Special type of welding:

• Resistance welding – principles

• Seam welding,

• Butt welding

• Spot welding

• projection welding.

• Friction welding

• Explosive welding

• Thermit welding

• Laser welding

• Electron beam welding

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RESISTANCE WELDING

Definition

• Resistance welding is a group of welding processes wherein coalescence isproduced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to the flow of electric current in a circuit of which the work is a part and by the application of pressure. No filler metal is needed.

Fundamentals of Electric Resistance Welding

• The two factors or variables mainly responsible for resistance welding are

– The generation of Heat at the place where two pieces are to be joined.

– The application of pressure at the place where a weld joint is to be formed.

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Principle• When electric current flows through a material, it offers resistance to the

flow of current resulting in heating of the material.• The heat generated is used to make a weld between two or more

workpieces.• Resistance welding is based on the above principle.• The heat generated in the material is given by Joules law:

HαI2RT or H = k I2 RT

where H = heat generated in the material in Joules,I = Flow of current through the material in AmperesR = Electrical resistance of the material in OhmsT = time for which the electric current flows through the material in seconds, k = a constant, usually < 1 to account for heat loss through conduction and

radiation.• High current is the primary requirement to produce a resistance weld.• A step down transformer that converts the high voltage, low current

power line to a high current (upto 100,000 A) and low voltage (0.5 - 10 V)power is used for the purpose.

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Spot Welding

• Spot welding is a resistance welding process in which the two overlappingworkpieces held under pressure are joined together in one soot (location)by the heat generated due to the resistance of the workpieces to the flowof electric current through them.

• Figure shows the details of a resistance spot welding process.

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Spot WeldingDescription• The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other

oxides either chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.• The workpieces are then overlapped and placed firmly between two water

cooled cylindrically shaped copper alloy electrodes, which in turn are connectedto a secondary circuit of a step-down transformer.

• The electrodes carry high currents and also transmit the force/pressure to theworkpieces to complete the weld

Operation• The welding current is switched ON. As the current passes through the

electrodes, to the workpiece, heat is generated in the air gap at the point ofcontact of the two workpieces.

• The heat at this contact point is maximum with temperature varying from 815 -930°C, and as a result melts the workpieces locally at the contact point to form aspot weld.

• In order to obtain a strong bond, external pressure is applied to the workpiece,through the electrode, by means of a piston-cylinder arrangement. The current isswitched OFF.

• In some cases, external pressure is not required and the holding pressure of thetwo electrodes is just sufficient to create a good joint.

• Heat dissipates throughout the workpiece which cools the spot weld causing themetal to solidify.

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Spot Welding ( Continued….)

• The pressure is released and the workpiece is moved to the next location to makeanother spot weld.

• In some spot welding machines, the workpiece remains stationary while theelectrode moves to the next location to make a weld.

• The duration of current flow varies from a fraction of second to a few seconds.

• Both the current and the duration of current flow form the important parametersin spot welding and depend on the thickness and type of the workpieces beingwelded.

• The shape and the surface condition of the electrode is another parameter inobtaining a good weld.

Advantages

• Efficient energy use.

• Limited workpiece deformation. Also, workpiece is not melted to a larger extent.Heat is concentrated only at the spot to be welded.

• High production rates.

• Suitable for automation.

• Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated fumes or gas. This results inclean weld.

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Disadvantages

• Weld strength is significantly lower when compared to other processes.This makes the process suitable for only certain applications.

• Silver and copper are difficult to weld because of their high thermalconductivity.

Applications

• Extensively used for welding steels and especially in the automotiveindustry for cars that requires several hundred spot welds made byindustrial robots.

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Seam Welding

• Seam welding is a resistance welding process in which the overlappingworkpieces held under pressure are joined together by a series of spot weldsmade progressively along the joint utilizing the heat generated by the electricalresistance of the workpieces.

• Seam welding is similar to spot welding process, but, instead of pointedelectrodes, mechanically driven wheel shaped electrodes are used to produce acontinuous weld.

• Figure shows a seam welding process.

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Description and Operation

• The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and otheroxides either chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.

• The workpieces are overlapped and placed firmly between two wheel shapedcopper alloy electrodes, which in turn are connected to a secondary circuit of astep-down transformer.

• The electrode wheels are driven mechanically in opposite directions with theworkpieces passing between them, while at the same time the pressure on thejoint is maintained.

• Welding current is passed in series of pulses at proper intervals through thebearing of the roller electrode wheels

• As the current passes through the electrodes, to the workpiece, heat is generatedin the air gap at the point of contact (spot) of the two workpieces.

• This heat melts the workpieces locally at the contact point to form a spot weld.

• Pressure is applied by air, spring or hydraulically.

• Under the pressure of continuously rotating electrodes and the current flowingthrough them, a series of overlapping spot welds are made progressively along thejoint as shown in the figure.

•

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Advantages• A continuous overlapping weld produced by the process makes it suitable

for joining liquid or gas tight containers and vessels.• Efficient energy use.• Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated fumes or gases. This

results in clean welds.Disadvantages• Requires complex control system to regulate the travel speed of

electrodes as well as the sequence of current to provide satisfactoryoverlapping welds. The welding speed, spots per inch and the timingschedule are all dependant on each other.

• Difficult to weld metals having thickness greater than 3 mm.Applications• Used to fabricate liquid or gas tight sheet metal vessels such as gasoline

tanks, heat exchangers.

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Resistance Butt Welding

• Resistance butt welding or upset welding is a resistance welding process inwhich the two parts to be joined are heated to elevated temperatures andforged (by applying the desired pressure) together at that temperature

• Figure shows the equipment for resistance butt welding process.

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Description and Operation• The machine used for butt welding consists of two clamps mounted on a

horizontal slide.• The clamps are made from a conducting material, usually copper alloy which serve

to carry high currents from a step-down transformer.• The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other

oxides either chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.• The workpieces are clamped rigidly on the welding machine.• By applying external force, the work piece in the movable clamp is brought in tight

contact with the surface of the workpiece in the fixed clamp.• High amperage current is then passed through the joint which heats the

neighboring surfaces.• When the workpieces reaches a temperature of about 1600-1700°F, pressure is

increased to give a forging squeeze.• Upsetting takes place while the current is flowing, and continues until the current

is switched OFF.• After the metal has cooled, the pressure is released and the weld is completed.• The weld joint obtained will be bulged and round due to the squeezing action of

the softened metal.• This unwanted material can be removed later by machining process.

* Upset - To decrease the length and increase the cross-section

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Advantages

• Joint obtained is clean, as filler metal is not used in this process.

• Produces defect free joint. Oxides, scales and other impurities are thrownout of the weld joint due to the high pressure applied at elevatedtemperatures.

Disadvantages

• The process is suitable for parts with similar cross-sectional area.

• Joint preparation is a must for proper heating of workpieces to take place.

Applications

• Used for producing joints in long tubes and pipes

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Projection Welding

• Projection welding is a resistance welding process in which the workpieces arejoined by the heat generated due to the resistance of the workpieces to the flowof electric current through them.

• The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by projections,embossments, or intersections.

• Figure shows the resistance projection welding process.

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Description and Operation

• The process uses two flat, large cylindrically shaped water cooled copperelectrodes in which one electrode is fixed, while the other to which the pressureis applied is movable.

• The electrodes are connected to a step-down transformer that provides therequired electric current for heating.

• One of the workpieces contains small projections or embossment (similar to apimple on a human face) made at a particular location where the joint is to bemade.

• The workpieces are cleaned to remove dust, scale and other oxides eitherchemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.

• The workpieces are then placed between the two electrodes and held firmlyunder external pressure.

• When the welding current is made to pass through the electrodes, to theworkpieces, maximum heat is generated at the point of contact of the twoworkpieces, i.e., at the projections.

• This heat softens and melts the projections causing it to collapse under theexternal pressure of the electrode thereby forming a spot weld. Refer figure.

• The current is switched OFF and the pressure on the workpiece is removed.

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Advantages• More than one spot weld can be made in a single operation.• Welding current and pressure required is less.• Suitable for automation.• Filler metals are not used. Hence, clean weld joints are obtained.Disadvantages• Projections cannot be made in thin workpieces.• Thin workpieces cannot withstand the electrode pressure.• Equipment is costlier.Applications• A very common use of projection welding is the use of special nuts that have

projections on the portion of the part to be welded to the assembly.• Also, used for welding parts of refrigerator, condensers, refrigerator racks, grills

etc.

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FRICTION WELDING

• Friction Welding is a solid state welding process wherein coalescence is producedby the heat obtained from mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbingsurfaces.

• The work parts are held together under pressure.

• Figure shows the arrangement for friction welding process.

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Description and Operation

• The machine for friction welding is similar to a lathe which consists of a chuck heldin the spindle of the headstock.

• The chuck holds one of the workpieces and rotates it at high speeds (around 3000rpm).

• The other workpiece is held stationary and in a movable clamp so that it can bebrought in contact with the rotating workpiece.

• The workpieces to be joined are prepared to have a smooth square cut surfaces.

• In operation, the stationary work piece is slowly brought in contact with therotating workpiece under an axial force. Refer figure.

• As the workpieces come in contact with each other, friction is generated at thecontact surface resulting in heating of the workpieces.

• The axial pressure to the stationary workpiece is increased until the frictionbetween the surfaces raises the heat to the welding temperature.

• At this moment, the rotation of the workpiece is stopped, but the pressure ismaintained or, in some cases increased to complete the weld.

• The weld joint obtained will be bulged due to the squeezing action of the softenedmetal. The excess metal can be removed by machining.

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Advantages

• Process is simple

• Low power requirements.

• Edge preparation is not required. The impurities are thrown away by the frictiongenerated between the two workpieces.

• No filler metal. Hence, the joint obtained is clean.

• Dissimilar metals can be easily welded.

Disadvantages

• The process is restricted to tubular parts and butt welds.

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EXPLOSIVE WELDING

• Explosive welding is a solid state welding process in which detonation of explosivesis used to accelerate one of the workpieces to move towards another workpiece,so that the impact creates a joint and completes the weld.

• Figure shows the arrangement for explosive welding process.

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Description and Operation

• One of the workpiece called 'baseplate' rests on a rigid base or anvil,while the other workpiece called 'flyer plate' is inclined at a pre-selectedangle (usually around 5°) to the base plate as shown in figure .

• A buffer usually made of a rubber or cardboard is placed above the flyerplate to prevent the surface damage of the flyer plate due to thedetonation of explosives.

• An explosive material (TNT, RDX) in the form of a sheet is placed abovethe buffer and is ignited from its lower edge.

• As the detonation force progresses across the flyer plate, a very highcompressive stress wave in the order of thousands of MPa sweeps acrossthe surface of the plate.

• This causes the flyer plate to move rapidly towards the base plate so thatthe impact creates a joint and completes the weld.

• The entire operation is carried out in a chamber to prevent any accidentcaused due to the detonation of explosives.

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Advantages• Bond strength of weld metals is very high.• Edge preparation is not required.• No melting of base metal.• No filler metal is required.• Dissimilar metals can be joined easilyDisadvantages• Storage and use of explosives are dangerous.• Detonation of explosives can damage the workpieces. Hence, work pieces with

high impact resistance only are suitable for this process.• Not suitable for thick plates, as they require higher detonation velocities.Applications• Used for cladding (shell) of metals for the purpose of corrosion prevention.• Also, dissimilar metals such as titanium to steel, aluminum to steel etc., can be

successfully welded with this process.

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THERMIT WELDING

• Thermit welding or alumino-thermit welding is a fusion welding process in whichthe workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from a chemical reaction of thethermit mixture.

• Pressure may or may not be applied during the process.

• The thermit mixture is a mixture of iron oxide and aluminum powder, and whenthis mixture is brought to its ignition temperature of about 1200°C, reactionstarts, producing molten iron and slag (A1203) releasing enormous amount ofheat.

3 Fe304 + 8 Al-> 9 Fe + 4 A1203 + heat

• The molten iron (Fe) obtained is poured into the cavity (gap between the twoworkpieces) and upon solidification, complete fusion takes place.

• Figure shows the welding of rail joint (I-section) using thermit welding process.

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Description and Operation

• The edges of the workpiece are cut flat and cleaned to remove dirt, grease andother impurities to obtain a sound weld.

• A gap of about 1.5-6 mm is left between the edges of the two workpieces.

• A wax heated to its' plastic state is poured in the gap between the workpieces tobe joined and allowed to solidify.

• Excess wax solidified around

the joint is removed.

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Description and Operation ( Continued…..)• A mould box is placed around the joint and packed with sand providing necessary

gates and risers.• A hole or heating gate is made in the mould connecting to the joint as shown in

figure.• The wax material is melted out by means of a flame directed into the heating

gate, so that it leaves a cavity at the joint which will later be occupied by themolten metal.

• The heating gate is then closed with a sand core or iron plug.• A crucible containing the thermit mixture is suspended above the pouring cup.• The mixture is ignited by lighting a magnesium ribbon or sparkler.• Exothermic reaction occurs to form molten iron and slag which floats at the top.• The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 2500°C.• The reaction is allowed a specific time (around 60 seconds) and the slag is

removed from the surface of the molten metal.• The plug at the bottom of the crucible is opened and the molten metal is poured

into the cavity.• The molten metal acts as a filler metal, melts the edges of the joint and fuses to

form a weld.• After the weld joint cools and solidifies, the mould is broken, risers are cut and

the joint is finished by machining and grinding.

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Advantages• Heat required for welding is obtained from the chemical reaction of the

thermit mixture. Hence, no costly power supply is required.• The process is best suitable, particularly in remote locations where

sophisticated welding equipments and power supply cannot be arranged.Disadvantages• Process is applicable only to ferrous metal parts.• Process consumes more time.Applications• Used in repair and welding of large forgings and castings, pipes, mill

housings and heavy rail sections.

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LASER WELDING

• Laser welding or laser beam welding is a radiant energy welding process in whichthe workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from the application of aconcentrated coherent (Consistent) light beam impinging upon the surfaces to bejoined.

• Figure shows the principle

and working of a laser beam

welding.

The operation is similar to that, when the sun rays are made to concentrate on a single spot on a paper which is placed below a magnifying lens, the paper burns. The laser energy source is a refinement of this process

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Theory

• The term 'LASER' stands for 'Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission ofRadiation'.

• The laser is a device that produces a light beam with the following properties:

– The light is nearly monochromatic (single wave length).

– The light is coherent with waves exactly in phase with one other.

– The laser beam is extremely intense (powerful).

– The laser light is highly collimated. It could travel a distance of about 3/4th ofmillion kilometers without any deviation.

– By virtue of the above properties, lasers find application in welding a varietyof materials.

Description and Operation

• Laser beam equipment consists of a cylindrical ruby crystal with both the endsmade absolutely parallel to each other.

• Ruby is aluminum oxide (Al02) with chromium dispersed throughout it.

• One of the end faces of the ruby crystal is highly silvered so that it reflects nearly96% of the incident light.

• In order to tap the laser output, the other end face of the crystal is partiallysilvered and contains a small hole through which the laser beam emerges.

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• The ruby crystal is surrounded by a helical flash tube containing inert gas 'xenon'which itself in turn is surrounded by a 'reflector' to maximize the intensity of theincident light on the ruby crystal.

• The flash tube converts electrical energy into light energy.

• Cooling system, either gas or liquid is provided to protect the ruby crystal fromthe enormous amount of heat generated.

• When the flash tube is connected to a pulsed high voltage source, xenontransforms the electrical energy into white light flashes (light energy).

• As the ruby is exposed to the intense light flashes, the chromium atoms of thecrystal are excited and pumped to a high energy level.

• These chromium atoms immediately drop to an intermediate energy level withthe evolution of heat and eventually drop back to their original state with theevolution of a discrete quantity of radiation in the form of red fluorescent light.

• As the red light emitted by one excited atom hits another excited atom, thesecond atom gives off red light which is in phase with the colliding red light wave.

• The effect is enhanced as the silvered ends of the ruby crystal cause the red lightto reflect back and forth along the length of the crystal.

• The chain reaction collisions between the red light wave and the chromiumatoms becomes so numerous that, finally the total energy bursts and escapesthrough the tiny hole as a 'LASER BEAM'.

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• The laser beam is focused by an optical focusing lens on to the spot to bewelded.

• Optical energy as it impacts the workpiece is converted into heat energy.• Due to the heat generated, the material melts over a tiny area and upon cooling,

the material within becomes homogeneous solid structure to make a strongerjoint.

Advantages• Similar and dissimilar metals can be welded easily.• Laser beam can be controlled to a great precision and hence, the welding spots

could also be located precisely. Certain locations in the material that are difficult-to-reach can be welded easily by this process.

• Heating and cooling rates are much higher in this process. Also, heat affectedzone is very small. Hence, the process is ideal for locations which are surroundedby heat sensitive components.

• Clean weld joints can be obtained by this process.Disadvantages• Slow welding speeds (25 - 250 mm/min).• Rapid cooling rate cause problems such as cracking in high carbon steels.• High equipment costs.Applications• Used in electronics industry for applications such as connecting wire leads to

small electronic components, to weld medical equipments, transmissioncomponents in automobiles.

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ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

• Electron beam welding is a radiant energy welding process in which theworkpieces are joined by the heat obtained from a concentrated beam composedprimarily of high-velocity electrons impinging on the surfaces to be joined.

• Figure shows the schematic of an electron beam welding.

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Description and Operation• The system consists of an electronic gun and a vacuum chamber inside which the

workpieces to be joined are placed.• The electronic gun emits and accelerates the beam of electrons and focuses it on

the workpieces.• When a tungsten filament is electrically heated in vacuum to approximately

2000°C, it emits electrons.• The electrons are then accelerated towards the hollow anode by establishing a

high difference of voltage potential between the tungsten filament and a metalanode.

• The electrons pass through the anode at high speeds (approximately half thespeed of light), then collected into a concentrated beam and further directedtowards the workpiece with the help of magnetic forces resulting from focusingand deflection coils.

• The highly accelerated electrons hit the base metal and penetrate slightly belowthe base surface.

• The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into heat energy.• The succession (Series) of electrons striking at the same place causes the

workpiece metal to melt and fuse together.• It should be noted that, the greater the kinetic energy of the electrons, the

greater is the amount of heat released.• Since electrons cannot travel well through air, they are made to travel in vacuum

which is the reason for enclosing the electron gun and the workpiece in a vacuumchamber.

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Advantages

• Any metals, including zirconium, beryllium or tungsten can be easily welded.

• High quality welds, as the operation is carried in vacuum.

• Concentrated beam minimizes distortion.

• Cooling rate is much higher.

• Heat affected zone is less.

• Shielding gas, flux or filler metal is not required.

Disadvantages

• High capital cost.

• Extensive joint preparation is required.

• Vacuum requirements tend to limit the production rate.

• Size of the vacuum chamber restricts the size of the workpiece being welded.

• Not suitable for high carbon steels. Cracks occur due to high cooling rates.

Applications

• Used in electronic industries, automotive and aircraft industries where thequality of weld required forms the decisive factor.

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