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Safeguarding Waterwaysin the Southeast

How to Protect 10 Pristine Rivers

U.S. Public Interest Research GroupEducation Fund

February 2007

Safeguarding Waterwaysin the Southeast:

How to Protect 10 Pristine Rivers

Alexios Nicolaos MonopolisElizabeth Ridlington

Timothy Telleen-LawtonTony Dutzik

Rose Garr

February 2007

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Heather Jacobs of the Pamlico-Tar Riverkeeper, landowner Wes Coolerof the Eastatoe River Basin, Jacqueline Miller of the Virginia Department of Conservationand Recreation, Jason Van Driesche and John Tynan of Upstate Forever, Klugh Jordan ofthe Eno River Association, Cindy Johnson of the Suwannee River Water ManagementDistrict, Roy Ogles of the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve, Janet Klemmand Eric Shaw of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Darcie Holcombof the Upper Chattahoochee Riverkeeper, Sally Mello of the Hazel River Task Force, TomGregory of Friends of Dragon Run, Annette Long of Save Our Suwannee, John Rumpler,Christy Leavitt of U.S. PIRG., Elizabeth Ouzts of Environment North Carolina, JennetteGayer of Environment Georgia, and Mark Ferrulo of Environment Florida for providinginformation and helping to review this report.

The generous financial support of the Educational Foundation of America made thisreport possible.

The authors alone bear responsibility for any factual errors. The recommendations in thisreport are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of our funders orthose who reviewed drafts of the report.

Copyright 2006 U.S. PIRG Education Fund

With public debate around important issues often dominated by special interests pursuingtheir own narrow agendas, U.S. PIRG Education Fund offers an independent voice thatworks on behalf of the public interest. U.S. PIRG Education Fund, a 501(c)(3) organiza-tion, works to preserve the environment, protect consumers and promote good govern-ment. We investigate problems, craft solutions, educate the public, and offer Americansmeaningful opportunities for civic participation.

For additional copies of this report, visit www.uspirg.org or send $20 to:U.S. PIRG Education Fund218 D St. SEWashington, DC 20003

Cover Photo: Heather JacobsLayout: Harriet Eckstein Graphic Design

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 5

Introduction 8

Protecting Precious Waterways in the Southeast:Outstanding National Resource Waters Designation 10Development: The Primary Threat to the Southeast’sExceptional Waterways 10The Clean Water Act’s Antidegradation Policy:A Powerful Tool for Protecting Waterways 12

Ten Exceptional Waterways of the Southeast 14Apalachicola River, Florida 14Chattahoochee River, Georgia 15Conasauga and Jacks Rivers, Georgia 16Dragon Run, Virginia 18Eastatoe River, South Carolina 19Eno River, North Carolina 20Hazel River, Virginia 21Middle Saluda River, South Carolina 22Suwannee River, Florida 24Tar River, North Carolina 25

Policy Recommendations 27

Notes 29

4 Safeguarding Waterways in the Southeast

Executive Summary 5

Executive Summary

The Southeast is home to breathtakinglybeautiful rivers, lakes, and streams.Despite the pollution and degradation

of many waterways in the region, theSoutheast still holds some of the most pris-tine, biologically diverse, and beautiful wa-terways anywhere in the nation.

However, as sprawling residential andcommercial development continues tospread into previously remote corners ofthe Southeast, many of the region’s mostspecial waterways face new threats. Runoffpollution from new development, excessivewater withdrawals, and continuing expo-sure to agricultural and industrial pollutionpose challenges to the delicate ecologicalbalance in many of the Southeast’s mostpristine waterways.

This report identifies 10 special riversin the Southeast of exceptional beauty, rec-reational value and ecological importance.Each of these waterways faces significantchallenges. And all of them deserve thehighest level of protection the Clean Wa-ter Act affords—designation as Outstand-ing National Resource Waters.

The waterways profiled in this reportinclude:

1. Apalachicola River, Florida: TheApalachicola River is one of the mostbiologically diverse and ecologicallyimportant rivers in Florida.

2. Conasauga and Jacks Rivers,Georgia: These two mountainstreams combine to form theConasauga, which supports more than90 different fish species and 25 speciesof freshwater mussels, making it oneof the 10 most biologically diverserivers in the nation.

3. Chattahoochee River, Georgia:The Chattahoochee is the best-knownand most beloved waterway inGeorgia, providing drinking waterfor much of the Atlanta metro area,recreational opportunities, and habitatfor several rare fish species.

4. Dragon Run, Virginia: The rivermeanders through wetlands virtuallyuntouched by human influence and isto home to bald eagles and 15 rarespecies.


5. Eastatoe River, South Carolina: TheEastatoe River descends from itsheadwaters through a dramatic gorge,providing excellent trout fishing andhiking opportunities, containingextraordinary biodiversity, and con-tributing to a major regional source ofdrinking water.

6. Eno River, North Carolina: Linedwith popular state and local parks, theEno River sustains a variety of rare andsensitive species including nationallysignificant mussels, snails, salamandersand fish.

7. Hazel River, Virginia: Surrounded bywoods, the Hazel River is scenic, wild,and largely unpolluted. It has beennominated three times for protectionas an “exceptional state water.”

8. Middle Saluda River, South Caro-lina: The state’s first river to receive aWild and Scenic designation, the MiddleSaluda’s clear, cold water supportsreproducing trout populations and issurrounded by 400 species of plants,including some that are endangered.

9. Suwannee River, Florida: TheSuwannee River is the only undisturbedmajor river system in the southeasternUnited States, without any dams, andsupports a wide variety of wildlife.

10. Tar River, North Carolina: The TarRiver, home to many rare and endan-gered species, provides drinking waterfor the town of Tarboro, and is afavorite recreation spot.

States in the Southeast have the toolsavailable to protect these and other excep-tional waterways. The federal Clean Wa-ter Act allows states to designate waterwaysas “Outstanding National Resource Wa-ters.” Under that designation, no degrada-tion of water quality is permitted—meaningthat these special waterways will be main-tained for generations of Southerners toenjoy.

For each of the waterways profiled in thisreport and for other exceptional waterways,the states should:

• Designate the waterways as Outstand-ing National Resource Waters andpropose rules for the protection ofthese waters as quickly as possible.

• Put a hold on permits for dischargesinto these rivers and streams until therulemaking process for individualwaterways is complete.

• Create or revise rules to ensure thatOutstanding National ResourceWaters status provides pristine water-ways with full protection from thegrowing threat of runoff pollutionfrom development.

• Develop a timetable for the protectionof the state’s remaining unspoiledwaterways.

There are many beautiful rivers andstreams needing protection. This reporthighlights some of the most pristine wa-ters in the southeastern United States, allneeding public support to ensure their un-spoiled nature is preserved.

Executive Summary 7


C rystal clear mountain streams teem-ing with trout. Meandering riverssliding their way through undis-

turbed wetlands on their way to the sea.Mysterious blackwater rivers. Rivers ofsong, story and legend.

The Southeast has long been shaped, inways large and small, by its rivers andstreams. Rivers provided means of trans-portation and commerce for early settlersand sources of water for growing Southerncommunities. Our coastal river estuaries,

Introduction

Hazel River, Virginia

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Introduction 9

then as now, have helped sustain the richdiversity of our marine environment, sup-plying the region and the nation with fishand shellfish, and luring anglers and wild-life enthusiasts from around the world.

The dramatic growth and developmentof the Southeast over the past several de-cades has brought new opportunities to theregion, but it has also cost us natural trea-sures that can never be replaced. The re-gion has lost vast areas of open space andforest land. And the quality of water inmany of our rivers and streams has suffered.

In remote corners and cherished areasof the Southeast, however, a few exceptionalwaterways remain. These waterways areimportant to our economy—drawing visi-tors from afar and providing valuablesources of clean drinking water. They areimportant to the natural web of life thatsustains all of us, providing habitat forcountless species of plants and animals—some found nowhere else on Earth. Andthey remind us of our cultural heritage, ourconnection to nature, and the delicacy,intricacy and beauty of undisturbedecosystems.

To lose what is special about these riversand streams as a result of reckless develop-ment or a lack of appropriate effort wouldbe a tragedy—not just for us, but for gen-erations to come. Yet, across the region,development is threatening to encroachupon the Southeast’s most pristine and spe-cial waterways.

Thankfully, residents of our region aretaking action. They have started land pres-ervation programs in environmentally sen-

sitive watersheds, organized water moni-toring programs, conducted scientific re-search, pressed for greater protection forthese waterways, and helped spread theword about what makes these waterwaysspecial through environmental educationefforts.

The federal Clean Water Act providesone more tool citizens can use to ensurepermanent protection of these waterways:designation as Outstanding National Re-source Waters. The Outstanding NationalResource Waters designation affords thehighest level of protection available underthe Clean Water Act, ensuring that the cur-rent level of water quality in those riversand streams is maintained and providingfocus for efforts to restore ecologically andrecreationally important waterways thatface significant threats.

The 10 rivers highlighted in this reportare emblematic of the types of southeast-ern waterways deserving of OutstandingNational Resource Water protection. Theyrepresent a variety of ecosystems in a vari-ety of states along the southeastern sea-board, stretching from Virginia to Florida.They are by no means the only waterwaysof significance to the region, nor the onlyones deserving of such protection. But thestories of these waterways remind us whyit is so important to maintain the specialecosystems that remain in the Southeast,even in the face of ongoing threats to theircontinued health.

These waterways are invaluable. Butonce they are gone—or altered beyond rec-ognition—they can never be recovered.


C lean water is the lifeblood of theSoutheast. The region’s rivers, lakesand streams provide us with clean

drinking water, recreational opportunities,and habitat for countless species of wildlife.

Too often, however, waterways in theSoutheast have been left to fall into a stateof pollution and degradation. Nutrient run-off from farms, industrial discharges, pol-lution from sewage treatment plants, andurban runoff have caused severe damage tomany waterways across the region. As of2000, the Environmental ProtectionAgency found that 38 percent of assessedrivers and streams nationally were impairedfor fishing, swimming or other uses.1

Still, there remain a few precious gemsof natural beauty and ecological vitality

among the Southeast’s rivers and streams.Even today, a hiker, paddler or angler canfind rivers and streams that are close to theirnatural condition. These waterways sup-port vigorous and diverse populations ofwildlife, including some species found no-where else in the world, and that providehuman communities with clean drinkingwater and a reminder of nature’s beauty.

Many of these waterways are locatedpartly or wholly within state parks and othernominally protected areas. But as with allrivers and streams, they are not only af-fected by development and pollution alongtheir immediate banks, but also by changeselsewhere within their watersheds. Ensur-ing that these rivers remain in their naturaland pristine state requires special tools—tools provided by the federal Clean Water Act.

Development: The PrimaryThreat to the Southeast’sExceptional WaterwaysThroughout the Southeast, waterways aredegraded by pollution from many sources.Historically, agricultural and industrial pol-lution have been among the most impor-

Protecting Precious Waterwaysin the Southeast:Outstanding National Resource Waters Designation

Protecting Precious Waterways 11

tant direct threats to the region’s waterways.Some of the waterways profiled in this re-port face challenges from these sources ofpollution to this day—challenges that mustbe addressed in order to ensure that thesewaterways remain in their high-quality statefor future generations.

The one threat that has the potential toaffect all the waterways profiled in this re-port is the threat posed by the sprawlingresidential and commercial developmentthat has characterized the Southeast overthe last few decades. From 1990 to 2005,the population of the five southern statesincluded in this report increased by an av-erage of 33 percent.2 From 1992 to 2003,the amount of developed land in the regionincreased by 38 percent.3

Population growth is expected to slowslightly in the next 15 years, for a total re-gional increase of 25 percent.4 At the highend, Florida’s population will increase by34 percent, while South Carolina will growmost slowly at 14 percent. No projectionsare available for how much land will bedeveloped to accommodate this growingpopulation, but if past patterns continue,thousands of acres will be developed.

Development poses a variety of threatsto waterways. Development brings with itan increase in the amount of “impervioussurface” in an area—the land covered bypavement, buildings and other structuresthat do not allow rainfall to penetrate intothe ground. This increases the amount ofrunoff that finds its way, unfiltered, intorivers and streams. Runoff carries with it ahost of pollutants—including fertilizer, pes-ticides, dirt, oil, grease, bacteria and sedi-ment—that can cause degradation of waterquality and the impairment of river eco-systems.

Runoff, along with improper develop-ment near river banks, can cause erosionof stream banks and contribute to greaterrisk of flooding. Construction activities thatinvolve clearing land for development, in-cluding highways and shopping malls, ex-pose thousands of acres of soil every yearto erosion caused by wind and rain. Unless

erosion control methods are employed,tons of soil can be lost from just one clearedacre of land during a heavy rainstorm.5 Thesoil picked up during storms is carried tolakes and streams.

Though this material may be suspendedin water for a time, it will eventually settleout into deposits. Some sedimentation isnatural, as a river picks up silt and gravelfrom upstream during high flows and de-posits them wherever the water slows down.Unnaturally high sedimentation, however,as caused by runoff from constructionprojects or developed land, can destroy sen-sitive aquatic environments.6 Wetlands, forexample, can quickly change shape and be-come more susceptible to invasive species,making it difficult for native species tothrive.7

In addition, residential development in-creases strain on sewage systems and sew-age treatment facilities (or, in more ruralareas, causes an expansion in the use of sep-tic tanks). Sewage treatment facilities andsewage overflows are significant water pol-luters, adding nutrients and a host of otherpollutants to waterways.

Excessive nutrients in a waterway, asfrom sewage or fertilizers, can causeeutrophication.8 Microorganisms that feedon the nutrients dramatically increase innumber, reducing water quality and sun-light penetration in the streams. Both sew-age and fertilizer contamination can bereduced with better practices, but develop-ment makes the problems worse.

Development also brings new demandsfor water that can endanger rivers by re-ducing their flows. While withdrawingdrinking water directly from the river is oneobvious cause of reduced river levels, rely-ing on groundwater through wells can besimilarly problematic. Groundwater is partof a complex hydrological system that feedsand sustains high water quality in rivers andstreams. For example, the Suwanee Riverin Florida is fed by 180 springs. Withdraw-ing groundwater reduces the amount ofwater available to feed the river and with-drawing water from the river lowers the


water table that feeds the springs.The Southeast’s pristine waterways are

often able to sustain their aquatic commu-nities only because they maintain a delicateecological balance. The temperature of atrout stream, the salinity in a brackish wa-ter ecosystem, and the level of nutrients ina river or stream all have a dramatic impacton the health of wildlife and on the attrac-tiveness of a waterway for recreational use.Even subtle changes—the addition ofnutrients from a new farm, septic systemor sewage treatment plant; the addition ofsediment from a construction site; a shiftin water temperature or increase in pen-etration of sunlight due to the removal ofvegetation that once provided shade—canhave significant and lasting impacts on thehealth of a waterway and the species thatlive within it. Sediment can destroy shadspawning grounds and bury freshwatermussels, threatening their survival.9 De-creased shade can raise water temperature,causing dissolved oxygen levels to drop andreducing the quality of habitat for fish.10

As residential and commercial develop-ment spreads outward into previously re-mote areas of the Southeast, the pressuresexperienced by the region’s most excep-tional waterways can only be expected toincrease. Thankfully, the federal CleanWater Act provides a powerful tool statescan use to ensure that these waterways arepreserved in their natural condition: theOutstanding National Resource Watersdesignation.

The Clean Water Act’sAntidegradation Policy:A Powerful Tool forProtecting WaterwaysThe Clean Water Act, passed in 1972, isthe main federal law governing water pol-lution in the United States. The crafters ofthe Clean Water Act recognized that wa-terways in the United States face a varietyof conditions, ranging from heavy pollu-tion from industrial sources that needs tobe cleaned up, to pristine conditions thatshould be thoroughly protected from fu-ture damage.

The Clean Water Act instructs thatstates should implement water protectionstandards, with oversight by the federalgovernment. Through a federal-state part-nership, states develop their own standardsand programs as required by the CleanWater Act and they then submit those poli-cies to the EPA, which must ensure that thestates are in compliance with the Act. If theEPA concludes that a state has failed todevelop adequate water quality standards,it will intervene and develop standards thatprovide the protection required by the Act.In addition, any time a state revises or adoptsnew standards, the EPA must again reviewthem to ensure compliance with the Act.11

States must classify waterways into thosethat meet and those that fail to meet waterquality standards, which are based on wa-ter quality that is adequate to allow “desig-nated uses” such as fishing, swimming, anduse for drinking water. Waters that are toopolluted to allow their designated use areclassified as “impaired” and states must de-velop plans for cleaning them up. Water-ways that do meet water quality standardsare subject to the Clean Water Act’s “anti-degradation” policy, which prevents back-sliding on water quality.

The anti-degradation policy offers threelevels, or “tiers,” of protection. Tier 1protection ensures that a waterway will beprotected so that existing uses—whether in-dustrial water use, fishing, or recreation—

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Eastatoe River, South Carolina

Protecting Precious Waterways 13

can be maintained. Pollution levels in awaterway can be allowed to increase, pro-vided the river remains clean enough forexisting uses to continue. For example, ariver that is currently used for an industrialwater supply but not for drinking watercould be allowed to become more polluted,provided that pollution levels do not makethe river too dirty for industrial use.

Tier 2 protection applies to higher-qual-ity waters, those that are clean enough atleast to support fish and wildlife popula-tions, and to allow safe recreational use ofthe water.12 States may allow additionalpollution of these waterways, but only un-der extraordinary circumstances. The ad-ditional pollution may not be so great thatit threatens an existing use. Before addi-tional pollution is allowed, the state mustoffer an opportunity for public participa-tion, evaluate the alternatives to the pro-posed discharge, and determine that thelowering of water quality “is necessary toaccommodate important economic or so-cial development in the area in which thewaters are located.”13 In other words, Tier2 does not provide foolproof protection fora waterway, but it erects additional hurdlesto proposals that would allow more pollution.

Tier 3 protection is intended for water-ways that “constitute an outstanding Na-tional resource, such as waters of Nationaland State parks and wildlife refuges andwaters of exceptional recreational or eco-logical significance.”14 In these waterways,dubbed “Outstanding National ResourceWaters,” “water quality shall be maintainedand protected,” meaning that no furtherdegradation of water quality shall be allowed.Water quality in a waterway need not bepristine in order for a Tier 3 designation

to take place, if it is an important recre-ational or ecological resource.15 Federalpolicy also allows members of the publicto nominate waterways for Tier 3 protec-tion.

States are permitted to adopt their ownanti-degradation policies, but in no casemay a state policy be weaker than the fed-eral policy. For example, Virginia hasadopted an anti-degradation policy toprotect Tier 3 waters, which are known inVirginia as Exceptional State Waters. Vir-ginia protects Exceptional State Waters byprohibiting permanent increased dis-charges into the waterway.16 Increased pol-lution is allowed upstream from theExceptional State Waters segment, so longas it does not reduce water quality in theExceptional State Waters segment.17

Several states have used the flexibility ofthe federal anti-degradation requirement todefine an intermediate level of protectionbetween Tier 2 and Tier 3. These “Tier2.5” designations generally provide addi-tional protection to waterways beyond Tier2 status, but often without the formal andcomplete prohibition on water quality deg-radation provided by Tier 3. The strengthof Tier 2.5 protections varies widely fromstate to state.

Historically, the Clean Water Act’s anti-degradation policy has been a much-over-looked tool for preserving water quality. Inrecent years, however, states have begun touse the policy—and particularly the abilityto designate Outstanding National Re-source Waters—to offer full protection totheir most pristine and important water-ways. Numerous waterways in the South-east are prime candidates for thatdesignation.


Apalachicola River, FloridaFlorida’s biggest river is also one of its rich-est natural treasures. The ApalachicolaRiver, which starts at Lake Seminole on theborder with Georgia and crosses the pan-handle to the Gulf of Mexico, is one of thetop six biodiversity “hot spots” in the

United States.18 However, the Apalachicolafaces significant threats to its future healthand vitality.

The Apalachicola’s 107-mile length andits surrounding watershed is home to thou-sands of species—1,300 species of plants,including 60 trees and two of the world’srarest evergreens, the Florida torreya and

Ten Exceptional Waterwaysof the Southeast

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Ten Exceptional Waterways of the Southeast 15

the Florida yew; 131 varieties of fish; 38types of mussels; 308 bird species; and 57mammal species.19 The estuary fed by theriver, Apalachicola Bay, is also a biologicalwonder, and is highly dependent on theriver’s fresh water. Sheltered by islands, thebay serves as a nursery for many Gulf ofMexico marine species, and is home toscores of threatened species and over adozen federally endangered species of rep-tiles, birds, mammals and plants.20

The Apalachicola River is also impor-tant for recreation and commercial fishing.The Apalachicola River provides opportu-nities for fishing, canoeing, wildlife view-ing and other pastimes, while ApalachicolaBay produces one tenth of America’s an-nual oyster catch.21 The Apalachicola ba-sin is also known for its high quality tupelohoney.

With a large watershed that extends intoAlabama and Georgia, the ApalachicolaRiver is inevitably affected by upstreamland use. Both the Chattahoochee andFlint rivers, the primary tributaries tothe Apalachicola, draw water from the de-veloped area around Atlanta, and facethreats to water quality and quantity bythe time they join to become theApalachicola.

Low water flow in the Apalachicolacauses “the quantity and quality of flood-plain habitats for fish, mussels, and otheraquatic organisms” to decline, and wetlandforests of the floodplain to react to the drierconditions.22 As development continues inthe Apalachicola watershed, there will bean increased demand on water from theriver, and the river’s ecosystems could suf-fer the consequences.

The threat from the various types ofpollution that affect the health of theApalachicola ecosystem is amplified by thereduced water quantity, since pollutantsbecome more concentrated with lower wa-ter levels. The Apalachicola is also recov-ering from the impacts of a half-century ofdredging by the Army Corps of Engineers,which sought to keep the river navigablefor commercial barges. Dredging finally

ended in 2004, but could be resumed in thefuture.23

Designation of the Apalachicola as anOutstanding National Resource Water un-der the Clean Water Act would ensure thatthe river is not harmed by future destruc-tive activities like dredging, and that thethreats of reduced flow and higher pollu-tion levels are addressed.

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Chattahoochee River,GeorgiaThe Chattahoochee River is the best-known and most beloved waterway inGeorgia. It also is one of the most heavilyused. Maintaining the quality of the head-waters of the Chattahoochee is importantto ensuring the health of the entire river.

The Chattahoochee River provides thedrinking water for much of the Atlantametro area. It forms Lake Lanier, heavilyused by Atlanta and metro area residents


for boating, fishing and swimming. Justnorth of Atlanta, upstream approximately48 miles to Buford Dam, the river formsthe heart of the Chattahoochee NationalRecreation Area, where people jog, walkand picnic along the river.24 Both above andbelow Buford Dam, the river is also knownas one of the best trout streams in theSoutheast.

Though the metro area’s growth anddevelopment have degraded the river be-low Buford Dam, the Chattahoochee’sheadwaters above Lake Lanier remain rela-tively pristine. The river begins in theChattahoochee National Forest, where theriver and its tributaries are cold and cleanenough to support trout.25 Several rare fishlive in the Chattahoochee’s headwaterstreams, including the Coosa shiner and theTennessee shiner. For years, these two spe-cies were thought to have been extinct inthe watershed, but in 2002 and 2003, thefish were rediscovered there. A third rarespecies—the Halloween darter—also livesin the Chattahoochee Basin, but only in themost pristine streams.26 There have beenfew surveys of fish and other creatures inthe upper Chattahoochee, so obtaining afull list of the species that live there is im-possible.

Development and road constructionthreaten the Chattahoochee. North Geor-gia is growing quickly, attracting peoplewho want a vacation home or who want toescape urban sprawl. A new residential de-velopment in Helen, located on the edgeof the Chattahoochee National Forest,would more than double the size of thetown, increasing development impacts onthe river.27 A federal proposal to constructa new interstate from Knoxville, Tennes-see to Savannah, Georgia—known as I-3—would involve heavy road construction nearthe Chattahoochee’s headwaters.28

The Trust for Public Land has under-taken a campaign to acquire land or ease-ments that would create a 500-foot bufferzone and protect the river.29 Maintainingnatural vegetation near the river reduces theamount of sediment, sewage and poisons

that run into the water. However, only 70miles of river have been protected with aneasement thus far, and such easements willnot necessarily fully protect streams thatfeed into the Chattahoochee.

Designating the headwaters of theChattahoochee as an Outstanding NationalResource Water would help protect thehealth of the river, both in it headwatersand downstream.

Conasauga and JacksRivers, GeorgiaThe Conasauga and Jacks rivers begin innorthern Georgia, providing habitat to fishand other species and offering popular spotsfor fishing, canoeing and other recreationalactivities. Yet, accelerating development innorthern Georgia threatens to upset thedelicate balance that makes the Conasaugaand the Jacks natural treasures.

The Conasauga and Jacks rivers begintheir run in the Cohutta Wilderness. TheConasauga begins at a spring and flows coldand clear through a hardwood forest. The

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trees and rhododendrons growing along theriver’s banks provide ample shade, limitingthe growth of algae. Several species of troutlive in the portion of the river that flowsthrough the Cohutta Wilderness. The riverquickly descends from its origin at 4,000feet, passing through the wilderness areainto the Chattahoochee National Forestand briefly crossing into Tennessee at1,100 feet.30

East of the Conasauga River but stillwithin the Cohutta Wilderness, the JacksRiver flows north until it joins theConasauga River near the Tennessee bor-der. The Jacks River is a popular destina-tion for hikers and backpackers. The riveris well known for its 60-foot waterfall.

Below the confluence of the two rivers,the Conasauga River supports a broad di-versity of aquatic animals. More than 90different fish species live in the river, alongwith 25 species of freshwater mussels, manyof them unusual. Twelve of these fish andmussel species are protected by federal en-dangered or threatened species status.31

One species of fish lives nowhere else inthe world except for a 15-mile stretch ofthe Conasauga River.32 Overall, the riveris one of the 10 most biologically diverserivers in the nation.33 This diversity attractsboth scientists and people who want to wit-ness the river’s unusual ecosystem.

In addition to supporting a broad arrayof species, the Conasauga River is used forrecreation, as a drinking water source, andfor industrial purposes. The portions of theJacks and Conasauga rivers that runthrough national forest and wilderness areused for fishing and canoeing, and camp-ing alongside the river is so popular thatsome areas suffer from overuse. Approxi-mately 125,000 people live in the Cona-sauga River watershed, and many rely uponit for drinking water. Georgia’s carpet in-dustry—which produces two-thirds of thecarpets manufactured in the U.S.—uses vastquantities of water from the river in thewater-intensive carpet-dyeing process.34

Residential development threatens the

Conasauga and Jacks rivers, particularly inthe pristine headwater areas. The headwa-ters of the Conasauga are located just 90minutes from Atlanta, making the regionattractive to urban residents seeking a va-cation home. According to GeorgiaForestwatch, privately owned land withinthe Chattahoochee National Forest is be-coming available for development. Largelandowners and timber companies such asWeyerhaeuser and Inland Container havesold their property, which is being marketedfor residential development.35 A local re-alty company boasts that “the North Geor-gia mountain region is the smart, affordablesolution for second home buyers lookingto quickly get away from it all.”36

The threats to the rivers have attractedattention. The Conasauga River Alliance,a coalition of more than 30 organizations,universities and public agencies, has under-taken a variety of watershed protection andrestoration efforts in the past decade. Thecoalition has repaired or closed roads andtrails that added sediment to the rivers,helped improve the disposal of waste fromlarge poultry farms, replanted trees, andcreated buffer zones along the riverbanks.

In addition, the federal Land and Waterand Conservation Fund allocated approxi-mately $6 million to purchase 1,350 acresof privately owned land from 2002 to 2005.Georgia Forestwatch estimates that another10,000 acres in the Chattahoochee Na-tional Forest should be purchased to limitdevelopment and protect rivers in thearea.37 In 2006, this would have cost anestimated $21 million. That cost will riseover time.

The Conasauga and Jacks rivers are twoof the four “Scenic Rivers” recognized bythe state of Georgia. This designation pro-vides protection from dams and otherchanges in the natural flow of the river butnot from new sources of pollution. Furtherprotection could be added to the rivers bygiving both the Conasauga and Jacks riversOutstanding Natural Resource Waterdesignation.


Dragon Run, VirginiaThe Dragon’s swamps, streams and marshesembrace a wilderness unparalleled on the Chesa-peake. Gossamer bells dangle from the pinkstems of fetterbush, and the buttonbush bloomlike tiny supernovas, translucent spears of lightshooting from their bright white centers. Baldcypress trees loom from the water, their massivetrunks as wide as eight feet. Mistletoe clumpsin the treetops, and turks cap lilies flame like athousand orange suns against the rich green ofthe wetland forest. Otters slide through the darkwater, beavers build, ospreys and eagles soar andkeen above.

—Wendy Mitman Clarke,Window on the Chesapeake38

Dragon Run, a 40-mile river in Virginia’sMiddle Peninsula, meanders through wet-lands that have been characterized as “someof the most extensive and unspoiled swampforest and woodland communities” in thestate.39 Left virtually untouched by humaninfluence, the Dragon Run watershed ishome to 15 rare species and five rare natu-ral communities despite encompassing only140 square miles of forests, wetlands, andscattered farms.40 Now, however, DragonRun faces threats from increasing develop-ment near the waterway.

The Dragon Run watershed is the north-ernmost example of a Baldcypress-TupeloSwamp ecological community in the

United States—a type of ecosystem char-acterized by an often-flooded forest domi-nated by cypress and tupelo trees. As aresult, the area is home to a variety of rarespecies, as well as to bald eagles. The Vir-ginia Coastal Program reports that “thestream, along with the surrounding DragonRun Swamp, forms an ecologically uniquesystem. A system of excellent water qualityand numerous and diverse species of floraand fauna.”41 The Dragon Run area ispopular for hunting, fishing and canoeing.

But what makes Dragon Run and its sur-rounding ecosystem truly unique is its un-disturbed character. Only about 1 percentof the land in the Dragon Run watershedconsists of “impervious cover”—land cov-ered by pavement, buildings and otherstructures that impede rainfall absorption.42

High levels of impervious cover in an areacan cause excessive runoff, leading to wa-ter quality problems. The lack of humandisturbance along Dragon Run has helpedkeep the water quality high, and led oneresearcher to describe the waterway as a“100 year old time capsule.”43

The pristine character of Dragon Runis due in large part to the efforts of localland-owners and conservationists. Cur-rently, there are only about 500 residencesin the Dragon Run watershed, and it ischaracterized largely by low-impact landuses.44

Dragon Run’s future as a pristine andunique ecosystem, however, is not guaran-teed. Population growth in three of the fourcounties that share the watershed is at least14.4% a year, enough to quadruple in sizewithin a decade.45 And the Dragon Runwatershed itself is zoned for 40,000 hous-ing units.46 Intense residential or other de-velopment within the watershed wouldpermanently change the area’s pristine andundisturbed character, while also increas-ing the potential for water quality problemsin Dragon Run itself.

Residential and commercial develop-ment elsewhere in the Chesapeake Bay areahave wreaked havoc on water quality andthe integrity of ecosystems. The Anacostia

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River in the District of Columbia, for ex-ample, is now the target of a restorationcampaign to undo the damage done by de-velopment without an eye toward its effectson the river. It doesn’t have to be that wayin the Dragon Run watershed. With Out-standing National Resource Waters desig-nation, Virginia can ensure that anydevelopment that does occur in the DragonRun watershed does not result in the deg-radation of the waterway. All new develop-ment in the watershed would be requiredto ensure that it will not negatively impactDragon Run, preserving it as a uniquelywild and ecologically significant part ofVirginia’s natural heritage.

Carolina’s best trout fishing as well as ex-traordinary scenic beauty. Below the gorge,the river valley opens up and the Eastatoeflows through beautiful and historic agri-cultural lands before entering a secondgorge section and finally emptying intoLake Keowee. The Eastatoe River’s fragileecological balance, however, is jeopardizedby development in both North Carolinaand South Carolina.

The Eastatoe has exceptional recre-ational and ecological value. It was selectedby South Carolina Game and Fish magazineas one of the top five trout waters in thestate.47 The river is home to a mostly self-sustaining population of wild trout—mostlyrainbow trout but also, according to anec-dotal evidence, wild brook trout.48 Healthytrout populations depend on clean water,healthy aquatic communities, and appro-priate water temperatures. Most of the 750miles of trout streams in South Carolina’snorthwestern corner are impaired due tosediment loading and temperature, so theEastatoe’s healthy trout fishery is particu-larly special.

The Eastatoe also traverses a landscapeof extraordinary biological diversity. Amountain on one side of the river hostsnearly 1,000 species of plants, nearly 20 ofwhich are not found elsewhere in SouthCarolina and two which were until recentlyunknown to science.49 Indeed, it is knownas the most botanically diverse place inSouth Carolina. The rare Turnbridge fernexists within the river’s narrows, the onlyplace in the continental western hemi-sphere where it is found.50 At high waterlevels, the Eastatoe is also an occasionaldestination for whitewater kayakers, pro-viding miles of class II to class IV rapids.

Below the gorge, the Eastatoe Riverpasses through an agricultural valley, pro-viding an excellent example of a healthy,intact ecosystem within a farm setting, andeventually into Lake Keowee, whichserves as a drinking water source for theGreenville metropolitan area.

While much of the land in the upper andlower Eastatoe basin is protected, and much

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Eastatoe River,South CarolinaThe Eastatoe River is a waterway of con-trasts. Beginning near the North Carolina-South Carolina border in the JocasseeGorges area, the Eastatoe starts as a rug-ged mountain stream, plunging through arocky gorge that provides some of South


of the middle Eastatoe traverses traditionalagricultural land, the river is not immuneto threats from development and other ac-tivities. Accelerating development in theNorth Carolina portion of the watershed,combined with homebuilding and otherforms of development in the South Caro-lina portion, threaten the delicate ecologi-cal balance that makes the Eastatoe Riverspecial.51 Local landowner Wes Coolerstates that, because of the low populationdensity of the region, the Eastatoe has man-aged to retain its high water quality. But,“as density increases, damage will have areal effect.”

As Wes Cooler notes, “What makes thisriver special is that it is still at a stage whereit can not only be saved from further deg-radation, but it can potentially be restoredto a significant degree to a high quality troutstream along its entire length.” ExtendingOutstanding National Resource Water pro-tection to the Eastatoe River can help makethat vision a reality.

Eno River, North CarolinaThe Eno River is known to many NorthCarolinians as the centerpiece of Eno RiverState Park—a natural playground of canoe-ing, fishing, hiking and other recreationalopportunities. But the Eno River is also animportant source of drinking water andsustains a number of rare and sensitive spe-cies including nationally significant mus-sels, snails, salamanders and fish. The Eno,however, is located in one of the fastestgrowing areas of North Carolina, and isthreatened by development, water with-drawals from various municipalities, andforestry and agricultural uses.

The Eno is one of three waterways thatcombine to form the Neuse River. It is amain source stream for the Falls Lake res-ervoir, which provides drinking water tocommunities including Raleigh, Durhamand Hillsborough.

The Eno River State Park covers 4,131acres along the Eno River and offers five

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access areas into the largely unspoiled river.Visitors to the park enjoy camping, canoe-ing, fishing, hiking, picnicking, and specialevents like the Festival for the Eno.

The park’s beautiful natural landscapeincludes slopes and bluffs covered withmountain laurel, Catawba rhododendronand ferns. Wildflowers and greenbrier,grape and trumpet flower vines are alsofound in the park. The park is home tomany animals as well; even beavers, oncenearly extinct because of excessive trapping,can be seen regularly along the river.52

The Eno River basin contains some ofthe most scenic and biologically importantnatural areas within the entire EasternPiedmont. According to the Division ofWater Quality, these portions of the EnoRiver are significant to biodiversity conser-vation because they are home to many rareand sensitive species. According to the EnoRiver Association, the river supports “atleast 61 species of fish, an exceptionally highbiodiversity for a river of this length. Inaddition, there are 12 species of freshwatermussels, many of which are on federal andstate endangered species lists; seven speciesof turtles; 14 species of snakes; 15 speciesof amphibians; and a healthy variety ofmammals including the beaver, river otter,muskrat, woodchuck, weasel, mink, andwhite-tailed deer. Over 100 species of treesgrace the parklands with a delicate forestfloor covering of herbaceous flowers.”53

Water quality in the Eno River is gener-ally excellent.54 Much of the land along thebanks of the Eno is already protected as partof a network of state and local parks, natu-ral areas, and areas preserved through pri-vate land purchases. But significant gaps inprotection remain, and given the rampantgrowth in development in the Triangle areaof North Carolina in recent years, devel-opment pressure could have a negative im-pact on water quality in the future. Forexample, it has been estimated that by theyear 2020, the Triangle will see a 64% in-crease in developed areas, adding over356,000 developed acres.55

The ecological importance of the Eno

River, combined with its exceptional rec-reational value demonstrates why it shouldbe granted Outstanding National ResourceWater status. By doing so, North Carolinacan ensure that the treasures of the Eno willcontinue to be available to future genera-tions of North Carolinians.

Hazel River, VirginiaThe Hazel River begins in the Blue RidgeMountains in Shenandoah National Parkand flows 48 miles before joining theRappahannock River in CulpeperCounty.56 Residential development in thearea, however, threatens the river. As al-lowed by federal law, a coalition of citizensand organizations has nominated the Ha-zel River for designation as an “ExceptionalState Water” (Virginia’s version of the Out-standing National Resource Water desig-nation).57

Largely surrounded by woods, the Ha-

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zel River is scenic and wild. At its originsin Shenandoah National Park, the river isessentially a brook. As it gains size, it flowsthrough agricultural Rappahannock andCulpeper counties. Wooded riverbanksminimize the impact of agriculture. Of the20 miles of river in Culpeper County sur-veyed by staff of Virginia’s State WaterControl Board, 80 percent of the river flowsthrough woods or through a sizeable for-ested buffer that limits runoff and impactsfrom agricultural activities.58 Most farm-houses are set back from the river, addingto its wild feel. Motorized access to the riveris limited.

The woods are a mix of oaks, maple, tu-lip poplar, hickory, dogwood and redbuds.59

Kayakers and canoers on the river can seewhitetail deer, woodchucks, beaver andnumerous birds.60

Because the surrounding counties areprimarily agricultural and the river has awooded buffer, the river is largely unpol-luted. Only one small-sized industrial fa-cility discharges into the Hazel River.Residential development, however, presentsan increasing threat to the river.61

The Hazel River has been nominatedthree times for protection as an “excep-tional state water.” One early proposal, in1993, was not acted upon because of largerquestions about Virginia’s program to pro-tect pristine waters.62 No decision has yetbeen made for the third nomination, sub-mitted in 2005.

Citizens and landowners largely supportprotecting the river. According to SallyMello, who has led the effort to protect theHazel River, property owners enjoy theriver and want their grandchildren to beable to safely swim in it.63 A number offarmers are participating in the federalConservation Reserve Enhancement Pro-gram, in which they receive subsidies toplant more trees that will reduce erosion,add habitat and protect the river.64

The Board of Supervisors in CulpeperCounty—which initially opposed the pro-posal—has since endorsed it, recognizingthe designation as a way to protect the river

from development.65 However, in Rappa-hannock County the Board of Supervisorsopposes the “exceptional state water” des-ignation for the Hazel River. Staff of theState Water Control Board have recom-mended that the Hazel River receive the“exceptional state waters” designation forthe three miles of river within the Shenan-doah National Forest and the 32 miles ofthe river in Culpeper County, but not forthe portion of the river in RappahannockCounty.66 The decision now rests with theState Water Control Board.

Should the river be designated as an “ex-ceptional state water,” Sally Mello hopesto expand access to the river for bird-watch-ers, canoers, kayakers and others to enjoythe river’s beauty, while limiting accessenough to protect its wildness.

Middle Saluda River,South CarolinaThe Middle Saluda was the first wild andscenic river designated by the state of SouthCarolina in 1978. Located primarily withinJones Gap State Park in Greenville County,the Middle Saluda consists of clear and coldwater that supports reproducing troutpopulations. Trout streams are alreadyscarce in South Carolina (the southern edgeof trout populations in the U.S.) and grow-ing scarcer under the combined threat ofdevelopment and siltation pollution. De-velopment in the area, combined with un-planned growth and poor land-use practiceshas the potential to threaten the continuedhealth of the Middle Saluda.

The Middle Saluda River, a tributary ofthe Saluda River itself, is home to a diversecommunity of macro invertebrates. Theregion is particularly rich with salamandersand is a global hotspot of diversity for thespecies, which is dependent on clean, un-disturbed water. More than 400 species ofplants can be found in the Jones Gaparea.67 Because the Middle Saluda area is


connected to a broader network of conser-vation lands, black bear, white tailed deer,wild turkey, bobcat, local and migratoryraptors and trout all use the river in somecapacity. Species of concern that have beenidentified near the Middle Saluda includeRafinesque’s Big-Eared Bat, and the woods-rush.68

The Middle Saluda also providesbreathtaking scenery and recreational op-portunities. Over a four-mile stretch, theriver drops almost 1,000 feet. Duringflooding, it is an important destination forpaddling.

Over the past century, the river valleyserved as a place for rest and retreat for visi-tors traveling first by ox-drawn wagon andlater by motorized vehicles along Jones GapRoad. The historic “Swamp Rabbit”Railroad’s northern terminus was in theRiver Falls community, located along theMiddle Saluda. The region is also litteredwith historic artifacts such as arrowheads,hide scrapers, pottery, and pipes used bythe Cherokee Indians.

Unfortunately, even though the Middle

Saluda is a wild and scenic river (along withthe lower portion of the Saluda Rivermainstem), the “scenic river designation inand of itself does little to protect a river.”69

According to Malcolm Leaphart of theLower Saluda River Advisory Council,“The scenic designation does not carry landor water use regulations to force appropri-ate management of a river. Instead, scenicstatus provides a forum where all the play-ers can meet, discuss issues, and plan forthe future.”70

The chief threat to the Middle Saludanowadays is non-point source pollutionincluding waste, sediment and nutrientscarried by stormwater. Rapid development,combined with unplanned growth and poorland-use practices, has the potential to undoprogress made since the Clean Water Actwas passed. Properties are for sale along theriver’s headwaters and, if developed, therewould be a significant impact on one of thecleanest and coldest trout streams in thestate. There are significant inholdingsaround the headwaters area—some ofwhich have already been developed, others

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of which are under development now, andstill others of which are on the market. Thethreat is that if those parcels are developed,it will likely turn one of the cleanest riversred with soil and sediment runoff, threat-ening the ecological integrity of the river.71

Providing Outstanding National Re-source Water protection to the MiddleSaluda River would encourage manage-ment of development in the area in such away as to ensure that the quality of this spe-cial waterway is preserved.

to the Florida Department of Environmen-tal Protection, “For ONRWs, there aresome specific prohibitions that could beallowed in OFWs.”76

National Geographic has called theSuwannee River “Florida’s Wildest River,”and for good reason.77 Much of the riverbank on the Santa Fe, Ichetucknee andSuwannee Rivers is held in public trust byeither the Florida Department of Environ-mental Protection or the Suwannee RiverWater Management District, giving theriver a truly “wild” feel. The Suwanneebasin is also home to the Lower SuwanneeRiver National Wildlife Refuge, which cov-ers 53,000 acres of pristine estuary.78

The Suwannee is home to a dazzling ar-ray of wildlife. The U.S. Fish and WildlifeService calls the Lower Suwannee River es-tuary “one of the most productive ecosys-tems in the world.”79 The Lower Suwanneerefuge hosts more than 250 species of birds,as well as alligators, bald eagles, wood storksand manatees. Gulf sturgeon make theirway about 200 miles up the Suwannee Riverto spawn and manatees are often found inthe middle portion of the river during thewinter months.80

Despite its undisturbed appearance,however, the Suwannee River is introuble—in part due to its hydrology. TheSuwannee is fed by more than 180 springs,which provide more than 50 percent of itstypical flow.81 As a result, the quality ofwater in the Suwannee is directly affectedby groundwater quality in the area. Inten-sive agriculture in the region—particularlythe growth of factory farms—and fast-paced residential development have causeda steady increase in concentrations of nu-trients, particularly nitrates, in groundwa-ter. Direct discharge of pollutants to theSuwannee is another area of concern.

Increasing groundwater withdrawals alsopose a threat to water levels in theSuwannee.

The flow of water into the river is beingstarved one residential well at a time. Ev-eryone in the Suwannee River Basin usesgroundwater, even cities and towns. And

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Suwannee River, FloridaThe Suwannee River is the only undis-turbed major river system in the southeast-ern United States, without any dams. Thelocal population, however, is expected toincrease by 65 percent between 2000 and2020, straining the river’s water levels.72 Itis also threatened by pollution runoff frompoultry farms, row crop and dairy farms.

The river has already been designatedas an Outstanding Florida Waterway(OFW).73 OFWs are intended to preserveand protect surface water quality and arenot intended to restore degraded waters. 74

Indeed, they include similar but ultimatelyless stringent regulations than the Out-standing National Resource Waters(ONRW) designation affords.75 According


because the Suwannee River basin is con-sidered “water rich” by Florida standards,there have been periodic proposals for mas-sive transfers of water from the region toother parts of Florida. Groundwater is vi-tally important to the continued health ofthe Suwannee, since it feeds the springs thatin turn feed the river and its major tribu-taries. Careful management of groundwa-ter withdrawals is essential to ensuring theproper flow of the Suwannee.

These challenges can have ripple effectsfar downstream, particularly at times whenthe ecosystem faces natural stresses. Dur-ing the summer of 2006, for example, acombination of low river flows and highnutrients started an algae bloom in the riverthat caused a fish kill. When river flows areat normal levels, the nitrates in the dark,swift-moving water don’t have time to con-tribute to algae blooms. When the flowdecreases during a drought, almost all ofthe river flow comes from springs that arehigh in nutrients. This means that in addi-tion to the nutrients, the water is very clearand transparent to sunshine. This slow-moving, clear water is a perfect breedingground for filamentous algae. These algaesmother the normal, healthy, submerged

aquatic vegetation that all wildlife—frombugs to manatees—depends on. The thick,foul-smelling algal mats can also make rec-reational activities such as boating veryunpleasant.

Problems caused by low flow and highnutrients also affect the Suwannee Riverestuary. Low river flows cause saltwater tointrude farther up the river, affecting localecosystems. Low flow and water qualityproblems can impact clam and oyster popu-lations as well as sport fish nurseries.

Acknowledging the Suwannee River’sunique ecological and recreational valuethrough Outstanding National ResourceWater designation would provide addi-tional tools for achieving the challengingtask of preserving “Florida’s wildest river.”

Tar River, North CarolinaThe Tar River and Pamlico River traverse180 miles from the Piedmont Region toPamlico Sound. The freshwater Tar River(which becomes the brackish Pamlico) ishome to many rare and endangered species

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and is an important source of drinking wa-ter and recreational opportunities for arearesidents.

Yet, the Tar River basin, like much ofNorth Carolina, has seen explosive growthand development over the past several de-cades—development that poses a threat tothe river’s future health.

Among the many species that call the TarRiver home is the Tar River Spinymussel,which is found only in five short sectionsof the Tar River and its tributaries and no-where else in the world. The Tar RiverSpinymussel has unique spines on its outershell—only two other freshwater musselshave spines.82 But the spinymussel is nowan endangered species, occupying about1% of its probable historical range.83

Spinymussels depend upon clean water fortheir survival; the best spinymussel popu-lations are associated with areas composedmainly of woodlands, stable stream bankswith extensive root systems, and limitedpollution.84

The spinymussel is just one of 12 rarefreshwater mussels that can be found in theTar River ecosystem. The Lower TarAquatic Habitat also provides habitat for ahost of other unique species, including theyellow lance, Atlantic pigtoe, yellowlampmussel, green floater, triangle floater,Roanoke Bass, Carolina madtom, dwarfwedgemussel (also an endangered species),and Neuse River waterdog, all of which arefederally listed as “cause for concern.”85

The Tar River isn’t just a home for un-usual wildlife, but it is also an importantresource for people, providing drinkingwater for the Greenville, Tarboro, Louis-burg, Rocky Mount and other munici-palities, and numerous recreational

opportunities such as canoeing andkayaking, which provide a boost to localeconomies.

But the Tar River, like many NorthCarolina waterways, faces significantthreats from development. Between 1982and 2002, the basin lost 80,700 acres of for-estland and 190,600 acres of cropland, whilegaining 117,900 acres of developed land.86

The upper Tar River basin is rapidly beingtransformed into bedroom communities forthe fast-growing Raleigh-Durham metro-politan area, making non-point source run-off—particularly nutrient and sedimentloads—the top threat facing the river. Nu-trient and sediment loads from forestryoperations and agriculture also add to thestress on natural waterways in the region.In addition, leaks from outmoded waste-water infrastructure potentially pose athreat to water quality.87

Fortunately, preservation efforts are un-derway. The Pamlico-Tar River Founda-tion has filed a request to reclassify portionsof the Tar River as Outstanding ResourceWaters (a state designation). A portion ofthe river’s Swift Creek tributary has alreadybeen designated as an Outstanding Re-source Water and the state of North Caro-lina is studying whether to provide similarprotections to portions of the Tar.

Designation of the Tar River as an Out-standing National Resource Water wouldensure that the unique range of aquaticcreatures that call the river home will bepreserved, as well as protect water qualitydownstream in the Pamlico River andPamlico Sound and ensure healthy drink-ing water and the continued availability ofrecreational opportunities for residents ofthe region.

Policy Recommendations 27

Policy Recommendations

P reserving the Southeast’s most pris-tine waterways requires a variety ofefforts, including strong enforcement

of existing laws, protection of open spaces,and better safeguards to ensure that devel-opment does not have a negative impact onwater quality.

Classifying rivers and streams as “Out-standing National Resource Waters” pro-vides a powerful tool for states to use toprotect pristine waterways. The 10 water-ways profiled in this report meet the stan-dards for Outstanding National ResourceWaters protection. They are waterways ofexceptional ecological and recreationalvalue, deliver important services to com-munities, such as clean drinking water, andin many cases have a deep cultural signifi-cance as well.

The southeastern states should moveforward with Outstanding National Re-source Waters protection for the waterwaysdescribed it this report. The states shouldalso take several steps to ensure that suchprotection provides maximum benefit tothe affected waterways. States should:

• Adopt Outstanding National ResourceWaters designations for the riverslisted in this report, under EPA

guidelines and state water qualityregulations so that the waterways areprotected from further degradation.Currently, reclassifying a water body isa lengthy procedure, often takingyears, during which time the quality ofthe river may suffer. It is importantthat any requests for reclassificationproceed through the rulemakingprocess as quickly as possible; thelonger the delay in reclassifying a river,the greater the risk it faces.

• Put a hold on permits for dischargesinto these rivers and streams until therulemaking process for individualwaterways is complete. Because thereclassification process does take sucha long time, it is important for thestate government to take all stepsnecessary to protect rivers beingexamined. If the rivers are not pro-tected from new sources of pollution,they may fail to retain their waterquality and the reclassification processwill be less effective.

• Create or revise rules to ensure thatOutstanding National ResourceWaters status provides pristine


waterways with full protection fromthe growing threat of runoff pollutionfrom development. At a minimum,states should bar new or expandeddischarges into Outstanding NationalResource Waters, and establish bufferzones sufficient to capture runoffpollutants before they enter thewaterway. To ensure that waterwaysare adequately protected, states shouldroutinely monitor runoff pollution andwater quality and employ strongenforcement mechanisms. Prevention-based approaches are crucial, such as:regional and watershed planning,

growth management, conservationminded zoning ordinances,stormwater-sensitive site design,erosion prevention, and sedimentcontrol.

• Develop a timetable for the protectionof the state’s remaining unspoiledwaterways. The rivers profiled in thisreport are not the only ones in theSoutheast deserving of protection. Thestates should maintain a process toevaluate and nominate waterways forOutstanding National ResourceWaters protection on an ongoing basis.

Notes 29

Notes

1 Environmental Protection Agency, “WaterQuality Assessments,” National Water QualityInventory, 2000.2 1990 data from: U.S. Census Bureau, 1990Census of Population and Housing, Summary TapeFile 1. 2005 data from: U.S. Census Bureau,Population Division, Interim State PopulationProjections, 2005.3 U.S. Department of Agriculture, NaturalResources Conservation Service, SummaryReport, 1997 Natural Resources Inventory, revisedDecember 2000, and U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Natural Resources ConservationService, Natural Resources Inventory, 2003 AnnualNRI.4 U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division,Interim State Population Projections, 2005.5 North Carolina Department of Environmentand Natural Resources, Division of WaterQuality, Non-Point Source Management Program:Construction, downloaded fromh2o.enr.state.nc.us/nps/What_is_NPS/const.htm, 23 February 2007.6 North Carolina Department of Environmentand Natural Resources, Non Point SourceManagement Program, 6 February 2002.7 Katherine Werner, Joy Zedler, “How SedgeMeadow Soils, Microtopography, and Vegeta-tion Respond to Sedimentation,” Wetlands,September 2002.8 The Nature Conservancy, Chesapeake BayLowlands Ecoregional Plan, 27 June 2002.

9 Alesia Read and Joseph Hightower, NorthCarolina State University, CharacterizingAmerican Shad Spawning Habitat in the UpperRoanoake River Basin, Virginia, 30 September2005. Sue Jennings, U.S. Department of theInterior, National Park Service, Needs in theManagement of Native Freshwater Mussels in theNational Park System, downloaded fromwww.nature.nps.gov/water/mussels.cfm, 8February 2007.10 Alesia Read and Joseph Hightower, NorthCarolina State University, CharacterizingAmerican Shad Spawning Habitat in the UpperRoanoake River Basin, Virginia, 30 September2005.11 Judith M. Brawer and Richard Levitt,American Wildlands, Antidegradation Policy andOutstanding National Resource Waters in theNorthern Rocky Mountains, downloaded fromwww.wildlands.org/greenpapers/onrw.html, 20January 2007.12 40 C.F.R. § 131.12.13 Ibid.14 Ibid.15 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,Water Quality Standards Handbook, SecondEdition, August 1994, as cited in Judith M.Brawer and Richard Levitt, American Wild-lands, Antidegradation Policy and OutstandingNational Resource Waters in the Northern RockyMountains, downloaded fromwww.wildlands.org/greenpapers/onrw.html, 8February 2007.


16 Department of Environmental Quality,Guidance for Exceptional State Waters Designationsin Antidegradation Policy Section of Virginia WaterQuality Standards Regulation, downloaded fromwww.townhall.state.va.us/UtilsDisplayContent.cfm?fileName=E%3A%5Ctownhall%5Cdocroot%5CGuidanceDocs%5C440%5CGDoc_DEQ_2553_v1.pdf, 28 January 2007.17 Ibid.18 The Nature Conservancy, Apalachicola River,Florida, Sustainable Waters Program, down-loaded from www.nature.org/initiatives/freshwater/work/apalachicola.html, 23 January2007.19 Ibid.20 Florida Department of EnvironmentalProtection, Rare and Endangered Species ofApalachicola Bay, 5 May 2004.21 Elam Stoltzfus, Apalachicola River: AnAmerican Treasure, documentary, 2006.22 H. M. Light, K. R. Vincent, M. R. Darst,and F. D. Price, “Water-Level Decline in theApalachicola River, Florida, from 1954 to 2004,and Effects on Floodplain Habitats,” U.S.Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report,2006.23 See note 21.24 48 miles: Trust for Public Land,Chattahoochee River Map, downloaded fromwww.tpl.org/tier3_cdl.cfm?content_item_id=1166&folder_id=785,1 February 2007, compared to a map of theChattahoochee National Recreation Area,downloaded from National Park Service,www.nps.gov/chat/planyourvisit/upload/ParkAreaMap.pdf, 1 February 2007.25 Upper Chattahoochee Riverkeeper, Headwa-ters, downloaded from www.ucriverkeeper.org/programs4.html, 29 January 2007.26 Upper Chattahoochee Riverkeeper andUniversity of Georgia’s Institute of Ecology,Chattahoochee Headwaters Aquatic BiodiversityAssessment and Conservation Project, 30 September2004.27 Darcie Holcomb, Headwaters ConservationDirector, Upper Chattahoochee Riverkeeper,personal communication, 31 January 2007.28 Stop I-3 Coalition, Mountain CommunitiesOrganize to Fight New Interstate Highway (pressrelease), 26 July 2005.29 Trust for Public Land, ChattahoocheeRiverway, June 2004 update.

30 Conasauga River Alliance, InteractiveJourney: Conasauga/Jacks Rivers, downloadedfrom www.conasaugariver.net/ijourney/conjacks/conjacks/html, 24 January 2007.31 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Threatenedand Endangered Species System: Georgia, down-loaded from ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/StateListing.do?state=GA&status=listed, 24January 2007.32 George Ivey, Conasauga River Alliance, andKent Evans, Cherokee and ChattahoocheeNational Forests, Conasauga River AllianceBusiness Plan: Conasauga River WatershedEcosystem Project, 15 May 2000.33 Ibid.34 Ibid.35 Georgia Forestwatch, Land and WaterConservation Fund Program 2006, downloadedfrom www.gafw.org/lwcf-georgiaforestwatch%5B1%5D.html, 24 January2007.36 Draper Realty, Company Listings, downloadedfrom www.realestateblueridge.com, 24 January2007.37 See note 35.38 Wendy Mitman Clarke, Window on theChesapeake, Chesapeake Bay Gateways andMariners’ Museum, 2003.39 A. Belden Jr., A.C. Chazal, G.P. Fleming,C.S. Hobson, and K.M. McCoy, A NaturalHeritage Inventory of the Dragon Run Watershed,Natural Heritage Technical Report 01-03,Virginia Department of Conservation andRecreation, Division of Natural Heritage, 2001.40 The five most rare animals and plants are theBlackwater Bluet, the Cypress Sphinx, theSouthern Pitcher-Plant Mosquito, the Cuckoo-flower and the Red Turtlehead: A. Belden Jr.,A.C. Chazal, G.P. Fleming, C.S. Hobson, andK.M. McCoy, A Natural Heritage Inventory of theDragon Run Watershed, Natural HeritageTechnical Report 01-03, Virginia Department ofConservation and Recreation, Division ofNatural Heritage, 2001.41 Dragon Run Steering Committee, MiddlePeninsula Planning District Commission,Dragon Run Watershed Management Plan,September 1996.42 The land in the Dragon Run Watershed is80% forest, 18% agriculture, and 1% commer-cial and residential. While not all residential andcommercial areas are impervious, the relativelyfew roads are also included as “impervious”:

Notes 31

Dragon Run Steering Committee, MiddlePeninsula Planning District Commission, TheState of the Dragon Run Watershed, 2003.43 G.C. Garman, Aquatic Living ResourcesInventories in the Dragon System: VirginiaCommonwealth University On-going Activities,Dragon Run Natural Resources Symposium,Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 11February 2003.44 “Virginia’s Most Pristine Water Body,”Virginia Places, 1998, downloaded from:www.virginiaplaces.org/watersheds/dragonrun.html, 26 January 2007.45 Dragon Run Steering Committee, MiddlePeninsula Planning District Commission,Dragon Run Watershed Management Plan,November 2003.46 See note 44.47 Jeff Samsel, “South Carolina’s Five BestTrout Waters,” South Carolina Game and Fish,downloaded from www.scgameandfish.com/fishing/sc_aa044804a/index1.html, 20 January2007.48 Wes Cooler, Eastatoe River resident,personal communication, 20 January 2007.49 Patrick D. McMillan, A Survey of SelectedBase-rich Natural Areas of Pickens, County, SC,September 200350 South Carolina Department of NaturalResources, DNR Heritage Reserves, downloadedfrom www.dnr.sc.gov/managed/heritage/eastatoecr/description.html, 28 January 2007.51 See note 48.52 NC Division of Parks and Recreation, EnoRiver State Park, downloaded from ils.unc.edu/parkproject/visit/enri/home.html, 10 January2007.53 Eno River Association, About the Eno River,downloaded from enoriver.org/eno/River/about.html, 10 January 2007.54 North Carolina Division of Water Quality,2002 Neuse River Basinwide Water Quality Plan,downloaded from h2o.enr.state.nc.us/basinwide/Neuse/2002/Section%20B%20Chapter%201.pdf., 10January 2007.55 William Coyne, Elizabeth Ouzts, NCPIRGEducational Fund, Losing Our Natural Heritage:North Carolina’s Disappearing Open Spaces, Fall2003.56 Rappahannock League for EnvironmentalProtection, “Hazel River Tier III Nomination,”

RLEP News, November 2005.57 Virginia Department of EnvironmentalQuality, “Exceptional State Waters (Tier III),”downloaded from www.deq.state.va.us/wqs/exceptional.html, 20 January 2007.58 Notes from State Water Control BoardMeeting, 1 June 2006.59 Sally Mello, personal communication, 7February 2007.60 See note 58.61 See note 59.62 See note 56.63 See note 59.64 Ibid.65 Ibid.66 See note 58.67 South Carolina Department of NaturalResources. Middle Saluda Scenic River: ProjectOverview. downloaded from www.dnr.sc.gov/water/envaff/river/scenic/midsaluda.html, 20January 2007.68 John Tynan, Clean Air and Water Associate,Upstate Forever, personal communication, 7February 2007.69 Rideout, Becky. “A Partnership to ProtectRivers,” South Carolina Wildlife Magazine,May-June 1995.70 Ibid.71 Jason Van Driesche, Clean Air and WaterAssociate, Upstate Forever, personal communi-cation, 7 February 2007.72 Stefan Lovgran, “Florida’s Thirst for WaterPressuring Wild River, Experts Say.” NationalGeographic, 21 November 2006.73 According to the Suwannee River WaterManagement District, “While there arecommon criteria contained within the state ruleconcerning the OFW and the OutstandingNational Resource Water designations, the latterrequires additional steps.” Megan Wetherington,Water Resource Engineer, Suwannee RiverWater Management District, personal commu-nication, 26 January 2007.74 Eric Shaw, Environmental Manager, WaterQuality Standards and Special Projects Program,Florida Department of Environmental Protec-tion, personal communication, 13 February2007.75 To compare OFWs and ONRWs, please seerules 62-4.242(2) and 62.4.242(3) in “Rules ofthe Department of Environmental Protection:


Permits,” downloaded from www.dep.state.fl.us/legal/Rules/shared/62-4/62-4.pdf, 2 February2007.76 Janet Klemm, Florida Department ofEnvironmental Protection, personal communi-cation, 15 February 2007.77 “The Suwannee – Florida’s Wildest River,”National Geographic, video, downloaded fromnews.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/10/061010-suwanee-video.html, 20 January 2007.78 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, LowerSuwannee, downloaded from www.fws.gov/lowersuwannee/, 20 January 2007.79 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, LowerSuwannee: Wildlife Resources, downloaded fromwww.fws.gov/lowersuwannee/wildlife.html, 20January 2007.80 Save our Suwannee, The Suwannee River,downloaded from www.saveoursuwannee.org/SuwanneeRiver.pdf, 20 January 2007.81 Save our Suwannee, Springs in the SuwanneeBasin, downloaded fromwww.saveoursuwannee.org/springs.pdf, 20January 2007.

82 North Carolina Department of Environmentand Natural Resources, Office of EnvironmentalEducation, Discover North Carolina’s River Basins,2002.83 NatureServe Explorer: An Online Encyclopediaof Life downloaded from www.natureserve.org/explorer, 27 July 2004.84 NatureServe Explorer: An Online Encyclopediaof Life downloaded from www.natureserve.org/explorer, 27 July 2004 (citing North CarolinaWildlife Resources Commission Databasecontaining location information and habitatcharacteristics of freshwater mussels).85 North Carolina Division of Water Quality,2004 Tar-Pamlico Basinwide Water Quality Plan,downloaded from h2o.enr.state.nc.us/basinwide/tarpam_draft_dec2003.html, 10 January 2007.86 NCPIRG Education Fund, Our Lakes atRisk: The Impact of Growth On North Carolina’sWater Quality, Summer 2005.87 Heather Jacobs, Pamlico-Tar Riverkeeper,personal communication, 22 January 2007.

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