UCHECHUKWU JUDITH

A STUDENT OFNNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA

ANAMBRA STATE

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINERRING

CURRENTLY ON INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT GGI INT’L (NIG) LTD

SEPTEMBER, 2014.

SUMMARY

Chemicals are of great importance in nature because they serve a lot of purpose. They are used in the homes, schools, hospitals, pharmacies, oil companies, breweries, or industries. Chemicals are needed everywhere for different purposes.

In this report, the chemicals in the company’s warehouse were identified, their characteristics and their various uses noted. These chemicals fall into a variety of categories, with a staggering overall number of different compounds and blends (below). Some are in 25kg bags, 40kg bags, 50 kg bags and 250liters drums. About 50 different chemicals were grouped into bagged chemicals, commodity chemicals and GE branded specialty chemicals.

Specialty chemicals are invaluable solutions to overcome problems that plague oil and gas wells. In this work, we looked at the various chemicals found in GGI warehouse as at the time of this report paying special attention to their uses and application especially in the oil and gas sector.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Summary 2CHAPTER ONE: BAGGED CHEMICALS 1.1 Calcium Chloride 41.2 Potassium Chloride 41.3 Sodium bicarbonate 51.4 Soda Ash 61.5 Aluminum Sulfate 61.6 Sodium Sulfate 71.7 Caustic Soda 81.8 Ammonium Chloride 91.9 Calcium hypochlorite 9

CHAPTER TWO: COMMODITY CHEMICALS AND SPECIAL SOLVENTS 2.1 Hydrochloric Acid 11 2.2 Citric Acid 13 2.3 Xylene 14 2.4 Red Dye (Sudan Red) 15 2.5 Methanol 15 2.6 Monoethylene glycol (MEG) 16 2.7 Triethylene glycol (TEG) 16 2.8 Butyl glycol ether (BGE) 17 2.9 Monoethanolamine (MEA) 18 2.10 Diethanolamine (DEA) 18 2.11 Propylene Dichloride 18 2.12 Ammonia Solution 19 2.13 Petroleum Spirit 20 2.14 Chlorine gas 21 2.15 Sodium hypochlorite 23

CHAPTER THREE: GE BRANDED SPECIALTY CHEMICALS3.1 Scale Inhibitors 253.2 Corrosion Inhibitors 253.3 Biocides 263.4 Emulsion Breakers 263.5 Defoamers 273.6 Coagulants and Flocculants 273.7 Oxygen Scavengers 273.8 Surfactants (Cleaners) 28

References 29

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CHAPTER ONE

BAGGED CHEMICALS1.1 Calcium chlorideCalcium chloride, CaCl2, is a salt of calcium and chlorine. It behaves as a typical ionic halide, and is solid at room temperature. Because of its hygroscopic nature, anhydrous calcium chloride must be kept in tightly sealed, air-tight containers.USES

As a Desiccant: Drying tubes are frequently packed with calcium chloride. Kelp is dried with calcium chloride for use in producing sodium carbonate. Adding solid calcium chloride to liquids can remove dissolved water.

For Deicing and freezing point depression: By depressing the freezing point of water, calcium chloride is used to prevent ice formation and to deice. This is particularly useful on road surfaces.

Calcium chloride is used in swimming pool water as a pH buffer and to adjust the calcium hardness of the water.

Calcium chloride is included as an additive in plastics and in fire extinguishers, in wastewater treatment as a drainage aid, in blast furnaces as an additive to control scaffolding (clumping and adhesion of materials that prevent the furnace charge from descending), and in fabric softener as a thinner.APPLICATION IN THE OIL & GAS SECTOR

In the oil industry, calcium chloride is used to increase the density of solids-free brines. It is also used to provide inhibition of swelling clays in the water phase of invert emulsion drilling fluids.

Calcium Chloride is used extensively in the drilling and maintenance of oil wells drilling muds completion and packer fluids work over fluids

1.2 Potassium chlorideThe chemical compound potassium chloride (KCl) is a metal halide salt composed of potassium and chlorine. Uses

The majority of the potassium chloride produced is used for making fertilizer, since the growth of many plants is limited by their potassium intake. As a chemical feedstock, it is used for the manufacture of potassium hydroxide and potassium metal.

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It is also used in medicine, lethal injections, scientific applications, food processing, and as a sodium-free substitute for table salt (sodium chloride) as well as being an alternative to sodium chloride in household water softener units.APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

It is sometimes used in water as a completion fluid in petroleum and natural gas operations.

1.3 Sodium bicarbonateSodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the formula Na HCO 3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder.Uses

Sodium bicarbonate is used in a process for removing paint and corrosion called soda blasting; the process is particularly suitable for cleaning aluminium panels which can be distorted by other types of abrasive.

It can be administered to pools, spas, and garden ponds to raise pH levels. It has weak disinfectant properties, and it may be an effective fungicide against some organisms.

Fire extinguisher. Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being thrown over the fire. However, it should not be applied to fires in deep fryers, as it may cause the grease to splatter.

As a cleaning agent. A paste from baking soda can be very effective when used in cleaning and scrubbing. For cleaning aluminum objects, the use of sodium bicarbonate is discouraged as it attacks the thin unreactive protective oxide layer of this otherwise very reactive metal. Baking soda is commonly added to washing machines as a replacement for softener and to remove odours from clothes. Sodium bicarbonate is also effective in removing heavy tea and coffee stains from cups when diluted with warm water.

As a biopesticide. Sodium bicarbonate can be an effective way of controlling fungus growthAPPLICATION IN OIL AND GAS SECTOR

Sodium bicarbonates are used in drilling rig to treat cement contamination in water mud. When cement hydrates, substantial amounts of lime, ca(OH)2, are produced. As the cement sets, less free lime is available. When partial set cement is drilled with a water mud,

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ca2+ and OH ions are leached into the mud, often causing problems associated with clay flocculation and polymer precipitation. Bicarb can be added, either as a pre-treatment or over a period of time to remove ca2+ in the form of insoluble caco3.

1.4 Sodium carbonateSodium carbonate (also known as washing soda, soda ash and soda crystals), Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid (soluble in water).Uses

The manufacture of glass is one of the most important uses of sodium carbonate. Sodium carbonate acts as a flux for silica, lowering the melting point of the mixture to something achievable without special materials.

Sodium carbonate is also used as a relatively strong base in various settings. For example, sodium carbonate is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of photographic film developing agents.

It is a common additive in municipal pools used to neutralize the corrosive effects of chlorine and raise the Ph

In chemistry, it is often used as an electrolyte. This is because electrolytes are usually salt-based, and sodium carbonate acts as a very good conductor in the process of electrolysis. In addition, unlike chloride ions, which form chlorine gas, carbonate ions are not corrosive to the anodes. It is also used as a primary standard for acid-base titrations because it is solid and air-stable, making it easy to weigh accurately.APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

It is called soda ash at the drilling rig and is used to treat most types of calcium ion contamination in freshwater and seawater muds. Calcium ions from drilling gypsum or anhydrite, CaSO4, cause clay flocculation and polymer precipitation and lower pH. A soda-ash treatment is appropriate for gypsum contamination because caustic soda, NaOH, is not needed to raise pH. This is also generally the case with hard water influxes into water muds.

1.5 Aluminum sulfateAluminium sulfate, alternatively spelled either aluminum or sulphate, is a chemical compound with the formula Al2(SO4)3. Aluminum sulfate is sometimes referred to as a type of alum. Alums are double sulfate salts, with

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the formula AM(SO4)2·12H2O, where A is a monovalent cation such as potassium or ammonium and M is a trivalent metal ion such as aluminum.Uses

Aluminium sulphate is used in water purification and as a mordant in dyeing and printing textiles. In water purification, it causes impurities to coagulate which are removed as the particulate settles to the bottom of the container or more easily filtered. This process is called coagulation or flocculation.

Aluminium sulphate is sometimes used to reduce the pH of garden soil, as it hydrolyzes to form the aluminium hydroxide precipitate and a dilute sulphuric acid solution.

In construction industry it is used as waterproofing agent and accelerator in concrete. Another use is a foaming agent in fire fighting foam.

It is also used in styptic pencils, and pain relief from stings and bites. It can also be very effective as a molluscicide, killing Spanish slugs

APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR BOD AND COD removal: BOD and COD removal is an essential

function of every waste water treatment plant. Chemical treatment with aluminium sulphate flocculants and coagulants enables the increase of plant capacity.

Dredging: Aluminium sulphate can be used separately or in combination to obtain the optimal result for dredging of rivers and harbors.

1.6 Sodium sulphateSodium sulphate is the sodium salt of sulphuric acid.Uses

Sodium sulphate used to dry an organic liquid. When sodium sulfate is added to an organic liquid clumps form, indicating the presence of water in the organic liquid. By further application of sodium sulfate the liquid may be brought to dryness, indicated here by the absence of clumping.

The largest use is as filler in powdered home laundry detergents, consuming approx. 50% of world.

Sodium sulphate is used as a fining agent, to help remove small air bubbles from molten glass. It fluxes the glass, and prevents scum formation of the glass melt during refining.

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Sodium sulphate is important in the manufacture of textiles, particularly in Japan, where it is the largest application. Sodium sulphate helps in "levelling", reducing negative charges on fibres so that dyes can penetrate evenly. Unlike the alternative sodium chloride, it does not corrode the stainless steel vessels used in dyeing.APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

It is used for the injection disposal of solid and liquid waste materials from the drilling and production of oil and gas wells.

Sodium sulphate is a product sufficient to cover the cost of processing the waste waters and ultimate disposal of unusable byproducts. Waste waters produced by water purification and particularly those produced from oil and gas wells, and irrigation drainage, by processing such waters to recover a valuable sodium sulfate product that provides economical energy storage and transfer.

1.7 Caustic Soda Sodium hydroxide, also known as caustic soda, or lye, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaOH.Uses

Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries, mostly as a strong chemical base in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents and as a drain cleaner. APPLICATION IN THE OIL & GAS SECTOR

It is used in GGI Int’l Nig Ltd to make sodium hypochlorite which is used as a biocide in the oil and gas sector.

Sodium hydroxide is used in many scenarios where it is desirable to increase the alkalinity of a mixture, or to neutralize acids. For example, in petroleum industry, sodium hydroxide is used as an additive in drilling mud to increase alkalinity in bentonite mud systems, to increase the mud viscosity, and to neutralise any acid gas (such as hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide) which may be encountered in the geological formation as drilling progresses.

Poor quality crude oil can be treated with sodium hydroxide to remove sulphurous impurities in a process known as caustic washing. As above, sodium hydroxide reacts with weak acids such as hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans to give the non-volatile sodium salts which can be removed.

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1.8 Ammonium chlorideAmmonium chloride, an inorganic compound with the formula NH4Cl, is a white crystalline salt, highly soluble in water. Solutions of ammonium chloride are mildly acidic. Uses

The main application of ammonium chloride is as a nitrogen source in fertilizers (corresponding to 90% of the world production of ammonium chloride), e.g. chloroammonium phosphate.

In the laboratory Ammonium chloride is used to produce low temperatures in cooling baths. Ammonium chloride solutions with ammonia are used as buffer solutions.

In paleontology, ammonium chloride vapour is precipitated on fossils, where the substance forms a brilliant white, easily removed and fairly harmless and inert layer of tiny crystals. This covers up any coloration the fossil may have, and if lighted at an angle highly enhances contrast in photographic documentation of three-dimensional specimens. The same technique is applied in archaeology to eliminate reflection on glass and similar specimens for photography.

Other uses include in hair shampoo, in the glue that bonds plywood, and in cleaning products. In hair shampoo, it is used as a thickening agent in ammonium-based surfactant systems, such as ammonium lauryl sulphate. Ammonium chloride is used in the textile and leather industry in dyeing, tanning, textile printing and to lustre cotton.APPLICATION IN THE OIL & GAS SECTOR

In oil and gas industry Ammonium chloride is used in an aqueous solution to work on oil wells with clay swelling problems. It is also used as electrolyte in zinc–carbon batteries.

1.9 Calcium hypochloriteCalcium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with formula Ca (Cl O ) 2. It is widely used for water treatment and as a bleaching agent. This chemical is considered to be relatively stable and has greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite (liquid bleach).Uses

Calcium hypochlorite is used for the disinfection of drinking water or swimming pool water. Generally it is sold as 68% calcium hypochlorite combined with calcium chloride and other salts. It is used as a sanitizer in outdoor swimming pools in combination with a

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cyanuric acid stabilizer, which reduces the loss of chlorine due to ultraviolet radiation. The calcium content hardens the water and tends to clog up some filters; hence, some products containing calcium hypochlorite also contain anti-scaling agents.

Calcium hypochlorite is an ingredient in bleaching powder, used for bleaching cotton and linen. It is used in bathroom cleaners, household disinfectant sprays, moss and algae removers, and weed killers.

In addition, calcium hypochlorite may be used to manufacture chloroform.

Chlorine compounds, including calcium hypochlorite, are widely used in the food industry to kill bacteria and disinfect surfaces and production equipment.APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTORIt is used as a powerful oxidizing biocide that is capable of preventing bacterial growth

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CHAPTER TWO

COMMODITY CHEMICALS AND SPECIAL SOLVENTS2.1 Hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a clear, colourless, highly pungent solution of hydrogen chloride (H Cl ) in water. It is a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial uses. Hydrochloric acid is found naturally in gastric acid.UsesHydrochloric acid is a strong inorganic acid that is used in many industrial processes. The application often determines the required product quality.

Pickling of steel. One of the most important applications of hydrochloric acid is in the pickling of steel, to remove rust or iron oxide scale from iron or steel before subsequent processing, such as extrusion, rolling, galvanizing, and other techniques. Technical quality HCl at typically 18% concentration is the most commonly used pickling agent for the pickling of carbon steel grades.

Fe2O3 + Fe + 6 HCl → 3 FeCl2 + 3 H2O Production of organic compounds. Another major use of hydrochloric

acid is in the production of organic compounds, such as vinyl chloride and dichloroethane for PVC. Other organic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include bisphenol And for polycarbonate, activated carbon, and ascorbic acid, as well as numerous pharmaceutical products.

2 CH2=CH2 + 4 HCl + O2 → 2 ClCH2CH2Cl + 2 H2O ( dichloroethane by oxychlorination) wood + HCl + heat → activated carbon (chemical activation)

Production of inorganic compounds. Numerous products can be produced with hydrochloric acid in normal acid-base reactions, resulting in inorganic compounds. These include water treatment chemicals such as iron(III) chloride and polyaluminium chloride (PAC). Fe2O3 + 6 HCl → 2 FeCl3 + 3 H2O (iron(III) chloride from magnetite). Both iron(III) chloride and PAC are used as flocculation and coagulation agents in sewage treatment, drinking water production, and paper production. Other inorganic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include road application salt calcium chloride, nickel(II) chloride for electroplating, and zinc chloride for the galvanizing industry and battery production. CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O (calcium chloride from limestone)

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pH Control and neutralization. Hydrochloric acid can be used to regulate the acidity (pH) of solutions. OH− + HCl → H2O + Cl−

In industry demanding purity (food, pharmaceutical, drinking water), high-quality hydrochloric acid is used to control the pH of process water streams. In less-demanding industry, technical quality hydrochloric acid suffices for neutralizing waste streams and swimming pool treatment.

Regeneration of ion exchangers. High-quality hydrochloric acid is used in the regeneration of ion exchange resins. Cation exchange is widely used to remove ions such as Na+ and Ca2+ from aqueous solutions, producing demineralized water. The acid is used to rinse the cations from the resins. Na+ is replaced with H+ and Ca2+ with 2 H+.Ion exchangers and demineralized water are used in all chemical industries, drinking water production, and many food industries.

Hydrochloric acid is used for a large number of small-scale applications, such as leather processing, purification of common salt, household cleaning, and building construction.

Many chemical reactions involving hydrochloric acid are applied in the production of food, food ingredients, and food additives. Typical products include aspartame, fructose, citric acid, lysine, hydrolyzed vegetable protein as food enhancer, and in gelatine production. Food-grade (extra-pure) hydrochloric acid can be applied when needed for the final product.

APPLICATION IN THE OIL&GAS SECTOR Oil production may be stimulated by injecting hydrochloric acid into

the rock formation of an oil well, dissolving a portion of the rock, and creating a large-pore structure. Oil well acidizing is a common process in the North Sea oil production industry.

Hydrochloric acid has been used for dissolving calcium carbonate, i.e. such things as de-scaling kettles and for cleaning mortar off brickwork, but it is a hazardous liquid which must be used with care. When used on brickwork the reaction with the mortar only continues until the acid has all been converted, producing Calcium Chloride, Carbon Dioxide and water: 2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

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2.2 Citric Acid Citric acid is a weak organic acid with the formula C6H8O7. It is a natural preservative/conservative and is also used to add an acidic or sour taste to foods and drinks.Applications

The dominant use of citric acid is as a flavouring and preservative in food and beverages, especially soft drinks.

Foods, other. Citric acid can be added to ice cream as an emulsifying agent to keep fats from separating, to caramel to prevent sucrose crystallization, or to recipes in place of fresh lemon juice. Citric acid is used with sodium bicarbonate in a wide range of effervescent formulae, both for ingestion (e.g., powders and tablets) and for personal care (e.g., bath salts, bath bombs, and cleaning of grease). Citric acid is also often used in cleaning products and sodas or fizzy drinks.

Cleaning and chelating agent. Citric acid is an excellent chelating agent, binding metals. It is used to remove lime scale from boilers and evaporators. It can be used to soften water, which makes it useful in soaps and laundry detergents. By chelating the metals in hard water, it lets these cleaners produce foam and work better without need for water softening. Citric acid is the active ingredient in some bathroom and kitchen cleaning solutions. In industry, it is used to dissolve rust from steel. Citric acid can be used in shampoo to wash out wax and colouring from the hair.

Cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Citric acid is widely used as a pH adjusting agent in creams and gels of all kinds. In this role, it is classified in most jurisdictions as a processing aid and so does not need to be listed on ingredient lists. Citric acid is an alpha hydroxyl acid and used as an active ingredient in chemical peels. Citric acid is commonly used as a buffer to increase the solubility of brown heroin. Citric acid is used as one of the active ingredients in the production of antiviral tissues. Dyeing

Citric acid can be used in food colouring to balance the pH level of a normally basic dye. It is used as an odourless alternative to white vinegar for home dyeing with acid dyes.

Qualitative analysis. Sodium citrate, a conjugate base of citric acid, is used as a chelating agent and is present in the Benedict's reagent, used

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for identification both qualitatively and quantitatively, of reducing sugars.

Industrial and construction. Citric acid can be used as a successful alternative to nitric acid in passivation of stainless steel.

Photography. Citric acid can be used as a lower-door stop bath as part of the process for developing photographic film. Photographic developers are alkaline, so a mild acid is used to neutralize and stop their action quickly, but commonly used acetic acid leaves a strong vinegar door in the darkroom.APPLICATION IN THE OIL&GAS SECTOR

Enhanced Oil Recovery: Aluminum citrate is used for in-situ gelling of polymers in polymer flooding operations.  The citrate controls the rate of availability of the aluminum ion.

Oil Well Acidizing: Citric acid is used in oil well acidizing to prevent the formation of insoluble gels of iron hydroxide.  Wells are typically injected with HC1, oxidation reactions can occur which cause formation of insoluble iron hydroxide gels.  These gels interfere with pumping hydroxide gels.  These gels interfere with pumping operations.  Citric acid is added to the well to chelate the iron thus preventing the gel formation.

2.3 XyleneA xylene (from Greek ξύλο, xylo, "wood") is an aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of a benzene ring with two methyl substituents. Uses

Terephthalic acid and related derivatives. p-Xylene is the principal precursor to terephthalic acid and dimethyl terephthalate, both monomers used in the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles and polyester clothing.

Solvent applications. Xylene is used as a solvent. In this application, the mixture of isomers is often referred to as xylenes or xylol. Solvent xylene often contains a small percentage of ethylbenzene.

It is also applied in printing, rubber, and leather industries. It is a common component of ink, rubber, adhesive, and leather industries

Similarly it is a cleaning agent, e.g., for steel, silicon wafers, and integrated circuitsAPPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

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In the petroleum industry, xylene is also a frequent component of paraffin solvents; used when the tubing becomes clogged with paraffin wax. For similar reasons, it is often the active ingredient in commercial products for ear wax (cerumen) removal.

Laboratory uses. It is used in the laboratory to make baths with dry ice to cool reaction vessels, and as a solvent to remove synthetic immersion oil from the microscope objective in light microscopy. In histology, xylene is the most widely used clearing agent

2.4 Red dye (sudan red)Sudan dyes belong to a family of industrial azo-dyes used to give colour to plastics and other materials, including leather, fabrics, fats, oils, waxes, polystyrene, cellulose and synthetic lacquers and polishes.

2.5 MethanolMethanol, also known as methyl alcohol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a chemical with the formula C H 3O H (often abbreviated MeOH). Methanol acquired the name "wood alcohol" because it was once produced chiefly as a by-product of the destructive distillation of wood. Modern methanol is produced in a catalytic industrial process directly from carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogenUses

Methanol, a common laboratory solvent, is especially useful for HPLC, UV/VIS spectroscopy, and LCMS due to its low UV cut-off.

Feedstock. The largest use of methanol by far is in making other chemicals. About 40% of methanol is converted to formaldehyde, and from there into products as diverse as plastics, plywood, paints, explosives, and permanent press textiles.

Also in the early 1970s, a methanol to gasoline process was developed by Mobil for producing gasoline ready for use in vehicles.

Other chemical derivatives of methanol include dimethyl ether, which has replaced chlorofluorocarbons as an aerosol spray propellant, and acetic acid. Dimethyl ether (DME) also can be blended with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for home heating and cooking, and can be used as a diesel replacement for transportation fuel.

Fuel for vehicles. Methanol is used on a limited basis to fuel internal combustion engines. Pure methanol is required by rule to be used in Champ cars, Monster Trucks, USAC sprint cars (as well as midgets, modifieds, etc.), and other dirt track series, such as World of Outlaws, and Motorcycle Speedway.

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Methanol is a traditional denaturant for ethanol, the product being known as "denatured alcohol" or "methylated spirit". This was commonly used during the Prohibition to discourage consumption of bootlegged liquor, and ended up causing several deaths. APPLICATION IN THE OIL &GAS SECTOR

Methanol is also used as a solvent, and as an antifreeze in pipelines and windshield washer fluid.

In some wastewater treatment plants, a small amount of methanol is added to wastewater to provide a carbon food source for the denitrifying bacteria, which convert nitrates to nitrogen to reduce the nitrification of sensitive aquifers.

Methanol is mixed with water and injected into high performance diesel and gasoline engines for an increase of power and a decrease in intake air temperature in a process known as water methanol injection.

2.6 Monoethylene Glycol Monoethylene glycol (MEG) is an important raw material for

industrial applications. A primary use of MEG is in the manufacture of polyester (PET)

resins, films and fibers. Multiple Uses Including Chemical Feedstock, Chemical Intermediate,

Chemical Component, Chemical Constituent MEG is important in the production of antifreezes, coolants, aircraft

anti-icer and deicers and solvents.

2.7 TRIETHYLENE GLYCOL (TEG)

Triethylene glycol is used as a dehydrating agent for natural gas; a solvent and lubricant in textile dyeing and printing; a plasticizer; a raw material for the production of polyester resins and polyols; a humectants; a constituent of hydraulic fluids; a selective solvent for aromatics.Uses

Triethylene glycol is well established as a relatively mild disinfectant toward a variety of bacteria, influenza, viruses and fungi. However, its exceptionally low toxicity, broad materials compatibility, and low door combined with its antimicrobial properties indicate that it approaches the ideal for air disinfection purposes in occupied spaces. APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

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TEG is used by the oil and gas industry to "dehydrate" natural gas. It may also be used to dehydrate other gases, including CO2, H2S, and other oxygenated gases. It is necessary to dry natural gas to a certain point, as humidity in natural gas can cause pipelines to freeze, and create other problems for end users of the natural gas. Triethylene glycol is placed into contact with natural gas, and strips the water out of the gas. Triethylene glycol is heated to a high temperature and put through a condensing system, which removes the water as waste and reclaims the TEG for continuous reuse within the system.

Hydrate inhibition. Because of its high boiling point and affinity for water, ethylene glycol is a useful desiccant. Ethylene glycol is widely used to inhibit the formation of natural gas clathrates (hydrates) in long multiphase pipelines that convey natural gas from remote gas fields to a gas processing facility. Ethylene glycol can be recovered from the natural gas and reused as an inhibitor after purification treatment that removes water and inorganic salts.

2.8 Butyl Glycol Ether (BGE) Uses

Coatings Industry. As a low volatility solvent, butyl glycol can be used to extend the drying time of coatings and improves their flow. Small proportions of butyl glycol improve the brushability of, for example, alkyd resin paints and reduces their viscosity. It is also an extremely efficient flow improver for urea, melamine or phenol staving finishes.

As a coalescing aid, butyl glycol can significantly lower the minimum film forming Temperature (MFFT) and improve flow in many physically drying paint systems.

Butyl glycol improves the evaporation behaviour of the volatile constituents (e. g. in water-based staving enamels) during hot-air or infrared drying.

Solvent in printing inks for leather dyes, etc. Component in surface cleaners, e. g. to degrease metal surfaces. Component in hydraulic fluids. Starting material in the production of butyl glycol acetate which is

also an excellent solvent. Starting material in the production of plasticizers, e. g. by reaction

with phthalicanhydride.APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

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It is applied in the oil and gas sector as a Component in drilling and cutting oils (strong solvent).

2.9 Monoethanol amine. (MEA)Uses

A chemical intermediate in the manufacture of cosmetics, surface-active agents, emulsifiers, pharmaceuticals, and plasticizing agents.

Carbon dioxide and ammonia manufacturing.APPLICATION IN THE OIL&GAS SECTOR

A gas-scrubbing agent for the absorption and removal of H2S and CO2 from refinery and natural gas streams.

2.10 Diethanol amine (DEA)Diethanolamine, often abbreviated as DEA or DEOA, is an organic compound with the formula HN(CH2CH2OH)2. Pure diethanolamine is a white solid at room temperature, but its tendency to absorb water and to super cool mean it is often encountered as a colourless, viscous liquid.APPLICATION IN THE OIL&GAS SECTOR

DEA is used as a surfactant and a corrosion inhibitor. It is used to remove hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide from natural gas.

In oil refineries, a DEA in water solution is commonly used to remove hydrogen sulphide from sour gas. It has an advantage over a similar amine ethanolamine in that a higher concentration may be used for the same corrosion potential. This allows refiners to scrub hydrogen sulphide at a lower circulating amine rate with less overall energy usage.

2.11 Propylene Dichloride (PDC)Propylene Dichloride also known as 1, 2-Dichloropropane is an organic compound classified as a chlorocarbon. It is a colorless, flammable liquid with a sweet odor. It is obtained as a byproduct of the production of epichlorohydrin, which is produced on a large scale. UsesPropylene Dichloride (also known as 1,2-Dichloropropane) is used as a chemical intermediate in the production of chlorinated organic chemicals, as an industrial solvent, in ion exchange manufacture, in toluene diisocyanate production, in photographic film manufacture, for paper coating, and for petroleum catalyst regeneration. 1,2-Dichloropropane is used in furniture

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finish, dry cleaning fluid, and paint remover, gum processing, metal degreasing, oil processing, and as a rubber- and wax-making agent, and a chemical intermediate in the production of tetrachloroethylene and carbon tetrachloride.

2.12 Ammonia solutionAmmonia solution, also known as ammonium hydroxide, ammonia water, ammonical liquor, ammonia liquor, aqua ammonia, aqueous ammonia, or simply ammonia, is a solution of ammonia in water. It can be denoted by the symbols NH3(aq). Although the name ammonium hydroxide suggests an alkali with composition [NH4

+][OH−], it is actually impossible to isolate samples of NH4OH, as these ions do not comprise a significant fraction of the total amount of ammonia except in extremely dilute solutions.

Uses Agricultural industries are the major users of ammonia,

representing nearly 80% of all ammonia produced in the United States.  Ammonia is a very valuable source of nitrogen that is essential for plant growth.  Depending on the particular crop being grown, up to 200 pounds of ammonia per acre may be applied for each growing season.

Ammonia is used in the production of liquid fertilizer solutions which consist of ammonia, ammonium nitrate, urea and aqua ammonia.  It is also used by the fertilizer industry to produce ammonium and nitrate salts.

Ammonia and urea are used as a source of protein in livestock feeds for ruminating animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.  Ammonia can also be used as a pre-harvest cotton defoliant, an anti-fungal agent on certain fruits and as preservative for the storage of high-moisture corn.  

Dissociated ammonia is used in such metal treating operations as nitriding, carbonitriding, bright annealing, furnace brazing, sintering, sodium hydride descaling, atomic hydrogen welding and other applications where protective atmospheres are required.

Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric acid; certain alkalies such as soda ash; dyes; pharmaceuticals such as sulfa drugs, vitamins and cosmetics; synthetic textile fibers such as nylon, rayon and acrylics; and for the manufacture of certain plastics such as phenolics and polyurethanes.

Ammonia is used in several areas of water and wastewater

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treatment, such as pH control, in solution form to regenerate weak anion exchange resins, in conjunction with chlorine to produce potable water and as an oxygen scavenger in boiler water treatment.

Ammonia is used in stack emission control systems to neutralize sulfur oxides from combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, as a method of NOx control in both catalytic and non-catalytic applications and to enhance the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators for particulate control.

Ammonia is used as the developing agent in photochemical processes such as white printing, blue printing and in the diazo duplication process.

Ammonia is a widely used refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems found in the food, beverage, petro-chemical and cold storage industries.

Ammonia is used in the rubber industry for the stabilization of natural and synthetic latex to prevent premature coagulation.

The pulp and paper industry uses ammonia for pulping wood and as a casein dispersant in the coating of paper.

The food and beverage industry uses ammonia as a source of nitrogen needed for yeast and microorganisms.

The decomposition of ammonia serves as a source of hydrogen for some fuel cell and other applications.

Ammonia is used by the leather industry as a curing agent, as a slime and mold preventative in tanning liquors and as a protective agent for leathers and furs in storage.

Weak ammonia solutions are also widely used as commercial and household cleaners and detergents.APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

The petroleum industry utilizes ammonia in neutralizing the acid constituents of crude oil and for protection of equipment from corrosion.  Ammonia is used in the mining industry for extraction of metals such as copper, nickel and molybdenum from their ores.

2.13 Petroleum spiritPetroleum spirit is a flammable petroleum distillate that boils lower than kerosene and is suitable for use as a solvent and thinner especially for paints and varnishes

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2.14 Chlorine gasChlorine is a chemical element with symbol Cl and atomic number 17. Chlorine is in the halogen group (17) and is the second lightest halogen following fluorine. The element is a yellow-green gas under standard conditions, where it forms diatomic molecules.

Uses Chlorine is used in GGI in the production of sodium hypochlorite. Production of industrial and consumer products: Principal

applications of chlorine are in the production of a wide range of industrial and consumer products. For example, it is used in making plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs, household cleaning products, etc. Many important industrial products are produced via organochlorine intermediates. Examples include polycarbonates, polyurethanes, silicones, polytetrafluoroethylene, carboxymethyl cellulose, and propylene oxide.

Public sanitation: Chlorine is presently an important chemical for water purification (such as in water treatment plants), in disinfectants, and in bleach. Chlorine in water is more than three times as effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and is more than six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine.

Use as a weapon

I. World War I: Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by Germany on April 22, 1915 in the Second Battle of Ypres. As described by the soldiers it had a distinctive smell of a mixture between pepper and pineapple. It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine can react with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, an irritant that can be lethal

II. Iraq War: Chlorine gas has also been used by insurgents against the local population and coalition forces in the Iraq War in the form of chlorine bombs Other chlorine bomb attacks resulted in higher death tolls, with more than 30 deaths on two separate occasions. Most of the deaths were caused by the force of the explosions rather than the

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effects of chlorine, since the toxic gas is readily dispersed and diluted in the atmosphere by the blast.

Against infection and contagion: Labarraque's chlorinated lime and soda solutions have been advocated since 1828 to prevent infection (called "contagious infection", and presumed to be transmitted by "miasmas") and also to treat putrefaction of existing wounds, including septic wounds. In this 1828 work, Labarraque recommended for the doctor to breathe chlorine, wash his hands with chlorinated lime, and even sprinkle chlorinated lime about the patient's bed, in cases of "contagious infection." In 1828, it was well known that some infections were contagious, even though the agency of the microbe was not to be realized or discovered for more than half a century.

APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR Chlorine dioxide has demonstrated unique properties during Down

hole treatments. As a true gas, even in the liquid phase, it can permeate areas of the formation and well bore that other chemicals and biocides fail to do, with or without the presence of near wellbore plugging. Chlorine dioxide is highly soluble in oil which gives it the unique ability to actually affect the wetability/surface tension of the oil promoting increased movement and flow without leaving any harmful residual. This combined with the chlorine dioxide's anti-plugging agent effect often yields increases in performance and production that are unobtainable by other methods.

Eliminates Iron Sulfide: Iron sulfide plugging in the near-wellbore area is a widely recognized cause of decreased well productivity. Unlike conventional acidization, which only temporarily solubilizes iron sulfide deposits through the introduction of low pH hydrochloric acid, Chlorine dioxide solution completely dissolves iron sulfide and converts it to water-soluble iron sulfate.

Inactivates Biological Contamination: Iron sulfide deposits that cause plugging in the near-wellbore area are formed through the metabolic activity of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) that are introduced into the well as biological contaminants during workover, hydraulic fracturing and maintenance operations. Environmental conditions deep within the well are typically warm and anaerobic (i.e. no "free" oxygen present). SRBs thrive under such conditions, utilizing ubiquitous sulfate as a "combined" source of oxygen to

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complete their metabolic cycle, leading to the formation of iron sulfide deposits and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas as undesirable byproducts. Chlorine dioxide is a potent biocide that inactivates all forms of microbial life with which it comes in contact, including SRBs.

Removes Polymer Damage: Well plugging by polymer products used during well drilling, hydraulic fracturing and stimulation operations is another well-recognized cause of decreased well performance. Although critical to carrying out these procedures, residual polymer material can impede well performance if it remains in the near wellbore area following completion. Chlorine dioxide solution has been shown capable of removing such residual polymer damage. Upon contact, chlorine dioxide solution breaks apart most commonly used polymers through destructive chemical oxidation, thereby facilitating their release from the near wellbore area.

2.15 Sodium hypochlorite.Sodium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with the formula NaClO. It is composed of a sodium cation (Na+) and a hypochlorite anion (ClO−); it may also be viewed as the sodium salt of hypochlorous acid. When dissolved in water it is commonly known as bleach or liquid bleach, and is frequently used as a disinfectant or a bleaching agent.

Uses Bleaching: Household bleach is, in general, a solution containing 3-

8% sodium hypochlorite and 0.01-0.05% sodium hydroxide; the sodium hydroxide is used to slow the decomposition of sodium hypochlorite into sodium chloride and sodium chlorate. In household form, sodium hypochlorite is used for removal of stains from laundry. It is particularly effective on cotton fiber, which stains easily but bleaches well.

Disinfection: A weak solution of 2% household bleach in warm water is used to sanitize smooth surfaces prior to brewing of beer or wine. Surfaces must be rinsed to avoid imparting flavors to the brew; the chlorinated byproducts of sanitizing surfaces are also harmful. The mode of disinfectant action of sodium hypochlorite is similar to that of hypochlorous acid. A 1-in-5 dilution of household bleach with water (1 part bleach to 4 parts water) is effective against many bacteria and some viruses, and is often the disinfectant of choice in

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cleaning surfaces in hospitals (primarily in the United States). The solution is corrosive and needs to be thoroughly removed afterwards, so the bleach disinfection is sometimes followed by an ethanol disinfection. Liquids containing sodium hypochlorite as the main active component are also used for household cleaning and disinfection, for example toilet cleaners. Some cleaners are formulated to be thick so as not to drain quickly from vertical surfaces, such as the inside of a toilet bowl.

Water treatment: In drinking water systems, swimming pools, etc., sodium hypochlorite is widely used for chlorination. Hypochlorites are an alternative to chlorine gas, which is difficult to handle in many contexts. Also, accidents involving chlorine gas are more serious than accidents involving hypochlorites. Chlorination usually produces small quantities of harmful byproducts. Hypochlorites are very similar to chlorine gas in this regard.

APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR Sodium hypochlorite is commonly used as a biocide in

industrial applications to control slime and bacteria formation in water systems used at power plants, pipelines etc. in solutions typically of 10-15% by weight.

It is used in NLNG as a biocide, in water treatment and in sludge removers

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CHAPTER THREE

BRANDED SPECIALTY CHEMICALS

APPLICATION IN THE OIL&GAS SECTOR3.1 Scale Inhibitors:Scale occurs because the minerals in produced water exceed their saturation limit as temperatures and pressures change. Scale can vary in appearance from hard crystalline material to soft, friable material and the deposits can contain other minerals and impurities such as paraffin, salt and iron. Scale inhibitors are used to prevent these deposits from forming. Scale inhibitors are chemical agents that drastically reduce scale phenomena.

HYPERSPERSE MDC 150: It does not allow particles to clog the membrane during filtration process. It is a membrane antiscalant and antifoulant.

SCALETROL PDC 9443: Water base deposit control agent. SCALETROL PDC 9450: Water base deposit control agent. NOVUS CB2690: Organic sludge dewatering ferrous. It is a neutral

cleaner for Iron Oxide deposits.

3.2 Corrosion InhibitorsDissolved acid gases and biological deposits can cause severe corrosion to occur in oilfield water handling systems. Corrosion by-products such as iron sulfide, iron oxides, and biological mass can cause plugging of downstream injection wells. Corrosion inhibitors are chemical agents that drastically reduce corrosion phenomena. The fundamentals of their efficacy are two: Physical protection of metal surfaces potentially subject to corrosion (filming agents) and reduction of the concentration of chemical agents (H+ ion) potentially aggressive on metal surfaces in contact with free water (neutralizer)

ENDCOR OCC 9796; It coats the walls of the unit or pipeline and prevents corrosion that when corrosion occurs it eats up the endcor instead of the body of the unit.

ENDCOR OCC 9783: it is a corrosion inhibitor that acts by coating the walls of the unit(tanks, reactors) or pipeline

CORRSHIELD NT 4293: This is used by the oil and gas industries as a corrosion inhibitor. When added to a liquid, coolants, hydraulic

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fluids, boiler water, engine oil or gas etc it decreases the corrosion rate of a material typically a metal or an alloy

CORRSHIELD NT 4201: same as above. STEAMATE NAO880: Protects feedwater, boiler and steam

condensate system surfaces against both carbonic acid and dissolved oxygen corrosion. Provides effective coverage of the entire steam boiler system from a single feedwater injection point

3.3 Biocides: biocides inhibit the growth of any microorganismBiocides are chemical agents capable of considerably reducing or even eliminating the presence of bacteria or even eliminating the presence of bacteria in water or oilfield produced fluids.There are two types of biocides:Contact biocidesTheir function is to chemically transform the membrane proteins of the target bacteria. They are generally fast-acting and broad-ranging. They also include aldehydes (formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde are the ones most commonly used.)Metabolic biocides.These products must actually penetrate the bacteria cells in order to be effective. Ones inside the bacteria they can interfere with their normal metabolism in two ways: either inhibiting the normal operation of the vital proteins or by allowing themselves to be modified by the metabolic proteins, which transform them from non-toxic substances. These are generally slower acting and more targeted to specific bacteria strains. This family includes isothiazolinone, amines, and quaternary ammonium salts among the others.

BIOMATE SAN 9487 BIOMATE SAN 9494 BIOMATE SAN 9595

3.4 Emulsion BreakersCrude oil contains natural surfactants, which, when mixed with water, can emulsify the water into oil. The more common emulsion is water dispersed in oil, but “reverse” emulsions (oil in water) can also occur. Emulsions raise the bottom sediment and water (BSandW) of oil and are often very viscous.

EXP 3189

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3.5 DefoamersA defoamer or an anti-foaming agent is a chemical additive that reduces and hinders the formation of foam in industrial process liquids. The terms anti-foam agent and defoamer are often used interchangeably. In industrial processes, foams pose serious problems. They cause defects on surface coatings. They prevent the efficient filling of containers. A variety of chemical formulae are available to prevent formation of foams.

FOAMTROL AF 1440E: It is used as antifoam for waste water in the oil and gas industry.

MAX AMINE 70B: Max-Amine 70B is a defoamer (or antifoam) formulated for use in amine systems that remove carbondioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in gas processing applications such as:· Natural gas processing· Refinery amine systems· Hydrogen production· Ammonia manufacture. Coke oven gas processing· Cryogenic gas processing and· Synthesis gas purification.

3.6 Coagulants and Flocculants: This is a high all organic coagulant use for oil/water separation that generally offers superior clarification in either potable or wastewater, greater oil recovery, better metals removal and lower sludge volume

KLARAID IC 1172: Surface and waste water coagulation. KLARAID PC 1221E: Polymeric coagulant. KLARAID PC 4000: Polymeric coagulant. BETZDERBRON DLC30:

The BetzDearborn product line are flocculants designed to bridge small particles together, enhancing floc formation. This increases settling velocity in clarification, or rise-rate in flotation applications, and improves water drainage in thickening and dewatering applications.

BETZDERBRON AE1128: It is an emulsion breaker BETZDERBRON 3025

3.7 Oxygen Scavengers

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Corrosion by oxygen in the boiler can be controlled by the addition of an “oxygen scavenger” to the preboiler section of the steam generating system. It is generally fed, along with other treatment chemicals, as an aqueous solution to the feedwater either just upstream or, preferably, just downstream of the deaerator, although it is sometimes added into the return lines to scavenge oxygen in the condensate.

CONTROL IS3020: It is an inorganic oxygen scavenger used in the oil and gas industry.

3.8 Surfactants (Cleaners)Teepol: it is produced in GGI PRODUCTION/BLENDING PLANT

Designed for the removal of soiling caused by oils, greases and other organic materials

Will remove stains and dirt of the following: Carbon, Tar, Ingrained Dirt and Dust, Wet Paint, Ballpoint pen ink, Duplicating ink, Oil and Grease

Formulated for Removal of Soiling such as oils, greases and other organic materials

General Purpose Anti-Bacterial, Anti-Fungal, Detergent, Disinfectant.

N/B: The various codes in the GE Products indicate the system each branded product should be applied.

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REFERENCES

Austin, George T. (1984). Shreve's Chemical process industries. (5th ed. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 357. ISBN 9780070571471.

"Battle of Ypres" The Canadian Encyclopedia "What is chlorine used for?". Euro Chlor. October 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2014-08-08.

"'Chlorine bomb' hits Iraq village". BBC News. 2007-05-17. Retrieved 2014-08-08.

Smith WT. (1994). Human and Environmental Safety of Hypochlorite. In: Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Detergents: Global Perspectives, pp. 183-5.

"Toilet Cleaners | Learn About Chemicals Around Your House | Pesticides | US EPA:". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 9 May 2012.

www.huntsman.com/performance_products /Glycols /teg_triethylene_glycol_.pdf

www.huntsman.com/performance_products/monoethanolamine.pdf

www.severntrentservices.com/Oil___Gas/On_site_Sodium_Hypochlorite_Generation_Systems_prodc_523.aspx

www.solvents.basf.com/portal/ButylGlycol_e_04_08.pdf

www.webelements.com/forum/node/1706

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_sulfate

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www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_chloride

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodity_chemicals

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defoamer

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium _Carbonate

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hypochlorite

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan_Red_G

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylene

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