SOSC 102 U. Lecture Note 2

Sex and Gender

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Sex and Gender

• Sex: classification of people based on genitalia

• Gender: a process of creating distinguishable social statuses for the assignment of rights and responsibilities between males and females

Definition of the Bi-polar Gender System

• Classify people into two kinds: man and woman• The criteria of classification: what the genitalia

look like at birth– Baby boy and baby girl (no in-between

gender)• Not all societies take the bi-polar gender system• Some people cannot be classified into either of

the two categories

Gendering the Sex Roles

Sex Category Men Women

Biological differences

Sperms, etc. Eggs, etc.

Gendering social expectations

Masculine: aggressive, strong, determined, rational, etc.

Feminine: docile, compile, subordinate, submissive, emotional, self-denial, etc.

How does the bi-polar gender system work?

• Example 1: clothing

• Example 2: the “sex-role model”

• Example 3: schooling

• Example 4: the social construction of hetrosexuality

• Example 5: force a transsexual to change

From Bi-polar Gender System to Sexism

• Definition of Sexism: A system of advantage based on sex. In general, it refers to the oppression of women by men in a society that is largely patriarchal.

• Definition of patriarchal society: male-dominated, male-identified, and male-centered society. Most institutions and aspects of culture contrives to rationalize and perpetuate the dominance of men and the subordination of women (Paula S. Rothenberg, 2004: 121).

• A patriarchal society worships masculinity, and takes it as the prime standard of mankind.

From Sexism to Homophobia

• Masculinity as Homophobia: men’s fear of not being “men” enough; the attempt of keeping distance from any effeminate behavior

• Definition of Homophobia: “Homophobia is more than the irrational fear of gay men, more than the fact that we might be perceived as gay…. Homophobia is the fear that other men will unmask us, emasculate us, reveal to us and the world that we do not measure up, that we are not real men. We are afraid to let other men see that fear” – Kimmel, Michael S., in Rothenberg, 2004: 88.

From Homophobia to Racism

• Why would homophobia develop into racism?• The “Real Men” vs. the “Others”: The manhood

is constituted by masculinity. But the idea that masculinity only belongs to a distinct group leads to anxiety. Therefore, those self-proclaimed “real men” would try to prevent the “others” from achieving masculinity. The “others” include women, gay men as well as other men who do not share the same manhood.

From Homophobia to Racism (examples)

• How does racism work?

• Discriminate against people of foreign origins by emasculating them

• E.g. discrimination against new immigrants in the U. S.: In the end of the 19th Century, “true American men” thought that new immigrants from Irish and Italians were not “real men”: too passionate and emotionally volatile.

Racist Image (1)

• A Chinese immigrant was portrayed as a weak subject. The cartoon was circulated in British Columbia in the late 19th century when gold rushes ended and economic recession set in.

Source: Canada’s Digital Collection (http://collections.ic.gc.ca/generations)

Racist Image (2)

• A depiction of Japanese wonu, or “dwarf slave”, a derogatory term applied to the Japanese from Han dynasty onward. Chen Yinghuang, Renleixue [Anthropology], Shanghai, 1918.– Cited from Frank Dikotter,

The Discourse of Race in Modern China, CA: Stanford U. Press, 1992, p. 160.

Interplay between Sexism, Homophobia and Racism

• Neutral classification vs. discrimination:– Neutral classification: Classification based on one’s

achievement (such as talents, motivations, and competence)

– Discrimination: Based on one’s ascribed status (such as race, gender and ethnic backgrounds)

• “We group” vs. “the others”: By valuing the characteristics and lifestyles of certain individuals or groups and devaluing those of others, society constructs some of its members as “other”. These “others” are understood to be less deserving, less intelligent, even less human.

Betty Friedan, The Feminie Mystique (1963 [1973])*

• “How could we ever really know or love each other as long as we kept playing those roles that kept us from knowing or being ourselves? Weren’t men as well as women still locked in lonely isolation, alienation, no matter how many sexual acrobatics they put their bodies through? Weren’t men dying too young, suppressing fears and tears and their own tenderness? It seemed to me that men weren’t really the enemy—they were fellow victims, suffering from an outmoded masculine mystique that made them feel unnecessarily inadequate when there was no bears to kill.”

• * Cited from Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (1996: p. 261).

From bi-polar gender system to the dichotomy between “Men’s Work,

Women’s Work”Sex Category Men Women

Sexual Division of Labor

Production Reproduction

“Breadwinners” “Housewives” and mothers

Workplace Household

Paid work Unpaid domestic work

Public Sphere Private Sphere

“Men’s work” “Women’s work”

Gendered Work

• Some jobs tend to be “women’s work” in one country, but they might be “men’s work” in another country.

• The sexual division of labor in a country may vary over time.

• “Societies gender work by labeling activities as appropriate for one sex or the other. These labels influence the job assignments of women and men, and they influence employers’ and workers’ expectations of who ought to perform various jobs” (Padavic and Reskin, p. 9).

Why Gendered Work is Unfair to Women?

• Women’s work is mostly devaluated– E. g. Women are paid less

• The construction of gender on the job– When a new job is created, employers often

have a particular sex in mind.– Oftentimes the required personality for high-

level jobs are associated with the social expectations of men’s characteristics (such as aggressive, self-motivated, independent, etc.)

• BENETTON Group, is looking for high caliber candidates to join us.

• RECEPTIONISTJob Description– To provide professional reception services– Handle all incoming calls and greet visitors– Receive, distribute and register all incoming mails– Handle conference room booking– Provide a variety of administration and clerical support

• Requirements– F. 7 Graduate with minimum 3 years' relevant experience in MNC– Fluent in spoken English, Chinese and Mandarin– Excellent telephone manners, smart, pleasant and helpful – Good communication and interpersonal skills – Some computer knowledge in MS Word, Excel and Powerpoint

(Personal data collected will be used for recruitment purpose only)• Source: http://www.classifiedpost.com,05, Feb. 2004.

Gender and Job Advertisement 1: Receptionist

• We are a subsidiary of a leading Fortune 500 Fast Moving Consumer Products Company with leadership position across Asia. We are now looking for high calibre professionals to take on the captioned positions.

• KEY ACCOUNT EXECUTIVEReporting to the Key Account Manager, he/she will be responsible for the following:

• * Assist the Key Account Manager to plan and implement trade promotion with key accounts and department stores* Prepare sales analysis and update sales progress* Monitor promotion funding with customers

• Potential candidate should possess the following qualification:* Degree/Diploma holder in Business* Minimum 2 years of FMCG experience in key accounts* Good interpersonal and communication skills* Aggressive and self driven to achieve goal* Software literacy in Excel, Word, Powerpoint, Spaceman

• Source: http://www.classifiedpost.com,05, Feb. 2004

Gender and Job Advertisement 2: Key Account Executive

• • CUSTOMER SERVICES OFFICER• You will handle telephone responses from existing and new recruited

customers.• You will be involved in building customers relationships, providing

information and dealing with enquiries over the telephones and mails. As well as communication and problem solving skills, you should be proactive, patient, self-motivated and be able to work independently. Good command of English and Chinese is essential.

• You will join as at a time of exciting expansion. What's more, you will benefit from all the advantages of a newly established with commitments in our society and the next generation.

• We offer a wide-ranging salary-packaging scheme including MPF, medical, life insurance and year-end bonus.

Source: http://www.classifiedpost.com,05, Feb. 2004

Gender and Job Advertisement 3: Customer Services Officer

From Bi-polar Gender System to Gendered Work

Men Women

Biological differences classified by reproduction function

Sperms Eggs

Gendering social norms between men and women

Masculine: aggressive, strong, determined, rational

Feminine: docile, compile, subordinate, submissive, emotional

Sexual Division of Labor in Economic Life

Production Reproduction

“Breadwinners” “Housewives” and mothers

Workplace Household

Paid work Unpaid domestic work

Public Sphere Private Sphere

“Men’s work” “Women’s work”