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Some APES Review. Earth. Age of Earth. Approximately 4.6 billion years. 3 types of plate boundaries: divergent—two plates spread apart. convergent—two plates move together. transform faults—two plates slide along one another. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Some APES Review
Earth
Age of Earth
Approximately 4.6 billion years
Plate Tectonics
3 types of plate boundaries: divergent—two plates spread apart.convergent—two plates move together.transform faults—two plates slide along one another.
Mineral deposits are most abundant at convergent plate boundaries.Volcanoes and earthquakes occur at plate boundaries.The U.S. is on the North American plate
Most Abundant elements in Earth’s crust
1) Oxygen2) Silicon3) Aluminum4) Iron5) Calcium6) Sodium7) Potassium
Coal FormationPete Love Betty Always
PeatLigniteBituminousAnthracite
Population and Demographics
Current World Population
About 7 billion peopleGrowth rate= 1.2%
Current US Population = 309 million
Click for current world and US Population
Demographics
80% of the world’s population is in the developing world, 20% in the developed.
Rule of 7070 % growth rate = Doubling time (years)
You will need to use this on the exam!
Thomas Malthus
Theorized that human population cannot continue to increase without leading to war, famine & disease
Most Populous Nations
1) China2) India3) U.S.4) Indonesia5) Brazil6) Russia7) Pakistan
Most Populous Regions of the World
1) Asia2) Europe3) Africa4) Latin America5) North America6) Oceania
Replacement level fertility
The number of children a couple must have to replace themselves.
Demographic Transition Model
Fig. 7-11, p. 137
Stage 1Preindustrial
Stage 2Transitional
Stage 3Industrial
Stage 4Postindustrial
Low Increasing Very high Decreasing Low Zero Negative
Birth rate
Total population
Death rate
Growth rate over time
Low
High
Rel
ati
ve
po
pu
lati
on
siz
e
Bir
th r
ate
an
d d
eath
rat
e(n
um
ber
per
1,0
00 p
er
yea
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Demographic Transition Model
Preindustrial stage Transitional stage Industrial stage Postindustrial stage
World’s Largest Oil Reserves (2013 self-reporting estimates)
1 Saudi Arabia 265,405 (OPEC)2 Venezuela 211,169 (OPEC)3 Canada 173,6254 Iran 151,167 (OPEC)5 Iraq 115,350 (OPEC)6 Kuwait 103,998 (OPEC)7 United Arab Emirates 97,800 (OPEC)8 Russia 60,0039 Libya 47,102 (OPEC)10 Kazakhstan 30,00211 Nigeria 37,200 (OPEC)12 Qatar 25,382 (OPEC)13 United States 20,682
Biggest lifestyle risk factors
1) Poverty2) Smoking3) Overweight4) Driving5) Air Pollution6) Alcohol7) Drug Abuse
Miller, 2006
Deadliest infectious diseases
1) Pneumonia and flu2) HIV3) Malaria4) Diarrheal diseases5) TB6) Hep B7) Measels
Places
Love Canal, NY
1976-77chemicals buried in old canal, school and homes built over it led to birth defects and cancers.
Minamata, Japan
1950sMental impairments, birth defects, and deaths caused by mercury dumped in Minamata Bay by factory. Mercury entered humans in diet (fish).
Bhopal, India
December 2,1984Methyl isocyanate released accidentally by Union Carbide pesticide plant kills over 5,000.
Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania
March 29, 1979Nuclear power plant loses cooling water 50% of core melts, radioactive materials escape into atmosphere, near meltdown.
Chernobyl, Ukraine
April 26, 1986Unauthorized safety test leads to fire and explosion at nuclear power plant—millions exposed to unsafe levels of radiation.
Valdez, Alaska
March 24, 1989The oil tanker Exxon Valdez hits submerged rocks in Prince William Sound—worst oil spill in US waters.
Fukushima, Japan
March 11, 2011A series of equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, following the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
Yucca Mountain, NevadaControversial, proposed site for the permanent storage of high-level nuclear waste, 70-miles northwest of Las Vegas, near volcano and earthquake faults.
UPDATE (April 12, 2011) Despite House GOP push, Harry Reid declares ‘Yucca is dead’- Click for link to article
Ogallala Aquifer
World’s largest aquifer.Holds enough water to cover the U.S. with 1.5 feet of water.Under parts of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas (the Midwest).Being depleted for agricultural and urban use.
BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
2010, 87 DaysLargest accidental spill ever4.9 million barrels
Laws
Endangered Species Act
Identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S., and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations.1973
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act (1980)Requires the cleanup of sites contaminated
with toxic waste. This law is commonly refered to as "Superfund."
In 1986 major amendments were made in order to clarify the level of cleanup required and degrees of liability. CERCLA is retroactive, which means it can be used to hold liable those responsible for disposal of hazardous wastes before the law was enacted in 1980.
Lacey Act of 1900
Prohibits interstate transport of wild animals dead or alive without federal permit.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
Also known a: “CITES”Lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products.1973
Healthy Forests Initiative (2003)
Reduces fuel for forest fires.Controversial because it allows for tree harvesting.
Clean Water Act
Set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways. Aim: to make surface waters swimmable and fishable.1972
Safe Drinking Water ActSet maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health.1974
Clean Air Act
Set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants.1970
Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act
Requires coal strip mines and others to reclaim the land following mining operations.1977
Kyoto Protocol
Controversial attempt to control global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries. Not ratified by the U.S.1997
Montreal Protocol
International treaty to phase out the use of ozone depleting substances (esp CFCs-first ID’ed as a problem by Roland and Molina).1987
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)RCRA Seeks to prevent the creation of toxic waste dumps by setting standards for the management of hazardous waste from cradle to grave
Physical Laws/Rules•Math-esp. conversions•Chemistry: i.e. a)Organic Compounds contain at least 2 or more C atoms combined with each other & atoms of 1 or more other elements + CH4.
b)Laws of Thermodynamics: 1-Energy changes form, 2-Efficiency not 100%
Ecology
Biomagnification
Increased levels of toxins in higher trophic levels.
Bioaccumulation
Accumulation of toxins in fatty tissues of an organism.
Reproductive Strategies
K-strategistsOrganisms reproduce late in lifeBear few offspringCare for and protect offspringLarge bodiedExamples: humans, elephants
r-strategists Organisms reproduce early in lifeBear many offspringDo not care for and protect offspringSmall bodiedExamples insects, mice
Primary Productivity
•Largest in Tropical rain forest, Swamp/marsh, Estuary
Cellular Respiration
Oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2
C6H12O6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O
Photosynthesis
Plants convert CO2 (atmospheric C) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)
CO2 + H2O = C6H12O6 + O2
Gaseous Nitrogen (N2)in AtmosphereNitrogen
Fixationby industry
for agricultureFood Webs
on Land
Fertilizersuptake byautotrophs
excretion, death,decomposition
uptake byautotrophs
Nitrogenous Wastes,Remains in Soil
NO3–
in Soil
NO2–
in Soilloss by
leaching
1. Nitrificationbacteria convert NH4
+
to nitrite (NO2–)
2. Nitrificationbacteria convert NO2
–
to nitrate (NO3–)
Ammonificationbacteria, fungi convert the
residues to NH3; thisdissolves to form NH4
+
NH3, NH4+
in Soil
loss byleaching
Nitrogen Fixationbacteria convert N2 toammonia (NH3); this
dissolves to formammonium (NH4
+)
Denitrificationby bacteria
Fig. 3-27, p. 58
The Nitrogen Cycle
Carrying capacity
The number of individuals that can be sustained in an area.r-strategists reach it more quickly than K-strategists
Resource partitioning
Leads to formation of nichesCan lead to speciation
Keystone species
Species whose role in an ecosystem is more important than others.
Indicator species
Species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged
Environment
Ocean Zones
Esturine, Benthic, CoastalEuphotic Bathyal/TwilightAbyssal
Critters:Plankton-live @ surfaceNekton-swimmers, pelagic
Lake Types
Ogliotrophic-low nutrientsEutrophic-high nutrients
Climate ControlsLAPTOP:LatitudeAltitudeProximity to waterTopographyOcean currentsPrevailing winds (ie rain shadow on leeward mtn sides)
Atmosphere
The Sky Makes ThunderTroposphere (smog, bad ozone, weather)
Stratosphere (good ozone, planes)MesosphereThermosphereExosphere
El Niño
East trade winds off S. America weaken, east current slows.
No upwelling at S. America = no ocean nutrients.
Rain when west wind hits Andes and rises, dry in Pacific nations.
Global Air Convection Cells
6 around globeRain where air rises, coolsDrier where air falls, warms
Biomes
Precipitation determines:Dry = DesertMedium = GrasslandWet = Forest
Temperature determines type.
Human Activities
Humanity-centric Vocabulary
Anthropogenic = human-caused
• Non-anthropogenic = NOT human caused• Other vocab:• Phyto- plant• Photo- light• Chemo- chemical• Anthro- human
Beginning of Human Agriculture
• Approximately 10,000 years ago
Eutrophication
• “Bloom” caused by excess nutrients (esp. N,P) in a water system.
• Hypoxia (lack of oxygen, DO)
Economic Depletion
• When about 80% of a resource is gone.
Ecological Footprint
• Our present global footprint is about 20% greater than global resource capacity (Miller, 2006)
Tragedy of the Commons
• “If I do not use this resource, someone else will.”
• Degradation of free-access resources.
LD50
• “Lethal Dose 50”• The amount of a substance that
kills 50% of the subjects in a test population
Oxygen Sag Curve
Clean ZoneDecomposition
Zone
Septic ZoneRecovery
Zone
Clean Zone
Normal clean water organisms(trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
Trash fish(carp, gar,leeches)
Fish absent, fungi,sludge worms,bacteria
(anaerobic)
Trash fish(carp, gar,leeches)
Normal clean water organisms(trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
8 ppmDissolved oxygen (ppm)
Biological oxygendemand
8 ppmTypes of
organisms
Fig. 11-24, p. 256
Major Air Pollutants, NAAQS*
• CO• NO2• SO2• Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)• Ozone• Lead
*Nat. Ambient Air Qual. Stds. (EPA)
Reducing Air Pollution
Scrubbers: Sulfur Oxides: (SOx)
Electrostatic Precipitators: Particulates
Major Greenhouse Gases from human activities
• CO2• CH4• N2O• CFCs (also an Ozone-depleting gas)
Municipal solid waste
• The trash you and I throw away.• In the U.S., it is mostly paper and
mostly put into landfills.
MRF
• Materials Recycling Facility• Where wastes are sorted and
recovered with machines and people for recycling
Wastewater Treatment
• Mechanical (Primary)• Biological (Secondary)- Solids will
be flocculated-aggregation of solids
• Chemical (Tertiary)
Storage of Radioactive Wastes
• As a rule, radioactive wastes should be stored for 10 half-lives before they are considered safe
• Plutonium-239 half life = 24,000 yearsstorage time = 240,000 years
Power & Energy
• A Watt is a measurement of power
• 1,000 watts = 1 kilowatt• 1,000 kilowatts = 1 Megawatt (MW)• 1,000 Megawatts = 1 Gigawatt (GW)
• The amount of electrical energy used is is given in units of kilowatt-hours (kWh)
Alternate sources of Energy
• Solar– Passive– Active
• Wind• Fuel cells• Geothermal• Ocean waves/tides• Biomass
Summary and Sustainability
Statistics• 98% of waste is from industry, most from mining and
gas explor.• 75% of world’s commercial fish stocks are overfished• 40% (approx) of world’s topsoil eroding faster than it
can form• 25% of global CO2 produced by US (w/ under 5% of wrld
pop)• <1% of the water on earth is available for drinking
I=PAT•Impact is a factor of population size, affluence (or consumption), and the type of technology being used (which can increase or decrease the impact)
Mass Extinctions
• There have been 5—most recent 65 mya
• Are we entering the 6th?
Extinction
– 1.4+ million species known, 3-100 million exist– background extinction 1-5/yr– present rate .1% = 300 to 10,000 lost/year = at least
about 1 a day
CHIPPO/HIPPCO• Climate change•Habitat loss• Invasive species• Population growth• Pollution•Overuse of resources
Causes of biodiversity loss
BioSPoRNThe keys to sustainability:BiodiversitySolar PowerPopulationRecycling Nutrients
Biomimicry!