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South Korea and the Arctic region
Martin Kossa
13.08.2015
Introduction
Being surrounded by sea and in the north cut off from the Eurasian land mass by
North Korea, the Republic of Korea has been effectively transformed into an ''island nation''
since the end of the Korean war in 1953. Because of its geographical circumstances plus its
severe lack of natural resources, an enormously high percentage of energy imports and a huge
dependency on trade, South Korea has managed to build over the years a world class shipping
and shipbuilding industry. Moreover, the 2008 global financial turmoil has left its mark on
the South Korean economy which was in need of new stimuli and growth. The opening of the
Arctic region at that time came as a much needed opportunity to help kick-start the South
Korean economy. The country has had a research station in the Arctic since 2002, but it was
in 2008 when the Arctic region made it on the list of South Korea`s national priorities. Its
activities culminated in May 2013 when it became an observer to the Arctic Council.
This essay seeks to examine South Koreas activities, interests and roles in the Arctic
region. First, it looks, very briefly, at the country`s historical engagement with the polar
regions. Second, it portrays the evolution of South Korea`s Arctic policies up until present.
Third, it introduces Korea`s domestic actors with stakes in the Arctic region. Fourth, it
provides and overview of Korea`s polar infrastructure. Fifth, it is discussing South Korea`s
economic and scientific interests in the region. Then, it analyzes the Arctic region`s place in
South Korean foreign policy. Finally, it describes Arctic governance and South Korea`s
bilateral relations with Arctic states followed by some concluding remarks.
Brief history of South Korean polar activities
Korea`s involvement with the polar regions began in the late 1970s in waters around
Antarctica with ''exploratory krill fishing and oceanographic observation.''1 It acceded to the
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) in 1985
1 ''Plenary session 19: The Republic of Korea in the Arctic,'' 2013 Arctic Circle, October 12-14, 2013,
Reykjavik, Iceland, presentation given by Ahn Chong-Ghee, Deputy Minister for Economic Affairs, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, Republic of Korea, available at https://vimeo.com/82151436.
and the Antarctic Treaty in 1986.2 Later on, in 1988, the Republic of Korea (ROK)
established a Korean scientific research station called the King Sejong Research Station on
Antarctica’s King George Island and attained membership in the Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Party on October 18, 1989.3 In 1990, ROK became a member of the Scientific
Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and held the Second International Antarctic
Symposium.4
As for the Arctic region itself, Korea began exploring it in the early 1990s. In 1991,
the Korean AURORA exploration team reached the North Pole, becoming the 11th nation
and 18th team to do so.5 The expedition was aired live on TV via a satellite link and
according to Kim, ''Reaching the North Pole by the AURORA team created a deep
impression on the Korean people regarding the future potential of the Arctic.''6 In 1999, South
Korea conducted Arctic related research with the Geological Survey of Japan, and later that
year, its researchers were aboard China`s icebreaker Xue Long to explore the Bering and
Chukchi seas.7 In 2000, in accordance with the Korean Ministry of Oceans and Fishery's
research plan, ''a joint marine investigation was conducted in the Barents Sea and Kara sea
with Russia`s Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI).''8
However, South Korean independent Arctic research began in 2001. The Korea Arctic
Scientific Committee was founded in October of the same year and in April 2002, ROK
joined the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC).9 A month later, the DASAN
Arctic Research Station in Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard was established and Korean scientists
began conducting research ''on climate change and biodiversity and observe the changes in
the Arctic.''10
Another significant milestone in South Korea`s Arctic research was the
2 ''The Antarctic Treaty System,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea, accessed August 7, 2015,
http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/policy/treaties/antarctic/index.jsp?menu=m_20_30_30. 3 Ibid.
4 Seungryeol Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' (Master`s thesis, University of Canterbury,
2011), 5. 5 Jong Deog Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' in The Arctic in World Affairs: A North Pacific Dialogue on
International Cooperation in a Changing Arctic, ed. Oran R. Young, Jong Deog Kim and Yoon Hyung Kim
(Seoul and Honolulu: Korea Maritime Institute and East-West Center, 2014), 209. 6 Ibid.
7 Young Kil Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' East Asia-Arctic Relations:
Boundary, Security and International Politics Paper No. 3 (Waterloo, Ontario: The Centre for International
Governance Innovation, 2013): 2. 8 Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 210.
9 Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 2.
10 Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 210.
formation of the Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI) in 2004.11
The process of
acquisition of fully independent Arctic research capabilities was finalized in 2009 when
South Korea commissioned its home-built icebreaker Araon. The importance of Araon to
South Korean Arctic research, capabilities and international status was underlined by Jin Suk
Kim, a specialist at KOPRI, by saying that "Before it was built, we kind of tried to ask for
countries with a longer history in Arctic research to have us as a partner for a joint research
… But after the launch of Araon, world-class polar institutes and researchers came to us
voluntarily and asked us to consider them as partners."12
The evolution of South Korean Arctic policy
Given South Korea`s geographical location outside of the Arctic region and its harsh
security environment, it is obvious that the Arctic is not South Korea`s foreign policy
priority. Nevertheless, it does not mean that the Arctic region, together with its opportunities
and challenges, did not ''hit'' the South Korean political mainstream. After achieving
independence in its Arctic scientific research, South Korea started to be active in the Arctic
governance structure by actively engaging the Arctic Council and Arctic states as well as by
producing policies at a domestic level. In this respect, the administration of President Lee
Myung-bak (February 2008 - February 2013) played an important role in South Korea`s
Arctic engagement.
The then President Lee first announced his Arctic approach in his Liberation day
speech in 2008 where he declared that ''Exploration and research in the Arctic Ocean and
Antarctic, which are thought to be a treasure trove of natural resources, will be actively
conducted. By doing so, we will show the world that a spirit of adventure and creativity in
pioneering uncharted territory runs in the Korean blood.''13
The same year, South Korea
applied for observer status at the Arctic Council.14
In 2012, Lee made historical visits to
Norway and Greenland. In Norway, the key agenda was the establishment of new shipping
11
''History,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 7, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_1300000/view.cms. 12
Hyun-Kyung Kang, ''Melting Arctic ice thrills port cities,'' The Korea Times, October 6, 2014,
http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2014/10/180_165802.html. 13
Myung-bak Lee, ''A great people with new dreams,'' Korea.net, accessed August 7, 2015,
http://www.korea.net/Government/Briefing-Room/Presidential-Speeches/view?articleId=91000&pageIndex=17. 14
Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 4.
routes over the Arctic and cooperation on climate change and green growth.15
In Greenland
''The two sides signed four MOUs calling for cooperation in resources development,
geological surveys, and Arctic science and technology.''16
According to Bennett, these visits
''marked an important step in his [Lee`s] country`s search for acceptance among Arctic
Council member states as an actor with valid, multifaceted interests in the region.''17
Korea
also acceded to the Treaty of Spitsbergen the same year.18
Moreover, at the same time, Korea
made attempts to create some sort of a comprehensive Arctic strategy when it announced the
Arctic Policy Advancement Direction in 2012.19
After the new administration of President Park Geun-hye took office in February
2013, the Arctic and Arctic cooperation still remained on the president`s national agenda.20
In
May 2013, South Korea was granted the observer status at the Arctic Council and president
Park ''hailed the status as a big achievement.''21
At the same time, the Yonhap News Agency
reported that ''Park said related government agencies should draw up a comprehensive
blueprint for overall Arctic policies while making sure to give balanced consideration to
environmental protection and sustainable development of the region as well as climate
change.''22
Consequently, in December 2013, the Korean government approved of its 1st Pan-
Government Arctic Policy Master Plan.23
South Korea thus became the first Asian observer
to the Arctic Council to publish an integrated policy document towards the Arctic region.
15
''Lee calls for close cooperation with Norway on Arctic shipping routes,'' The Korea Times, September 12,
2012, http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2012/09/116_119713.html. 16
Jae-soon Chang, ''Lee secures foothold for S. Korea`s Arctic initiative,'' Yonhap News Agency, accessed
August 7, 2015,
http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/national/2012/09/13/26/0301000000AEN20120913010200315F.HTML. 17
Mia M. Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' Strategic
Analysis 38, no. 6 (2014): 898. 18
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 210. 19
Jong Deog Kim, ''Comments on Chapter 3: Korean perspective,'' in The Arctic in World Affairs: A North
Pacific Dialogue on the Future of the Arctic, ed. Oran R. Young, Jong Deog Kim and Yoon Hyung Kim (Seoul
and Honolulu: Korea Maritime Institute and East-West Center, 2013), 152. 20
Linda Jakobson and Seong-Hyon Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible
Cooperation with the Kingdom of Denmark," (Stockholm: Stockholm Peace Research Institute, 2013), 32 and
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 210. 21
''Park calls for comprehensive blueprint for Arctic policies,'' Yonhap News Agency, accessed August 7, 2015,
http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/national/2013/05/20/74/0301000000AEN20130520009800315F.HTML. 22
Ibid. 23
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 214. It is my understanding that this Master Plan is an outcome of a document
the Korean government published in July 2013, named the Comprehensive Arctic Policy Framework Plan.
According to his document`s schedule, a national policy tentatively named the Arctic Policy Master Plan should
have been published by the end of 2013. See Kim, ''Comments on Chapter 3: Korean perspective,'' 152.
Seven ministries and a number of research institutions were involved in the
development of Korea`s Pan-Government Arctic Policy Master Plan.24
The Master Plan itself
consists of a vision statement, three policy aims and four major programs.25
The vision of the
Master Plan is ''to promote a sustainable future for the Arctic region through global, regional
and local cooperation,'' while the three policy aims are ''(1) establishing an Arctic partnership,
(2) strengthening scientific research capacity, and (3) seeking new business opportunities.''26
The four major programs were identified as: ''1.Strengthening international cooperation with
the Arctic region; 2. Encouraging scientific and technological research capability; 3. Pursuing
Arctic business opportunities; and 4. Securing a domestic institutional foundation.''27
Moreover, in April 2015, the Korean Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries has published
the 2015 Arctic Policy Action Plan in which it states its goals for the immediate future - to
intensify Korea`s bilateral cooperation with Arctic states, support Arctic shipping routes (the
NSR), participate in the development of the Russian Far East ports and expand its Arctic
research infrastructure.28
To further underline the importance of the Arctic region to South
Korea, the country has appointed, in June 2015, Chan-woo Kim to serve as Korea`s
Ambassador for Arctic Affairs.29
In addition, in July, the South Korean Ministry of Affairs
commemorated Korea`s 2nd anniversary of its obtainment of the Observer status at the Arctic
Council by inviting Ambassadors from Arctic Council member and observer states for dinner
and a tour of its icebreaker Araon (South Korean Minister of Foreign Affairs Yun Byung-se
was also present).30
South Korea`s Arctic actors
24
Ministries involved: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Science, ICT
and Future Planning, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport and the Korea Meteorological Administration; as for the research institutions
involved: Korea Maritime Institute, Korea Polar Research Institute, Korea Research Institute of Ships and
Ocean Engineering, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and
Technology etc., see Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 214. 25
Young Kil Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' Asia Policy 18, no. 1 (2014): 63. 26
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 214. 27
Ibid., 214-215. 28
''2015 Arctic Policy Action Plan,'' Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, accessed August 7, 2015,
http://www.mof.go.kr/article/view.do?menuKey=376&boardKey=10&articleKey=7513, (in Korean). 29
''Norway and South Korea successfully holds bilateral dialogue on Arctic issues,'' The Royal Norwegian
Embassy in Seoul, accessed August 7, 2015, http://www.norway.or.kr/News_and_events/Current-
affairs/News/Norway-and-South-Korea-successfully-holds-bilateral-dialogue-on-Arctic-
issues/#.VcTDovntmko. 30
Hyun-kyung Kang, ''Envoys explore icebreaker Araon,'' The Korea Times, July 12, 2015,
http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2015/07/176_182625.html.
South Korea as an advanced industrial nation with a high level of economic and
societal development has several stakeholders with potential interests in the Arctic region. At
the governmental level, since its reinstatement in 2013, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries
(MOF) took the lead in forming South Korea`s Arctic policies.31
One of the Ministry`s major
policies is ''Reinforcing Korea`s maritime presence across the globe,'' and as stated in this
policy, one of the ways how to achieve this goal is ''Advancing into the Antarctic and Arctic
regions - territories of infinite possibilities.''32
Other ministries are involved as well. The
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) represents South Korea at Arctic regional forums, like
the Arctic Council, but ''also promotes the country`s bilateral strategic cooperation with other
nations in polar scientific research and resource development.''33
The main task of the
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE) is to help ''to transform South Korea into a
dynamic and economic powerhouse'' while at the same time ''providing a foundation for
economic growth by combining its efforts to fulfill its wide range of responsibilities in the
areas of commerce, investment, industry, and energy.''34
All this makes MOTIE an important
actor in the resource and energy development potential of the Arctic. As a matter of fact,
according to Jakobson and Lee, it was MOTIE that was ''the South Korean signatory to an
MOU with Greenland on joint geological surveys, resource exploration and technological
cooperation''35
when ex-president Lee Myung-bak was there on state visit in 2012 (at that
time MOTIE was called the Ministry of Knowledge Economy). Kim is also mentioning the
Ministry of Environment (ME), the Ministry of Science, ICT and future Planning (MSIP) and
the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) as major ministries influencing
the Arctic agenda.36
South Korean actors with stakes in the Arctic region can also be found at the
provincial and municipal level. The Gangwon Province seems to be one of the most active in
this manner. The province wants to establish itself as a hub for Northeast Asia and ''as an
31
Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 5. 32
''Reinforcing Korea`s maritime presence across the globe,'' Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, accessed August
9, 2015, http://www.mof.go.kr/eng/content/view.do?menuKey=492&contentKey=40. 33
Jakobson and Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the
Kingdom of Denmark," 30. 34
''Introduction,'' Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, accessed August 9, 2015,
http://english.motie.go.kr/?cat=52. 35
Jakobson and Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the
Kingdom of Denmark," 30. 36
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 220.
origin for the emerging Arctic air route.''37
It also has lobbied the MOF to consider its ports as
hubs for new shipping lanes.38
Gangwon Province is also a member of the Northern Forum
which is a non-profit international organization composed of sub-national or regional
governments and it was ''established to improve the quality of life of Northern peoples by
providing Northern regional leaders a means to share their knowledge and experience in
addressing common challenges and to support sustainable development and
the implementation of cooperative socio-economic initiatives among Northern regions and
through international fora.''39 Other members include regions from Russia and Iceland.40
At
the municipal level, it seems that the city of Busan has a very strong position to become a hub
for the NSR.41
However, recently, besides Gangwon Province and the city of Busan, places
like the city of Ulsan or the Gyeongsangbuk Province have also voiced their desire to be
considered as potential shipping hubs.42
South Korea also operates a number of research institutes that conduct Arctic related
research. The leading body in this respect is the Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI).
Some of its main tasks include the ''scientific research, survey and long term observations
addressing key issues of global or fundamental importance that require access to the
Arctic/Antarctic,'' and ''To sustain for the Korea an active and influential regional presence
and a leadership role in the polar affairs,'' or ''To provide reliable and independent advice to
the Korean government and other stakeholders.''43
KOPRI also operates South Korea`s
Antarctic stations (King Sejong Station and Jang Bogo Station), the icebreaker Araon and the
Arctic Dasan Station.44
Another important research institution, which KOPRI is affiliated to, is the Korea
Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST). It was established in July 2012 as a
successor to the Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute which itself was opened in
37
''Major Provincial Policies,'' Gangwon Province, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://www.provin.gangwon.kr/gw/eng/sub02_01. 38
Kang, ''Melting Arctic ice thrills port cities.'' 39
''Mission and Structure,'' The Northern Forum, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://www.northernforum.org/en/the-northern-forum/about-the-northern-forum/mission-and-structure. 40
''Member Regions,'' The Northern Forum, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://www.northernforum.org/en/members. 41
Kang, ''Melting Arctic ice thrills port cities.'' 42
Ibid. 43
''Vision and Mission,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_1200000/view.cms. 44
''Station and Icebreaker,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_3110000/view.cms.
1973.45
KIOST is supposed to ''seek to heighten its global competitiveness in marine science
and technology, develop outstanding research centers, and lead large-scale R&D programs
related to the oceans and polar regions.''46
It is also publishing an academic journal named
Ocean and Polar Research.47
In addition, the Korea Maritime Institute (KMI), as a policy
research institute, is ''currently focused on Arctic policy research that includes the NSR,
socioeconomic affairs of the Arctic, and cooperation with the Arctic Council.''48
The Korea
Research Institute of Ships and Ocean Engineering (KRISO) ''concentrates on engineering
research that is related to Arctic shipping and offshore plant facilities.''49
At the university
level, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Seoul National University, Hanyang University,
Pukyong National Univeristy, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Incheon
National University or the Youngsan University all conduct Arctic related research.50
Major South Korean Arctic stakeholders can be found in the private sector, especially
in the shipbuilding and shipping industry. It is the Korean Chaebols - family owned
corporations that were transformed into transnational conglomerates - like Hyundai, Samsung
or Daewoo that are making their way into the Arctic region.51
According to Bennett, the
existing linkages between these Chaebols and the state ''facilitates an alignment of political
and commercial interests in the Arctic, allowing South Korea to readily project technological
and logistical power in the region.''52
Also, in 2005, a private organisation called the Korea
Supporters Association for Polar Research (KOSAP) was founded in order to provide a
nationwide support for Korea`s polar ambitions.53
They function as a bridge between the
general public and KOPRI, they promote South Korean polar achievements, they run a
webpage and publish a public relations magazine to inform about South Korean activities and
provide support to schools that wish to develop teaching materials on Polar Regions.54
45
Iselin Stensdal, “Asian Arctic Research 2005-2012: Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger,” FNI Report 3, (2013):
24. 46
''KIOST celebrates opening for Korea’s marine science development,'' Korea Institute of Ocean Science and
Technology, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kiost.ac/kordi_eng/main.jsp?sub_num=360&state=view&idx=663. 47
''OPR,'' Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kiost.ac/kordi_eng/?sub_num=357. 48
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 220. 49
Ibid. 50
Stensdal, “Asian Arctic Research 2005-2012: Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger,” 27. 51
Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 888. 52
Ibid. 53
Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 12. KOSAP can be found at
http://www.kosap.or.kr/tag/%EA%B7%B9%EC%A7%80/?ckattempt=1 however, the content is all in Korean. 54
Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 12.
South Korean polar infrastructure
South Korea operates a solid network of advanced polar infrastructure. As mentioned
before, KOPRI has a research station in Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard called the Dasan Station. It
has been established since 29 April, 2002. The station provides laboratory space with limited
equipment: glacier and boating equipment, radios, firearms, computers, telephone and fax.55
Arctic specific research that is being conducted at the Dasan station includes biology, marine
geology, upper atmospheric science, micrometeorological research and geothermal
measurements.56
Besides its Arctic station, KOPRI also operates two Antarctic research stations. The
King Sejong Station located at Barton Peninsula, King George Island was established in 1988
as a permanent research station for KARP (Korea Antarctic Research Program).57
At present
the research station complex comprises of 10 buildings and two observatories.58
Research
conducted here ranges from geophysical and meteorological observations to biology and
oceanography.59
In 2014, South Korea opened its 2nd research base, the Jang Bogo Station in
Terra Nova Bay making it the 10th country to run more than one year-round station in
Antarctica.60
It comprises of 16 buildings and 24 observatory facilities and it can
accommodate up to 60 people.61
This station hosts a number of scientific activities:
reconstruction of paleo-climate and environment, research on Antarctic neotectonics, upper
atmospheric observation, long-term oceanographic monitoring and research on Antarctic
meteorites.62
However, the most valuable South Korean polar asset is its icebreaker Araon.
Commissioned in 2009, Araon measures 110 meters in length, 219 meters in width, weighs 7
55
''Dasan Station,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_3210000/view.cms. 56
''Arctic Research at Dasan Station,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_2180000/view.cms. 57
''King Sejong Station,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_3110000/view.cms. 58
Ibid. 59
Ibid. 60
Whan-woo Yi, ''Jang Bogo Station opens in Antarctica,'' The Korea Times, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://www.koreatimesus.com/jang-bogo-station-opens-in-antarctica/. 61
Ibid. 62
''Scientific Activities,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_3320000/view.cms.
487 tons and it can sail at three knots through one-meter-thick ice while carrying a crew of 85
(60 scientists and 25 crew) for 70 days.63
It is loaded with such scientific equipment as
''undersea topographic and geological detectors, underwater environment observation
devices, and atmosphere substance analyzers. It even houses a laboratory for various
experiments and tests. The Araon is not just a ship, but a floating research center.''64
Araon is
used for Arctic expeditions from October to April and for Arctic cruises from July to
August.65
Araon is a compound word consisting of the old Korean word ''Ara'' meaning 'sea'
and the Korean word ''On'' meaning 'all' and ''is named for a wish to cruise all the sea in the
world.''66
KOPRI has been actively participating in Arctic related international scientific
projects like the Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System, the NEEM project in
Greenland or terrestrial and atmospheric field research in Canada, to mention a few.67
South
Korea has also held a number of international conferences on Arctic affairs - KOPRI hosts
the International Symposium on Polar Sciences (ISPS) which is an annual event organized
since 1988 for the purpose ''to bring polar scientists together to provide an international
forum to exchanging and sharing their cutting-edge ideas and research results.''68
In March
2011, South Korea hosted the Arctic Science Summit Week and since 2012, KMI and the US
East-West Center established the North Pacific Arctic Conference with participants from
Canada, China, Japan, Korea, Norway, Russia and the US to discuss the emerging Arctic
issues.69
Korea also participates in a variety of Arctic related scientific organizations:
International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), Arctic Ocean Science Board (AOSB), The
Ny-Ålesund Science Managers Committee (NySMAC), The Pacific Arctic Group (PAG) and
Forum of Arctic Research Operators (FARO).70
KOPRI is also a member of the Asian Forum
for Polar Sciences (AFoPS) which ''is a non-governmental organization established in 2004
63
''Korean Research Icebreaker,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_3400000/view.cms. 64
''Korea`s first icebreaker, the Araon, which is preparing for the nation`s Antarctic expedition,'' KBS World
Radio, accessed August 10, 2015,
http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_economyplus_detail.htm?No=2085. 65
''Korean Research Icebreaker,'' Korea Polar Research Institute. 66
Ibid. 67
''Arctic Ice - Global Climate - Scientific Cooperation,'' 2014 Arctic Circle, October 31 - November 2, 2015,
Reykjavik, Iceland, presentation given by Seung Woo Han of the Korea Polar Research Institute, available at
https://vimeo.com/112310951. 68
''21st International Symposium on Polar Sciences,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015.
https://symposium.kopri.re.kr/symp_info.html. 69
Stensdal, “Asian Arctic Research 2005-2012: Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger,” 27-28. 70
''Arctic Ice - Global Climate - Scientific Cooperation,'' 2014 Arctic Circle.
to encourage and facilitate cooperation for the advance of polar sciences among countries
in the Asian region.''71
Currently Dr. Yeadong Kim, President of KOPRI, serves as the Chair
of AFoPS for 2014-2016.72
South Korea`s interests in the Arctic region
Most of South Korea`s activities in the Arctic region were limited to scientific
research, however, since South Korea became an observer to the Arctic Council in 2013,
hopes have been high that this could provide a boost for the South Korean economy.73
For
this reason, South Korean actors, when asked about their country`s interests in the Arctic
were primarily naming ''environmental and economic aspects and opportunities.''74
Military
and security interests and concerns are referred to only in terms of global security since
''Korea is concerned with Arctic security in the same way that Norway is concerned with East
Asian security.''75
Also, South Korea is well aware of the severity of the environmental
challenges the Arctic region is facing and it is being quiet vocal about them, but at the same
time, it is quick to recognize that these challenges may well be transformed into economic
opportunities. The words of South Korea`s Foreign Minister, Yun Byung-se, exemplify this
rhetoric: ''…the changes … observed in the Arctic are real and serious, from rising sea levels
to disrupted ecosystems. At the same time, we should also be innovative and creative in
turning the challenges into new opportunities. The opening up of Arctic sea routes will
inevitably generate some opportunities in economic terms.''76
The author will now discuss
South Korea`s interests in the Arctic region from an economic perspective and then form a
scientific point of view.
1. Economic Interests
71
''About AFoPS,'' Asian Forum for Polar Science, accessed August 10, 2015, http://www.afops.org/m11.php. 72
Ibid. 73
Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 1. 74
Per Erik Solli, Elana Wilson Rowe and Wrenn Yennie Lindgren, ''Coming into the cold: Asia`s Arctic
interests,'' Polar Geography 36, no. 4 (2013): 258. 75
Ibid., 259 76
''Dinner Remarks at the Commemorative Event to Mark 2nd Anniversary of ROK's Accession to Arctic
Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea, accessed August 11, 2015,
http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/press/speeches/minister/incumbent/index.jsp?menu=m_10_40_10&sp=/webmodul
e/htsboard/template/read/engreadboard.jsp%3FtypeID=12%26boardid=14137%26seqno=315432.
First of all, South Korean shipping industry stands to benefit greatly from the opening
of new shorter Arctic shipping lanes - especially the NSR - due to South Korea`s high
dependency on trade.77
Given the simple facts that almost 99% of Korea`s trade volume is
conducted via shipping and that Northern Europe is one of the country`s major trading
partners, one could see the potential benefits to the Korean economy.78
South Korea already
conducted its first commercial freight voyage via the NSR when in 2013 Hyundai Glovis
shipped naphtha from the Ust-Luga port of Russia to Gwangyang port of Korea.79
According
to one official from the MOF, South Korea wants ''to be the first to develop this in order to
take a leading position when the route becomes more commercially viable.''80
Only recently,
in July 2015, the CJ Korea Express company used the NSR to ship offshore terminal facilities
from the United Arab Emirate to the Yamal Peninsula in Russia.81
Second, with the opening of the new Arctic shipping lanes and natural resources
development projects like the one on Yamal in Russia, it is expected that the demand for
icebreakers, ice hardened ships and offshore platforms will grow and South Korea`s
shipbuilding industry, which is the world`s biggest, could benefit greatly.82
Companies like
Daewoo Shipping and Marine Engineering (DSME), STX Offshore and Shipbuilding
Company, Hyundai Heavy Industry and Samsung Heavy Industries (the Chaebols) ''are
among the most competitive companies in the world for production of these high-value-added
ships.''83
In 2014, DSME signed contracts with customers from Russia and Japan for the
construction of several ice class LNG carriers for the transportation of natural gas from the
gas fields in the Yamal Peninsula.84
77
Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 890-891. 78
Young Kil Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 60. 79
Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 3. 80
Kyunghee Park, ''South Korea`s Bet on Arctic Shipping Lanes,'' Bloomberg Business, accessed August 10,
2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2013-08-22/south-koreas-bet-on-arctic-shipping-lanes. 81
Ji-sook Bae, ''CJ Korea Express Launches First Arctic Operation,'' The Korea Herald, July 20, 2015,
http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20150720001051. 82
Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 3. 83
Young Kil Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 60. 84
see ''DSME to Build 1st ARC7 Ice-Class Tanker for Yamal,'' World Maritime News, accessed August 11,
2015, http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/106699/dsme-to-build-1st-arc7-ice-class-tanker-for-yamal/, and
''MOL, DSME Pen Yamal LNG Carrier Deal,'' World Maritime News, accessed August 11, 2015,
http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/129860/mol-dsme-pen-yamal-lng-carriers-deal/.
Third, the melting Arctic is also fueling South Korea`s ambition to become a regional
storage and trading hub.85
As mentioned earlier, ports in Gangwoon Province are already
''battling'' with the port of Busan for which one of them will become the main hub for the
NSR.86
Meanwhile, in 2014, South Korea has ''designated two oil terminals in Yeosu and
Ulsan as free-trade zones, where duties for storing and blending imported products will be
exempted. This is aimed at boosting trade and enticing foreign investments needed to
establish the oil hub.''87
Fourth, Arctic energy resources are another area of interest for South Korea. The
country relies on imports to meet about 97% of its energy demand and it is the world`s fifth
largest importer of crude oil and second largest importer of LNG.88
With almost 87 % of its
oil imports and more than 50% of its LNG imports coming from the Middle East, the Arctic
region seems like a vital region for South Korean energy import diversification. According to
Park, the Korean Government is already providing incentives for oil imported from outside
the Middle Eastern region.89
Moreover, South Korea is well equipped to import LNG from
the Arctic since it has the technology and industrial background for such tankers.90
So far,
however, the South Korean Gas Corporation (KOGAS) has acquired a 20% stake in the
Umiak gas field in the Canadian Arctic in 2011.91
South Korea has also shown interest in
methane hydrates. In 2013, it sent its icebreaker Araon to the Beaufort sea in the Canadian
exclusive economic zone under the project called the Canada-Korea-USA Beaufort Sea
Geoscience Research Survey to ''look for subsea permafrost and methane hydrates.''92
Last, an opportunity specifically mentioned by the 2015 Arctic Policy Action plan,
that is, the possible participation of South Korea in the development of Russian ports in the
Far East. Such an activity is crucial for the overall development of the NSR and according to
Park, ''South Korea is discussing its participation in the port renovation projects with Russia`s
85
Ann Koh and Heesu Lee, ''Arctic ice Melt Seen Freeing Way for South Korean Oil Hub,'' Bloomberg
Business, accessed August 11, 2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-22/arctic-ice-melt-seen-
freeing-way-for-south-korean-oil-hub. 86
Kang, ''Melting Arctic ice thrills port cities.'' 87
Koh and Lee, ''Arctic ice Melt Seen Freeing Way for South Korean Oil Hub.'' 88
''South Korea,'' U.S. Energy Information Administration, accessed August 11, 2015,
http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=KOR. 89
Young Kil Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 60. 90
Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 893. 91
Young Kil Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' Baltic Rim Economies, no. 5
(2014): 22. 92
Mia Bennett, ''South Korean Icebreaker Leads Expedition to Canada`s Beaufort Sea for Methane Hydrates,''
Cryopolitics, accessed August 11, 2015, http://cryopolitics.com/2013/09/30/south-korean-icebreaker-leads-
expedition-to-canadas-beaufort-sea-for-methane-hydrates/.
federal and local governments.''93
However, Russia`s current economic recession is an
obstacle to this process.94
Despite the attractive prospects of an ice-free Arctic, South Korean Arctic players and
commentators are well aware of the challenges and limitations associated with the economic
exploitation of the Arctic region. With respect to shipping, challenges like costly icebreaking
and ice-pilot fees, lack of well-trained and experienced crew, difficulties with weather and ice
predictions or the fact that for now container shipping is not feasible for the NSR are often
being cited.95
All this has created a consensus within South Korea that ''the NSR is not
commercially viable in the short-run,'' and that ''South Korea`s maritime industries are
therefore adopting a cautious approach, with no plans to build a specialized commercial
fleet.''96
2. Scientific interests
In recent years, South Korean scientists have been actively contributing to our
scientific understanding of the changes that are taking place in the Arctic region by
conducting research in fields of climate change, Arctic ecosystem and geology.97
However,
upon closer inspection, one can easily recognize that such activism can have positive effects
on the overall competitiveness of the South Korean economy.
Traditionally, South Korea`s economy has been dependent on the manufacturing
industry, however, in recent years, South Korea has understood, that if it wants to retain its
competitive edge in today`s globalized world, it needs to transform into a knowledge based
economy with science in the center of it.98
Even KOPRI announced in April 2013 that is has
''moved into the knowledge based economy R&D.''99
According to Bennett, ''The state`s
interest in science and R&D as a route towards economic advancement is therefore a major
93
Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' 22. 94
Ibid. 95
Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' 22. 96
Jakobson and Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the
Kingdom of Denmark," 32. 97
''Dinner Remarks at the Commemorative Event to Mark 2nd Anniversary of ROK's Accession to Arctic
Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea. 98
Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 38-39. 99
''History,'' Korea Polar Research Institute.
driver of the country`s northern interests.''100
In 2014, South Korea spent about 3.6% of its
GDP on research and development ranking fifth in the world.101
In February 2013, in her inaugural speech, President Park unveiled her plans for South
Korea`s economic revival by introducing the idea of a 'creative economy.' She described it as
''The convergence of science and technology with industry, the fusion of culture with industry
and the blossoming of creativity made possible by the breaking down of barriers between
industries,'' with science, technology and IT industry at the heart of it.102
However, for South
Korea to build such an economy and to stay competitive it ''requires capabilities for
pioneering and commercializing innovation.''103
In this manner, South Korea`s Chaebols with
their ''Arctic'' shipbuilding and offshore capabilities ''represent the leading edges of Korea`s
economic activities in the Arctic today.''104
Moreover, every South Korean scientific and technological achievement in the Arctic
(and Antarctic for that matter) will have a positive effect of the nation`s brand image which
will ultimately reflect in the credibility of Korea`s enterprises.105
Take the icebreaker Araon
as an example. It is South Korea`s first (and so far only) domestically built icebreaker. Ever
since its commission in 2009, the Araon has been a floating ''promotion'' not only for Korea`s
polar scientific advancements but also for its shipbuilding industry.106
In addition, by
studying and analyzing Arctic climate change, South Korea might be able to forecast new
weather patterns in the region thus contributing to industries that depend on such predictions
like tourism, fishing, shipping and maritime safety. By doing so, South Korea would
undoubtedly enhance its international status as a responsible and reliable member of the
international community. According to Bennett, ''This message typifies a view common in
South Korea that scientific research - especially if its results can be materialized, monetized
and exported - is critical to economic growth.''107
100
Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 894. 101
''2014 Global R&D Funding Forecast,'' Battelle and R&D Magazine, December 2013, page 7, available at:
http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf. 102
'' The Full text of the 18th Presidential Inauguration Speech,'' Korea.net, accessed August 11, 2015,
http://www.korea.net/Government/Briefing-Room/Presidential-Speeches/view?articleId=105853&pageIndex=5. 103
Sean Connell, ''Korea`s Creative Economy Agenda,'' Asia Pacific Bulletin, no. 6 (2013), available at:
http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/30466/APB%20no.%20229.pdf?sequence=1. 104
Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 894. 105
Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 48. 106
Ibid. 107
Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 895.
Arctic in South Korean foreign policy
The previous section shows how South Korean Arctic activities and interests may
contribute to the development of South Korean economy, however, if we look at some
foreign policy initiatives of the administrations of ex-President Lee Myung-bak and the
current President Park Geun-Hye, it will become apparent that these administrations were and
still are using the Arctic to attain some of their foreign policy goals. The administration of
former president Lee Myung-bak had introduced the concept of 'Global Korea' with the
ambition “to cultivate our soft power and to bring about a qualitative improvement in the
Republic of Korea’s global standing” as well as “enhancing the value of Korea’s state brand
globally.”108
One of the ways how to attain this was to tackle global warming and climate
change.109
Korea had also introduced the policy of 'Low Carbon, Green Growth' ''as the new
paradigm in response to climate change and the future development of Korea.''110
In this
respect, South Korea initiated a new platform for international cooperation. the Global Green
Growth Institute (GGGI) and was selected to host the UN Green Climate Fund.111
Keun-
Gwan Lee of Seoul National University has noted that “For Korea to grow into a genuine
global player, it is advised to combine its formidable industrial prowess with a heightened
sense of responsibility for the issues of general concern such as the environment and the
rights of indigenous peoples.”112
In the same manner, the former South Korean ambassador to
Norway had declared in his speech during the 2013 Arctic Frontiers Conference that ''the
Arctic region is a place which requires a new approach and a new model more than any other
places on Earth. Korea`s interest in the Arctic region is in line with its endeavor towards
global green growth.''113
108
Cheong Wa Dae, Global Korea: The National Security Strategy of the Republic of Korea (Seoul: Cheong Wa
Dae, 2009), 20, quoted in Heike Hermanns, ''National Role Conceptions in the ‘Global Korea’ Foreign Policy
Strategy,'' The Korean Journal of International Studies 11, no. 1 (2013): 66. 109
Jakobson and Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the
Kingdom of Denmark," 29. 110
Byong-hyun Lee, ''Korea`s Arctic policy - A Korean route towards the Arctic frontier,'' speech at the Arctic
Frontiers Conference, Tromsø, Norway, January 21, 2013, available at
http://www.arcticfrontiers.com/downloads/arctic-frontiers-2013/conference-presentations/monday-21-january-
2013/69-10-byong-hyun-lee/file. 111
Jakobson and Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the
Kingdom of Denmark," 29. 112
quoted in Ken Coates and Kimie Hara, ''Park the Paranoia,'' Policy Options, accessed August 12, 2015,
http://policyoptions.irpp.org/issues/arctic-visions/coates-hara/. 113
Lee, ''Korea`s Arctic policy - A Korean route towards the Arctic frontier.''
Since the new administration of President Park took office in February 2013, there
have been reports that the administration has ''ditched'' Lee`s green growth policies citing
reasons that ''they were too oriented towards economic growth.''114
However, it is safe to say
that climate change issues remained on the national agenda even after the administrations
changed. South Korea`s Foreign Minister stated in July 2015: ''We are committed to
contributing to the science of climate change, as well as to broader research on the polar
regions. That’s why over the past five years, the Araon has been sailing both Arctic and
Antarctic waters with our researchers. And that’s why our scientists spend a good part of the
year at the Dasan Arctic Research Station in Ny-Ålesund, Norway.''115
However, in that same
speech, he also pointed out that the Arctic is a part of an initiative that President Park
introduced in October 2013: ''In fact, for us the Arctic is part of the Eurasia Initiative, which
we are working on as a matter of national strategy.''116
The Eurasia Initiative ''is a cooperation initiative and a grand national strategy put
forward by the Korean government … to make Eurasia a Continent that is truly ''One'', a
Continent of Creativity and a Continent of Peace together with countries in the region for a
brighter future of Eurasia.''117
Out of these three concepts, in relation to the Arctic region, the
'Continent that is truly One' is the most significant one as ''It suggests the realization of the
Silk Road Express (SRX) and its linkage to the Northern Sea Route to build complex
logistics networks, joint energy development, and energy networks connecting different
energy infrastructures.''118
It is apparent that the development and utilization of the Arctic sea
routes plays a significant role in this South Korean cooperation initiative. To use the Foreign
Minister`s words again: ''It is my dream to see the day when East Asia and Europe are
connected both through the trans-continental railways and the Arctic waterways.''119
114
Hyon-hee Shin, '' Park ditches ‘green growth’ in environmental policy shift,'' The Korea Herald, accessed
August 12, 2015, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20130328000986. 115
''Dinner Remarks at the Commemorative Event to Mark 2nd Anniversary of ROK's Accession to Arctic
Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea. 116
''Dinner Remarks at the Commemorative Event to Mark 2nd Anniversary of ROK's Accession to Arctic
Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 117
''Eurasia Initiative,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed August 12, 2015,
http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/image/common/title/res/0707_eurasia_bro.pdf. 118
Hoon Jeh Sung, ''Russian Far East Development and Directions for Improvement in Korean-Russian
Cooperation: Korea`s perspective,'' in International Cooperation in the Development of Russia's Far East and
Siberia, ed. Jing Huang and Alexander Korolev (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015): 153. 119
''Dinner Remarks at the Commemorative Event to Mark 2nd Anniversary of ROK's Accession to Arctic
Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Arctic governance and South Korean bilateral partnerships
South Korea had been an ad hoc observer to the Arctic Council since 2008 until it
received the ''regular'' observer status in May 2013. This event received a lot of attention from
the South Korean domestic media and in many cases ''the articles noted, with enthusiasm, that
Korea will have the opportunity to participate actively and cooperate with the global society`s
response to the Arctic and gain economic benefits through access to Arctic resources and the
NSR.''120
Also, Arctic Council member states were much more forthcoming in welcoming
South Korea in ''their'' regional forum (as opposed to the misgivings they had towards
China).121
Bennett cites three main reasons as to why: (a) South Korea can provide the much
needed 'Arctic' technology like ice-class ships, (b) it can provide investments in resource
extraction and (c) the country is seen as a potential export market for many Arctic
countries.122
Moreover, only recently, in July 2015, according to Yun Byung-se (South
Korea`s Minister of Foreign Affairs), ''President Grimmson of Iceland named Korea as a
model observer member of the Arctic Council. He commended Korea’s proactive
contributions and activities in the Arctic. He also noted that Korea’s vision in the “Master
Plan for Arctic Policy” could serve as an example for other countries.''123
However, despite
such praising, Park points out that since South Korea became the observer to the Arctic
Council, its overall position within the forum has not changed and that it ''still possesses no
voting right and has very limited voice in the council.''124
Therefore, in order to ensure the potential realization of its economic and scientific
interests in the region, South Korea began strengthening its bilateral partnerships with other
Arctic Council member states.125
South Korean Minister of Oceans and Fisheries, Yoo Ki-
june, noted that "The ministry has been working hard over the past year to increase
cooperation with Arctic nations … We will continue to boost our presence in the polar region
120
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 211. 121
Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 896. 122
Ibid. 123
''Dinner Remarks at the Commemorative Event to Mark 2nd Anniversary of ROK's Accession to Arctic
Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 124
Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 62. 125
Pavel V. Cherkashin, ''Republic of Korea`s plans about the Arctic exploitation and perspectives of Russian-
Korean cooperation in the Region,'' Arctichub, accessed August 12, 2015,
https://www.arctichub.net/resources/239.
by jointly conducting research with members of the Arctic Council.''126
In this respect, two
countries stand out as South Korea`s main Arctic partners - Norway and Russia.
As mentioned before, former president Lee made an important visit to Norway in
2012. During this trip, the two countries signed two MOU on environment-friendly
shipbuilding and shipping in the High North, moreover, the then Norwegian Prime Minister,
Jens Stoltenberg, declared Norway`s support for South Korean bid for observer status at the
Arctic Council.127
Ever since this visit, South Korea has actively sought to improve its
bilateral relation with Norway through annual cooperation talks and seminars.128
In April
2014, KOPRI and the Norwegian Polar Institute (NPI) signed an agreement to open a joint
polar research center.129
Sigbjørn Tenfjord, the Chargé d'affaires of the Norwegian Embassy
in Seoul at this occasion noted that “Norway and South Korea have cooperated closely on
Arctic issues for quite some time, as both countries have strong interests in the field. The
KOPRI-NPI Cooperative Research Centre is an excellent example of how we can create
mutual gain in bringing the cooperation even further.”130
In addition, in June 2015, the newly
appointed South Korean Ambassador for Arctic Affairs Chan-woo Kim travelled with a
South Korean delegation to Norway where he discussed topics such as the Arctic Council,
maritime questions and scientific cooperation.131
This was the Ambassador’s first trip abroad
in his new position marking ''the second high-level meeting between Norway and South
Korea on issues relating to the High North.''132
The countries also signed a Free Trade
Agreement in 2005 and are each other`s important trading partners.133
If we consider South Korea`s economic interests in the Arctic region, then it could be
argued that Russia is a natural choice for South Korea as an important bilateral partner.
126
Hyo-sik Lee, '' Korea to promote use of Arctic sea route,'' The Korea Times, accessed August 12, 2015.
http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2015/04/123_176669.html. 127
Jae-soon Chang, ''S. Korea, Norway agree on partnership for Arctic development,'' Yonhap News Agency,
accessed August 12, 2015,
http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/national/2012/09/12/57/0301000000AEN20120912008951315F.HTML. 128
''S. Korea, Norway seek to boost cooperation in building Arctic shipping route,'' Yonhap News Agency,
accessed August 12, 2015,
http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/business/2014/11/17/30/0501000000AEN20141117001000320F.html. 129
''Norway and South Korea open Joint Polar Research Centre,'' The Royal Norwegian Embassy in Seoul,
accessed August 12, 2015, http://www.norway.or.kr/News_and_events/Current-affairs/News/Norway-and-
South-Korea-open-Joint-Polar-Research-Centre/#.VctiMPntmko. 130
''Norway and South Korea open Joint Polar Research Centre,'' The Royal Norwegian Embassy in Seoul. 131
''Norway and South Korea successfully holds bilateral dialogue on Arctic issues,'' The Royal Norwegian
Embassy in Seoul. 132
Ibid. 133
Mia M. Bennett, ''North by Northeast: toward an Asian-Arctic region,'' Eurasian Geography and Economics
55, no. 1 (2014): 81.
Russia possesses the much needed natural resources, the main Arctic sea route - the NSR-
goes through its EEZ and also there is the potential for South Korean participation in the
development of Russia`s Far East ports.134
Moreover, South Korea has already exported to
Russia its 'Arctic technology' - the ice-class tankers. In this case, according to Jakobson and
Lee, ''South Korea`s expertise in polar shipbuilding has facilitated its engagement with Russia
on Arctic issues.''135
In 2014, South Korea and Russia also signed a MOU ''to cooperate in
developing five Russian ports.''136
The same year, the two sides held for the first time held
consultations on the possibilities of cooperation in the Arctic.137
After the meeting an official
from the Russian Foreign Ministry stated that ''cooperation in mutually beneficial areas in the
Arctic would become a new promising area of cooperation between Russia and South
Korea.''138
In a same manner, in 2015, South Korean MOF declared that ''"We will also ask
local shipping companies to establish a foothold in ports along Russia's Far East so that they
can more easily use the Arctic route … To do so, we will work with Russia to help it
modernize its ports. We will also nurture crewmen capable of sailing through the Arctic
Ocean, in cooperation with Russian universities."139
South Korea is also interested in Finland`s Arctic expertise. In 2014, they signed a
MOU in which the countries declared ''their agreement to build a partnership and share their
own information and technologies related to maritime safety, environmentally friendly
marine transportation and operation of an Arctic route."140
For South Korea, this was an
important step, since, according to MOF ''Finland possesses vast amount of knowledge and
experience in building ships and operating North Pole routes."141
These are areas on top of
South Korea`s interests in the Arctic.
South Korea has also been strengthening its relations with Denmark. In 2015, officials
from the two countries met to discuss matters related to Arctic navigation and shipping, they
also decided to renew a MOU on maritime shipping by three years till 2018 (the previous one
134
Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 63. 135
Jakobson and Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the
Kingdom of Denmark," 34. 136
Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 63. 137
''Russia and South Korea hold first consultations on Arctic cooperation,'' TASS, accessed August 12, 2015,
http://tass.ru/en/russia/718257. 138
Ibid. 139
Lee, '' Korea to promote use of Arctic sea route,'' The Korea Times. 140
''S. Korea, Finland agree to boost marine cooperation,'' Yonhap News Agency, accessed August 13, 2015,
http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2014/11/19/82/1200000000AEN20141119001400320F.html. 141
Ibid.
was signed in 2012 and was supposed to expire in May 2015).142
At the same time, South
Korea enjoys good relations with the resource rich Greenland. They are building on the high-
level meetings that took place in 2012 as well as on the MOU`s signed during that time and
according to Vittus Qujaukitsoq, Greenland`s Minister of Industry, Labor, Trade and Foreign
Affairs, ''Particularly in terms of fishing, mining, research and tourism the potential is great
for extended collaboration.''143
Conclusion
South Korea is sometimes referred to as a 'latecomer' to the arena of Arctic affairs.
Nevertheless, it has made great strides in the past 15 years to make up for this 'deficiency'. It
has opened an Arctic research station and launched its independent Arctic scientific research,
it has constructed its own icebreaker, it has become the observer to the Arctic Council and
built an extensive bilateral network with Arctic states, moreover, the Arctic has been on
South Korea`s national agenda since 2008 and also, South Korea became the first Asian
nation to publish a Arctic policy master plan. The country has a number of domestic actors
with interests in the Arctic region on the governmental, provincial, municipal, institutional,
academic and private sector level as well. In addition, in terms of shipbuilding, it possesses
the necessary Arctic technological knowhow. South Korea has also made it clear, that the
study of the climate change and the sustainable development of the Arctic region (read NSR
shipping, shipbuilding, resource extraction and port development) are its main interests there.
It has also been using the Arctic in its foreign policy: former President Lee used it in his
'Global Korea' strategy and President Park is referring to it in her 'Eurasia Initiative'. All of
this has turned South Korea into an important Arctic stakeholder.
Looking forward, South Korea has declared its intention to strengthen international
cooperation with Arctic states, the Arctic Council and its subsidiary bodies and with the
Permanent Participants through international forums, seminars and scientific research.144
It
also wants to expand its Arctic scientific and technological research and infrastructure,
142
''Strengthening Arctic Marine Cooperation with Denmark,'' Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, accessed
August 13, 2015, http://www.mof.go.kr/article/view.do?menuKey=376&boardKey=10&articleKey=7145 (in
Korean). 143
Svein Magnason, ''South Korea and Greenland Strengthen Ties,'' Nora Region Trends, accessed August 13,
2015, http://www.noraregiontrends.org/politics/politicalnews/article/south-korea-and-greenland-strengthen-
ties/87/. 144
Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 215.
promote the use of the NSR as an important shipping corridor, develop technology for
shipbuilding and safe navigation for polar-class vessels and offshore plant technology for
deep water resources.145
In addition, South Korea wants to establish an institutional
arrangement for a national polar policy, since according to Kim the present Pan-government
Arctic Policy Master Plan is ''an integrated policy coordinated by various governmental
agencies rather than a single unified national strategy.''146
These main goals, as outlined in the
Master Plan, when coupled with the notion that the actual benefits from the ''Arctic opening''
are a bit exaggerated and limited in some aspects (shipping costs, insufficient port
development along the NSR etc.) present us with the prospect that the South Korean
government is perceiving the Arctic region from a mid- to long-term perspective.147
In short,
South Korea is positioning itself, it is building foundations for its future engagement with the
region in a way that is very beneficial to its national interests and at the same time non-
threatening to the established Arctic powers.
South Korea`s vision for the Arctic region is to be perceived as a reliable and
responsible partner for Arctic cooperation.148
At present, it is in a very unique and
advantageous position to attain this desired status. Its advantage stems from the simple fact
that South Korea is a middle power country and more importantly, it is being perceived as
one by the international community. Unlike China, it is not a rising power threatening to
change the established order, or unlike Japan, is does not have any outstanding territorial
disputes with any major Arctic power. Moreover, South Korea is retaining a certain level of
transparency in pronouncing its Arctic interests by publishing policy documents - like the
Arctic Policy Master Plan. It also has its own Ambassador for Arctic Affairs and it makes
sure that it is promoting its Arctic interests in a non-threatening way while acknowledging the
rights and privileges of the core Arctic powers and the indigenous peoples. In this position of
an middle power engaged in Arctic affairs, South Korea could be playing a bridging role
between the new Asian observer states and the member states of the Arctic Council in e.g.
developing policies affecting everyone engaged in the region thus further elevating South
Korea`s status in the international arena.
145
Ibid. 146
Ibid., 210-211. 147
Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' 22-23. 148
Jia-Chul Choi, ''Korea in the Arctic,'' 2014 Arctic Circle, accessed August 13, 2015,
https://vimeo.com/111299399.