Søren Kristiansen & Michael Hviid JacobsenSøren Kristiansen & Michael Hviid Jacobsen

““Like grand theory, abstracted empiricism seizes upon Like grand theory, abstracted empiricism seizes upon one juncture in the process of work and allows it to one juncture in the process of work and allows it to dominate the mind. Both are withdrawals from the dominate the mind. Both are withdrawals from the

tasks of the social sciences. Considerations of tasks of the social sciences. Considerations of method and theory are of course essential to work method and theory are of course essential to work upon our tasks, but in these two styles they have upon our tasks, but in these two styles they have

become hindrances: the methodological inhibition become hindrances: the methodological inhibition stands parallel to the fetishism of the concept … stands parallel to the fetishism of the concept …

Empirical data are blind without theory, and theory Empirical data are blind without theory, and theory is empty without datais empty without data””

- C. Wright Mills: - C. Wright Mills: The Sociological Imagination The Sociological Imagination (1959)(1959)

Most of us probably have to admit that we Most of us probably have to admit that we are neither merely empiricists (radical are neither merely empiricists (radical inductionists) or theoreticians (radical inductionists) or theoreticians (radical deductivists) but that our work lingers deductivists) but that our work lingers uneasily somewhere between the two uneasily somewhere between the two

poles as a hybrid and that we are always poles as a hybrid and that we are always looking for a way to legitimate this hybrid looking for a way to legitimate this hybrid

identityidentity

- theory- theory

+ data+ data

+ theory+ theory

- data- data

Recontextualizing Recontextualizing methodmethod

Radical induction/ Radical induction/ grounded theorygrounded theory

Extended case Extended case methodmethod

Analytic Analytic inductioninduction

Alternative/creative Alternative/creative ways of reframing ways of reframing

phenomena in new phenomena in new frames, providing them frames, providing them

with new and often with new and often surprising meaning, e.g. surprising meaning, e.g. through metaphors and through metaphors and

alusionsalusionsAbductionAbduction

Investigation of a Investigation of a limited area limited area

through primary through primary and secondary data and secondary data

and aimed at and aimed at revision and revision and extension of extension of

existing theoryexisting theoryReconstructionReconstruction

Hypothesis testing Hypothesis testing and refinement and refinement

through the through the continuous continuous

elimination of elimination of deviating casesdeviating cases

Verification/Verification/falsificationfalsification

Conceptual and Conceptual and theoretical theoretical

development development primarily based primarily based

on the collection on the collection and analysis of and analysis of primary data primary data ExplorationExploration

Adaptive theoryAdaptive theory

Interplay between theory and data aimed at theoretical development/theorizingInterplay between theory and data aimed at theoretical development/theorizing

• Developed by Derek Layder in Developed by Derek Layder in Sociological Practice Sociological Practice (1998) as a critique of (1998) as a critique of but also correction particularly to the methodology of grounded theorybut also correction particularly to the methodology of grounded theory

• Rests on a critical realist methodology that is skeptical of empirical Rests on a critical realist methodology that is skeptical of empirical research without theoretical guidance, which distrusts the notion that research without theoretical guidance, which distrusts the notion that people can necessarily understand or see through their own lives and people can necessarily understand or see through their own lives and which aims at developing and refining theory-laden and theory-directed which aims at developing and refining theory-laden and theory-directed knowledgeknowledge

• Layder describes ‘adaptive theory’ as an ‘approach’ rather than as a Layder describes ‘adaptive theory’ as an ‘approach’ rather than as a methodology, research tradition or positionmethodology, research tradition or position

• So far the approach has not received much attention or mention in So far the approach has not received much attention or mention in sociological methodology circlessociological methodology circles

• The approach offers a middle-position between radical induction and a The approach offers a middle-position between radical induction and a theory-basedtheory-based

• Throughout the years, many other researchers have worked with a Throughout the years, many other researchers have worked with a variety of often unreflected and under-theorized methodological middle-variety of often unreflected and under-theorized methodological middle-positions – Layder seeks to spell out and systematize such effortspositions – Layder seeks to spell out and systematize such efforts

MacroMacro

MicroMicro

RealismRealism

ConstructivismConstructivism

StructureStructure

AgencyAgency

Adaptive TheoryAdaptive Theory

Obj

ectiv

eO

bjec

tive Subjective

Subjective

““In a nutshell, adaptive theory, as I conceive it, is an In a nutshell, adaptive theory, as I conceive it, is an original amalgam of different influences and original amalgam of different influences and

approaches that falls somewhere between what are approaches that falls somewhere between what are variously referred to as deductive or theory-testing variously referred to as deductive or theory-testing

approaches on one side and inductive or theory-approaches on one side and inductive or theory-generating approaches on the other … generating approaches on the other … Adaptive Adaptive

theory draws upon the whole range of approaches to theory draws upon the whole range of approaches to theorizing in research theorizing in research … Adaptive theory uses both … Adaptive theory uses both inductive and deductive procedures for developing inductive and deductive procedures for developing

and elaborating theory”and elaborating theory”(Layder 1998:5, 38, 136-138).(Layder 1998:5, 38, 136-138).

““The ‘adaptive’ part of the term is meant to suggest that the The ‘adaptive’ part of the term is meant to suggest that the theory both adapts to, or is shaped by, incoming evidence at theory both adapts to, or is shaped by, incoming evidence at the same time as the data themselves are filtered throufgh the same time as the data themselves are filtered throufgh (and adapted to) the extant theoretical materials that are (and adapted to) the extant theoretical materials that are

relevant and at hand”relevant and at hand”(Layder 1998:38)(Layder 1998:38)

TheoryTheory DataData

The main purpose and task of adaptive The main purpose and task of adaptive theory is to assist the researcher intheory is to assist the researcher in

• Thinking theoretically informed about a host of social issues and Thinking theoretically informed about a host of social issues and themes (as an ‘imaginative rehearsal’, as Layder dubs it)themes (as an ‘imaginative rehearsal’, as Layder dubs it)

• Not necessarily aimed at the development of a systematic theory Not necessarily aimed at the development of a systematic theory as such but as such but the continuous process the continuous process of using existing theories and of using existing theories and based on these (in combination and interplay with data) based on these (in combination and interplay with data) developing new theoretical ideas, insights and theoretically developing new theoretical ideas, insights and theoretically informed concepts and understandingsinformed concepts and understandings

• Being inspired by a vast pool of various theoretical literature – Being inspired by a vast pool of various theoretical literature – specific as well as general (and even alternative sources) – and specific as well as general (and even alternative sources) – and extracting interesting and promising ‘orienting concepts’ to guide extracting interesting and promising ‘orienting concepts’ to guide and accompany (but not direct or control) the analytical processand accompany (but not direct or control) the analytical process

• Being able to select Being able to select the most relevant and most useful the most relevant and most useful theoretical theoretical ideas in the vast pool of existing ideas and conceptsideas in the vast pool of existing ideas and concepts

• In principle any theoretically informed concept/notion that In principle any theoretically informed concept/notion that can guide or promote theorizingcan guide or promote theorizing – however, two conditions – however, two conditions ought to be met:ought to be met:

1.1. Their two-sided nature – binding social structure and Their two-sided nature – binding social structure and subjective experience togethersubjective experience together

2.2. Their reference to social processes – tracing activity and Their reference to social processes – tracing activity and events through time and placeevents through time and place

• Can be extracted from any existing body of theory Can be extracted from any existing body of theory (general or specific), substantive areas of research (e.g. (general or specific), substantive areas of research (e.g. medical sociology), adjacent areas of research (e.g. medical sociology), adjacent areas of research (e.g. psychology), from utterly surprising sources (films, poetry, psychology), from utterly surprising sources (films, poetry, posters, etc.) or from one’s own intuition and sensitivityposters, etc.) or from one’s own intuition and sensitivity

““The best use of individual concepts drawn from a wider body of theory or knowledge The best use of individual concepts drawn from a wider body of theory or knowledge is as a means of cranking up the process of theorizing – either by elaborating on extant is as a means of cranking up the process of theorizing – either by elaborating on extant theory or by generating theory in relation to researh evidence. By using such concepts theory or by generating theory in relation to researh evidence. By using such concepts as orienting devices the researcher is provided with a preliminary means of ordering as orienting devices the researcher is provided with a preliminary means of ordering

and giving shape to a mass of data”and giving shape to a mass of data”(Layder 1998:23-24).(Layder 1998:23-24).

• ‘‘Emotion work’ (Arlie Russell Hochschild)Emotion work’ (Arlie Russell Hochschild)• ‘‘Face work’ (Erving Goffman)Face work’ (Erving Goffman)• ‘‘Joggling’ (Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss)Joggling’ (Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss)• ‘‘Moral career’ (Erving Goffman and Howard S. Becker)Moral career’ (Erving Goffman and Howard S. Becker)• ‘‘Moral, calculating or estranged involvement’ (Amitai Etzioni)Moral, calculating or estranged involvement’ (Amitai Etzioni)• ‘‘Impression management’ (Erving Goffman)Impression management’ (Erving Goffman)• ‘‘Vagabonds and tourists’ (Zygmunt Bauman)Vagabonds and tourists’ (Zygmunt Bauman)• ‘‘Military-industrial complex’ (C. Wright Mills)Military-industrial complex’ (C. Wright Mills)• ‘‘Social frames’ (Erving Goffman)Social frames’ (Erving Goffman)• ‘‘Awareness contexts’ (Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss)Awareness contexts’ (Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss)

Inspired by grounded theory’s coding procedures, Layder Inspired by grounded theory’s coding procedures, Layder suggests three steps to coding in adaptive theory:suggests three steps to coding in adaptive theory:

1.1.Pre-codingPre-coding (the initial and often inspirational work with (the initial and often inspirational work with finding and organizing interesting sections, paragraphs or finding and organizing interesting sections, paragraphs or concepts in data)concepts in data)2.2.Provisional coding Provisional coding (close to pre-coding but often attached to (close to pre-coding but often attached to theoretical ideas and notions)theoretical ideas and notions)3.3.Core and satellite coding Core and satellite coding (linking and interplaying data and (linking and interplaying data and orienting concepts in novel and more systematic ways thereby orienting concepts in novel and more systematic ways thereby refining the theorizing process by finding out what links well refining the theorizing process by finding out what links well with what)with what)

A sociology student recently used the adaptive ‘approach’ in her master’s A sociology student recently used the adaptive ‘approach’ in her master’s thesis on cutting and self-harm among young girlsthesis on cutting and self-harm among young girls

Literature: Literature: Specific psychological, sociological and medical literature on Specific psychological, sociological and medical literature on cutting and more general social theory on deviance, secrecy, recognition, cutting and more general social theory on deviance, secrecy, recognition, etc.etc.

Orienting concepts: Orienting concepts: Recognition, stigma, passing, shame, embarrassment, Recognition, stigma, passing, shame, embarrassment, etc. – concepts connecting the individual/subjective experience with wider etc. – concepts connecting the individual/subjective experience with wider social/societal/structural conditions and reactionssocial/societal/structural conditions and reactions

Empirical work: Empirical work: Interviews with young girls, expert interviews and internet Interviews with young girls, expert interviews and internet ethnography on a homepage for cuttersethnography on a homepage for cutters

Analysis:Analysis: Organized on the orienting concepts with the development of Organized on the orienting concepts with the development of new concepts and typologies as the end-goal (theorizing)new concepts and typologies as the end-goal (theorizing)

• The actual relationship between induction and deduction remains The actual relationship between induction and deduction remains unclear – what is prioritized when, where, why and howunclear – what is prioritized when, where, why and how

• How to proceed (practically) in the research process (e.g. How to proceed (practically) in the research process (e.g. combining orienting concepts with data) is under-theorizedcombining orienting concepts with data) is under-theorized

• Structure/system level concepts are favoured by Layder on behalf Structure/system level concepts are favoured by Layder on behalf of more individual or interactionist level conceptsof more individual or interactionist level concepts

• It seems unclear when an adequate adaptive theory is developedIt seems unclear when an adequate adaptive theory is developed• The proposal to allow or even suggest a broad eclectic approach to The proposal to allow or even suggest a broad eclectic approach to

the use of orienting concepts might foreshadow a more the use of orienting concepts might foreshadow a more substantial understanding of the theories in usesubstantial understanding of the theories in use

• Apart from this, adaptive theory offers a refreshing and to some Apart from this, adaptive theory offers a refreshing and to some extent useful alternative to the other four positions on the extent useful alternative to the other four positions on the qualitative continuumqualitative continuum

• Qualitative data analysis is concerned with finding order, patterns, Qualitative data analysis is concerned with finding order, patterns, structure, direction and meaning in often large lumps of material taken structure, direction and meaning in often large lumps of material taken from various sectors of social lifefrom various sectors of social life

• Creating this order/patterns/structure/direction/meaning can be done Creating this order/patterns/structure/direction/meaning can be done by a very by a very data-driven procedure or strategy data-driven procedure or strategy (e.g. grounded theory), by (e.g. grounded theory), by way of a way of a relatively theory-driven procedure or strategy relatively theory-driven procedure or strategy (e.g. the (e.g. the recontextualizing method) or by a recontextualizing method) or by a middle-way procedure or strategy middle-way procedure or strategy (e.g. adaptive theory)(e.g. adaptive theory)

• The result of these different procedures or strategies can be new theory, The result of these different procedures or strategies can be new theory, revised/refined theory, validated theory, extended theory, developing revised/refined theory, validated theory, extended theory, developing typologies, concepts and metaphors, etc.typologies, concepts and metaphors, etc.

• All these procedures/strategies have their individual potentials and All these procedures/strategies have their individual potentials and pitfallspitfalls

• Depending on the specific procedure or strategy used, the different Depending on the specific procedure or strategy used, the different steps in the research project will vary considerablysteps in the research project will vary considerably

““There are no methods without deficiencies and There are no methods without deficiencies and every method causes certain methodological every method causes certain methodological

difficulties for the researcher … A razorblade as difficulties for the researcher … A razorblade as well as an axe are equally precise instruments, but well as an axe are equally precise instruments, but

when it comes to deforestation the axe is much when it comes to deforestation the axe is much better. The axe is a powerful tool just as the better. The axe is a powerful tool just as the

razorblade but it is much better to use a razorblade but it is much better to use a razorblade than an axe for shaving”razorblade than an axe for shaving”

- Zygmunt Bauman (1966)- Zygmunt Bauman (1966)

• Derek Layder (1998): Derek Layder (1998): Sociological Practice – Linking Sociological Practice – Linking Theory and Social ResearchTheory and Social Research. London: Sage Publications.. London: Sage Publications.

• Michael Hviid Jacobsen (2007): Michael Hviid Jacobsen (2007): “Adaptiv teori – den “Adaptiv teori – den tredje vej til viden: En stående invitation til tredje vej til viden: En stående invitation til syntesesociologi”, i Rasmus Antoft, Michael Hviid syntesesociologi”, i Rasmus Antoft, Michael Hviid Jacobsen, Anja Jørgensen & Søren Kristiansen (red.): Jacobsen, Anja Jørgensen & Søren Kristiansen (red.): Håndværk & Horisonter – tradition og nytænkning i Håndværk & Horisonter – tradition og nytænkning i kvalitativ metodekvalitativ metode. . Odense: Syddansk Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, pp. 249-291.Universitetsforlag, pp. 249-291.