REPUBLIC OF TURKEY

MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

Center for Strategic Research

SOFT POWER AND DIPLOMACY IN

COUNTER - TERRORISM

by

Ilkim Ilayda KIRAZ

Essay presented as a part of Internship Programme in Strategic Research Center

24 / 11 / 2014 – 12 / 12 / 2014

Soft Power and Diplomacy in Counter-Terrorism, 2014

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Abstract

Many measures have been taken to combat terrorism. Most notable was the use of soft power strategy as an alternative strategy to hard power, because it is helping to win

the hearts and minds of people voluntarily and eliminating the causes of terrorism. This paper aims to emphasize the use and effectiveness of diplomacy and soft power

approaches on counter-terrorism strategies as an alternative to hard power approaches with an emphasis on Turkey.

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SOFT POWER AND DIPLOMACY IN COUNTER – TERRORISM

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................................ 1

1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................ 3 1.1 HARD POWER .............................................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 SOFT POWER................................................................................................................................................ 3

2. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 THE REASONS BEHIND TERRORISM........................................................................................................ 4 2.2 STRATEGIES TO FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM ....................................................................................... 5

3. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................................... 6 3.1 THE ROLE OF DIPLOMACY IN COUNTER-TERRORISM.......................................................................... 6 3.2 AIM OF SOFT-POWER IN COUNTER-TERRORISM.................................................................................. 8

4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................. 9 4.1 PRACTICAL STRATEGIES AS SOFT POWER IN COUNTER-TERRORISM .............................................. 9

4.1.1 Conducting a Campaign to Discredit a Terrorist Organization................................... 9 4.1.2 Information Security ..................................................................................................................... 9 4.1.3 Creating “Negative Image” of Terrorists in the Information Space ........................... 9 4.1.4 An Active Involvement of the Police into Anti-Terrorist Campaigns........................10 4.1.5 The Formation of an Integrated Model of a Criminal Act of Terrorism .................10 4.1.6 Attracting General Population to Cooperation ................................................................11 4.1.7 Involving Members of Public Authority ...............................................................................11

5. CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................................. 12

REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................................... 13

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1. Introduction

1.1 Hard Power

Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive, and

is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power.

On the other hand, hard power is not the only solution for a country to reach its aims in international area. Besides, hard power approach might not always bring success if

it is not used in the right time. For instance, on March 2003 the occupation of Iran by USA military action did not bring good results. Referring to invasion of US in 2003, NYU Professor DeGennaro (2014) stated that the US Administration immediately

readied for war, ignoring diplomatic tools like dispatching teams of negotiators, aligning with national and regional players, and, developing a deeper understanding

of the stakeholders to decode the rhetoric of the deposed leader, Saddam Hussein. She also emphasized the weak strategy to solve today’s IS problem and she claimed that with the rise of IS, the U.S. seems once again to be responding with piecemeal

reactionary solutions that are not addressing the major foundations of the region’s problems. The same issue is also noted on the Workshop Report of the Counter-

Terrorism Seminar (SAM, 2014) that the United States allocates more budget to its soft power policies and to the related institutions, seeing that the hard power policies it conducted before 2010 did not yield the expected results.

1.2 Soft Power

The term “soft power” coined by Harvard University professor Joseph Nye in 1990 could be described as a persuasive approach to international relations, typically

involving the use of economic or cultural influence. In these days, the term means using of diplomacy -such as lobbying- instead of using coercive power to change and

influence public opinion. All media -the print media, radio, TV, audio and video cassettes, films and the

Internet- are weapons of soft power. The handheld gun and the improvised explosive devices (IEDs) are weapons of hard power. Just as weapons of hard power keep

improving with the advent of new technologies, so too the weapons of soft power. The advent of the Direct-to-Home (DTH) TV and the Internet totally revolutionised the way soft power is wielded by making it possible to take a message to the targeted

people in their living rooms over the heads of their rulers and censors (Raman, 2007). In easy words, soft power is a “power of persuasion” by using soft tools.

Certainly, the effective use of military force when necessary is important to reduce the ability of terrorist groups to carry out attacks but what more important is to

prevent terrorist groups to be formed or people to join. In this case, using of soft power has significant importance when countries need strategies to win countries and

pull people to their side.

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2. Background

2.1 The Reasons Behind Terrorism

On fighting against terrorism, it is critically important to know the reasons behind the issue in order to win the fight. One can find solution that is effective enough to

eradicate the roots of terrorism if only the reasons could be understood and answered clearly.

In the related literature, the consensus includes the two main headings as a reason behind the terrorism. First of all, the perception of social and political injustice in

people’s minds lead them to choose terrorism when they are try to correct what they believe to be wrong in social, political, historical or economic platform. The second consensus reached corresponds to the belief that violence or the threat of violence will

be effective to change things and justify the ends, and many of the terrorists think that they had to choose violence after long deliberation, because they felt they had no

choice. During the Global Counterterrorism Forum held on 2013, Ambassador Cengizer said

that social inequalities, lack of education and poverty pave the way for terrorist groups to gain followers. Developing strategies which take into account the main

dynamics, instead of top-down policies and bringing elements of soft power into the forefront would limit this possibility (SAM, 2014). In addition to these reasons some scholars add several more reasons which fall between the religious and philopsophical

ideologies, mainly Islamic Extremism. For instance Chertoff (2008) claims that two major factors that are driving the growth of terrorism in the 21st century are the

continued presence of failed political and economic systems in parts of the developing world, and the emergence of violent Islamic extremism as the most visible competing ideology for those mired in that dismal status quo. However, the second reason of

terrorism that Chertoff claimed; “Islamic Extremism” could also be originated from the first reason about economic and political system failures.

In addition, it is also an undeniable fact that violent acts that end up with many deaths of innocents, must be containing a somehow very devastating anger which dulls the emotions and blinds the eyes. Similarly, Raman (2007) approach the terrorism roots

from the psychological angle, and he claims that anger is a common root cause of all terrorism - ideological, ethnic, separatist, sectarian or religious. Terrorist organizations

exploit the anger to motivate the members of the community from which they have arisen to support them in their acts of terrorism. Such support can be in the form of volunteers for committing acts of terrorism, contribution of funds, logistic support etc.

Extreme anger in individuals can motivate them to resort to terrorism as individuals without their belonging to any organization. Anger containment and ultimate

reduction has, therefore, to be an important component of counter-terrorism.

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2.2 Strategies to Fight Against Terrorism

Terrorism could be classified into two aspects: the hard aspect and soft aspect based on terrorism results. The hard aspect is the destructive result; while the soft is

addressing terrorism roots. The roots would be the hard part of it, for these reasons:

• It influences the people quickly.

• Lasts for long time

• Difficult to be observed.

Theoretically, there are three ways to eradicate an terrorist organization completely.

Firstly, organizing an attack over the locations they act through military force to destroy its human and physical assets. However through the hard power of the

military means one can address only the visible symptoms of terrorism. Secondly, curbing the financial sources and let it waste away by itself. And finally, the third option is perception management to persuade people to leave the terrorist organization

or not to join beforehand. All these strategies could be used together or interchangeably and each one has its advantages as well as disadvantages.

The first one, refers to the above-mentioned hard aspect of the terrorism. Using the military force is a traditional and relatively more dangerous counter-terrorism operation, however it could not be said that it is ineffective. If the conditions are

tough and brutal, then, in my personal view, the sole solution is to fight against terrorist groups with a military force. Plus, the results will be obtained in short-term.

Undoubtedly, the consequences will be irredeemable such as loss of soldiers –even the loss of civil people-, destruction of natural sources and recession in the economic and social life for a period of time. According to Chertoff (2008), the use of military

action in recent years against the terrorists has included deposing the Taliban in Afghanistan and combating al Qaeda in Iraq. During this time, the United States and

its allies have also acted to frustrate three key enablers of terrorism—communications, finance, and travel. However, these key enablers could also be eradicated via diplomacy and soft power.

Alternatively, the second one, impeding the financial resources of a terrorist organization should be considered from two sides. First is the inter-country financial

sources and the second is out-of-the-country sources leading to gains for terrorist organization. In order to impede the inter-country financial sources, according to my personal view, the best way is to strengthen the survaillance policies and increasing

the penal sanctions to lift the effectiveness of governments’ deterrent force. As for impeding the money flow from out-of-the country sources, the diplomatic power

takes an important place. To give an example, the importance of the diplomatic power and international colloboration against terrorism could be understood from the current Turkish case. It could be seen that the terrorist group PKK and its supporters acts

more freely in Europe. Regarding to this issue, on 27 November 2014 during 15th MUSIAD Expo, The Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan expressed that Europe

is trying to legitimaze PKK (Haber 360). According to the website of Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2014), Europe is particularly important for the organization (PKK) as it is in Europe where the organization generates most of its

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revenue to finance these cumbersome activities.

Legal and illegal sources of PKK/KONGRA-GEL revenue can be cited as follows (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2014):

Extortion (largely from Turkish businessmen).

Revenues obtained from the “special nights” organized by affiliates.

Sales of publications etc.

Revenues obtained from commercial establishments belonging to /

affiliated with the organization.

Money collected through drug-trafficking, arms-smuggling and trafficking

in human beings.

In addition to financial resources they mostly generate inside the borders of Europe,

they can also issue proponent newspapers and organize public meetings to gain members. In order to solve this problem, Turkey cannot wage war against the Europe, otherwise it would have very devastating results. Therefore, the most effective

solution for Turkey is to use the diplomatic power over Europe and apply soft power strategies on society to prevent the activities of this terrorist organization.

Similary, the third solution as a counter-terrorist action is the use of soft power to change people’s perceptions where everything starts from. If countries could pull people to their side providing them assurance about justice and individual rights, then

people will not be disposed or have to involve in terrorism. This way of solution is important not only to destroy the terrorist organization physically but also the groups’

philosophy and ideology all together. This solution is very effective and the only way to eradicate the terrorism completely and prevent the formation of pro-minded organizations in the future. However, in general, this solution requires consistent and

continuous investments and the results of this approach is visible in long-term; but more likely to be perminant.

3. Literature Review

3.1 The Role of Diplomacy in Counter-Terrorism

Diplomacy can play a major role in anti-terrorist activities in general,whether in

agreements, negotiations, or even mediation processes aimed at finding peaceful anti-terrorist solutions. Those individuals in political and diplomatic positions are some of

the highest-ranking gures in state and governmental bodies; thus, they can play a decisive role in diplomatic anti-terrorist activities, because they are able to (Pesto, 2010) :

Ensure a standardized approach to the problem of modern terrorism through

timely activities abroad, placing a focus on the obligation of countries not to provide material or political support to terrorist activities.

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Insist on the removal of the causes of terrorism, regardless of the scope and

intensity of its activity.

Provide data and evidence in the initial phase that can be used to confirm the

presence of terrorist organizations and groups, in order to ensure international assistance and support for the fight against terrorism.

Conduct timely consultations with relevant regional, European, and global political stakeholders for the purpose of obtaining support for planned anti-

terrorist activities.

Mrs. Fatma Ceren Yazgan, Deputy Director General for Security and Intelligence

Affairs at the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, expressed on the Counter-Terrorism Seminar that the diplomacy and the criminal justice system have key roles

in combatting terrorism. As every country has a different set of regulations, diplomacy is the most fundamental instrument to ensure convergence between these regulations and develop a common understanding in the fight against terrorism (SAM,

2014).

When it comes to Turkey; According to Candar (2010), Turkey’s soft power strategy is a long term process that it shows promise. And according to him: Turkey has a potential of ruining the political equation, because to emerge as a force in the most

turbulent region that Iran is in the east and Israel is in the west, so Middle East based on the two opposite poles. The only thing that will keep in equilibrium of these two

states by diplomacy. Only one state improve relation between two states, Nowadays, it is called Turkey. Turkey foreign policy, especially the soft power strategy solve the problem for using the diplomacy, not using the force. It is a good result of the strategy

and Turkey is on its way to becoming a regional power.

Furthermore, Mrs. Yazgan’s statement on the Counter- Terrorism Seminar proves the importance of diplomacy on counterterrorism: Turkey could not obtain sufficient support in the fight against terrorism from the international community before 2001.

Additionally, PKK terrorism was often considered as a matter of human rights in multilateral platforms. Although Turkey might have had past deficiencies in its legal

framework for criminal justice, this does not change the fact that PKK is a terrorist organization. Turkey also adopted soft power elements as fundamental political instruments to fight against the PKK without alienating its Kurdish citizens in any

way. For example expressions like “Kurdish terrorism” have never been used. She also stated that the European Union listed the PKK as a terrorist organization in 2002

as a result of the post-2001 threat perceptions (SAM, 2014). Therefore diplomatic power has a critical place to prevent other countries to support key enablers of terrorism. In order to clearly see what Yazgan said about the lack of international

support of Turkey in counter-terrorism before 2001, one should look at this example: In 15 February 1999, the founder and leader of PKK terrorist group Abdullah Ocalan

caught with a South Cyprus passport with a fake name in Kenya. Until 1998, this terrorist leader was based in Syria until Turkey used its coercive diplomatic power (Turkey made an open threat) on Syria to get Apo (the short form for Abdullah

Ocalan) out from the country. A year before his capture, he travelled from one country to another including Russia and later on to Italy and Greece to hide until

finally being captured. If those countries were collaborated against terrorism, then it would be very likely that the terrorist leader Apo would not had a chance to travel and

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hide easily. Yet, he might not had the South Cyprus passport to use it internationally.

Therefore, as one of the policy recommendations from the Counter-Terrorism Seminar (SAM, 2014) suggested that initiatives for combatting terrorism developed

on multi-sided platforms should not be left to the responsibility of certain countries, but supported and adopted by many countries.

3.2 Aim of Soft-Power in Counter-Terrorism As it is mentioned before, one of the main factors results in terrorism is anger lying

behind the people’s psychology. As Raman (2007) claims that it is more difficult---often impossible--- to remove strategic causes of anger. As examples of such strategic

causes, one could mention Al Qaeda's anger over historic wrongs allegedly committed to the Muslims. The objective of the soft power has to be to explain to the community supporting terrorism the untenability of such causes and wean the community away

from terrorism---whether by organizations or by individuals. A mix of removal of tactical causes of anger through appropriate correctives in counter-terrorism

operations and explanation of the untenability of the strategic causes is required if the use of soft power is to be effective.

On the Counter-Terrorism Seminar, Associate Professor Talha Köse, from Istanbul

Şehir University stated that as great powers weaken, there emerges a competition among regional actors. For instance, Iran uses Shiism, Saudi Arabia Salafism and

Turkey uses the democratization process, and such efforts of regional actors will continue to spread in Afghanistan and Africa. Emphasizing that all these developments have made soft power a more useable concept, Köse pointed out that

the concept will assume a non-traditional role when merged with influential personality and leadership and that shared values, successful policies, respect to

human values, international aid and religious groups are some of the sources of soft power (SAM, 2014). All these soft power strategies have an effect on eliminating the anger and in the long term might eradicate the roots of terrorism.

Alternatively, Raman (2007) reach the issue from other perspective and he emphasizes the use of soft power of the media (both old and new) by terrorists to keep

the anger sustained and make it increase in order to maintain a high level of motivation. Alternatively, some of the terrorist organizations use media to brinkmanship, such as IS use social media to scare people about what would be

happen if they reject to join them. The role of soft power in counter-terrorism is to neutralise the motivation through anger containment and reduction.

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4. Findings and Discussion

4.1 Practical Strategies as Soft Power in Counter-Terrorism The article of Russian Governor of the Krasnoyarsk Terriotory, P. Klachkov (2012)

suggests variety of PR technologies as soft power that can enhance the effectiveness of anti-terrorist measures. Below are the several that can be the most effective:

4.1.1 Conducting a Campaign to Discredit a Terrorist Organization Participation in a terrorist group gives its members a sense of being chosen; it is associated with a peculiar prestige that attracts newcomers. Conducting public campaigns, discrediting such communities, can reduce the attractiveness of their

membership in the eyes of potential candidates, thus reducing the quantity and the quality of the radical organizations. For example, the demonstration of differences in

financial position between its leaders and rank-and-file members may sober down people who want to join the extremist group.

It should be noted that; in order to win people to their side, governments must adopt

more effective strategies then terrorists as soft power strategies are also used by terrorist organizations as a part of perception management. According to Raman

(2007), one has been seeing since 9/11 that jihadi terrorist organizations -particularly Al Qaeda and its associates- have become more adept in their use of soft power against their State adversaries than their State adversaries in their use against the

terrorists. This is one of the factors, which has contributed to the continued resilence of Al Qaeda and its associates and their ability to draw volunteers and support from

the communities from which they have arisen. Therefore it shows that United State’s less effective use of soft power compared to the Al Qaeda had negative results over US’s policy to manage people’s perception about state and terrorism.

4.1.2 Information Security Ignoring a terrorist group with the media, non-proliferation of extremist statements

reduces to zero all the efforts of radicals to influence a political situation. Their activities do not achieve the desired effect without public coverage and, by and large, does not make sense. However, the steps in this direction should be very careful and

thoughtful, not to provoke further terrorist attacks. In addition, it should be noted that the current level of growth in communication makes almost any information message

available to numerous people without applying for “traditional” media. For instance, although it is a highly important and shocking news when PKK makes a terrorist attack, the Turkish media do not show a strong concern on public channels, in order

not to give credit to murderers.

4.1.3 Creating “Negative Image” of Terrorists in the Information Space It is about spreading information through the media, and through informal channels of

communication, making terrorists live in a constant state of fear and paranoia,

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constantly experiencing severe psychological pressure. For instance showing the

dirty and dangerous living areas of terrorists in public channels, and the inner violence and threats that terrorist leaders apply on other members could be used as a

disincentive power. As Raman (2007) expresses that the Western powers have had a long history of the effective use of soft power against adversaries. One would be aware of the role played by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) during the

Second World War against the Nazis and the Fascists. The broadcasts of the BBC helped in two ways. They kept up the morale of the British people and rallied them to

supporting the cause of the war. They weakened the credibility of the Nazis and the Fascists in the eyes of their own people. Similarly, one of the reasons the US was able to use its soft power effectively during the Cold War was the availability of a large

reservoir of political dissidents from the Communist countries, who co-operated in the running of the radio stations and imparted credibility to their broadcasts.

However, these strategies also used by terrorist organizations to discredit the government practices and ideology of the current system. Having mastered all the subtleties of influence on people’s consciousness and the influence of “public

relations” technology on the population in all its minutest details, terrorists perfectly alternated their actions based on the psychological pressure and intimidation, trying to

portray themselves and their activities in the most favorable light for potential supporters (Klachkov, 2012). For example there are many websites of terrorist groups where they practice their radical ideas and giving reasons of their philosophy to

convince people about the “legitimacy” of their actions. One of the typical examples of these resources is the online edition of “Inspire”, whose target audience consists of

young English-speaking Muslims living in Europe and America. In addition, some countries also use this strategy to gain public support on violent practices. An example to this could be given by Israel case. Israel uses media channels so

powerfully to legitimate its Gaza attacks and embargos on people’s mind in Israel.

4.1.4 An Active Involvement of the Police into Anti-Terrorist Campaigns Police officers (in the first place, district inspectors) can sometimes get more

information about the actions of terrorist groups, operating in the territory under their control, its movements, plans, and upcoming operations than the representatives of

military intelligence. In addition, they are much more aware of the operational situation in the area and may have some valuable information.

4.1.5 The Formation of an Integrated Model of a Criminal Act of Terrorism “Mental maps” (or mind maps), widely used in business development strategies for the formation of companies, can be taken for this purpose as well. This technique will

help to understand the extremists better, to reveal their true motives and intentions. On this basis, it is possible to predict future developments and choose the best methods of resistance. The workshop report of the Counter-Terrorism Seminar (SAM,

2014) also suggests that there should be no misconception that poverty is the single factor that opens operating areas to the terrorist organizations; therefore, measures

should be taken to counter the ideological appeal of these organizations and integrated model of a criminal act of terrorism -such as bombing and hostage taking- should be created through its comprehensive analysis.

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4.1.6 Attracting General Population to Cooperation A key factor in the success of the anti-terrorist operation is to support the population. It should be agreed that “Those, who can seize the initiative in dealing with civilians,

get a chance of dominating in the situation, and eventually of winning a victory. The leading role of this factor clearly shows that it’s impossible to deal effectively with the rebels while using traditional methods, primarily the use of conventional weapons

and tactics of the general purpose forces. Therefore, the main role should be led to non-violent control and subjugation of civilians in order to lose the strength of the

rebel forces. In this regard information and psychological warfare are the main elements there.”

In order to apply non-violent factor, there is a consensus about education as a

preemptive and preventive policy against violence. However, education when its shaped by the wrong hands, it could create destructive generations. Similar to the use

of media as soft power, the education as soft power also used by terrorists to shape the perception of people, mainly starting from the very young ages. A system of education may be some kind of nutrient medium for terrorism. For example, in

religious schools in Pakistan “the basics, which is taught to boys is the knowledge of the Koran by heart in Arabic and the ability to recite rhythmically its 144 chapters (the boys are admitted to madrasahs at the age of 6). It takes ten years. Except for the

Koran, a graduate of madrasah knows a little at 16: the earth is fat, Islam is the only true religion, and America, India and Israel are his deadly enemies (Klachkov,

2012). The naïve nature of children make them an easy target for terrorist organizations to shape minds from the beginning to serve them in future. Children are exposed to venomous thoughts about Western countries and unfortunately from the

very young age they are trained about guns. As the personality and feeling of belonging to certain values mainly shaped during the childhood and it is very difficult

to break these enemy-like philosophies of these people in future. Therefore, countries should adopt strong and solid education policies which include each society member.

4.1.7 Involving Members of Public Authority Governments can derive a great benefit from participation of people, whose opinion has great weight in society, in counter-terrorism. In other words, they are well-known

figures of culture, science and art, respected people, the elders, etc. Their public speech and appeals, as well as their partic ipation in informal meetings can help to reduce social tension and conflict that may cause terrorism and extremism. For

instance, as a part of the “Resolution Process”, Turkey formed a Wise People Committee as a channel for communication between the Turkish government and the

country's Kurdish radicals. The Wise People Committee, made up of 63 writers, academics, columnists and actors-travelled across Turkey's seven provinces in 2013, assessing public opinion on the Kurdish issue and finally delivering a report to then

prime minister Erdogan in June 2013. Similar to this strategy, NGO’s could have negotiating effect on conflict solution. The workshop report (SAM, 2014) suggests

that soft power practices, collaboration with local NGOs as well as cultura l activities will facilitate the transmission of the intended messages and people who may come into contact with terrorist organizations should be employed within the structures in

question.

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5. Conclusions

Its high cost, lack of efficiency and undesirable side effects of military operations are

some of the disadvantages of hard power. However in emergent situations the hard power approaches give the best results as it is effective in short term as opposed to soft power approaches which gives more permanent results but works in long term.

First, governments has to continue its efforts in the fight against terrorism recruit

more of the tools of soft power. The first step and the most important is eliminating the causes of poverty, unemployment, corruption, nepotism, so as not to provide factors terrorists exploit to recruit people. It should, also, intensify of the community's

awareness of the importance of discourse and dialogue as the value of appliances, useful and practical, and alternative methods in connection to be unjust.

Second, governments should use soft power strategy as an alternative to hard power when the conditions are suitable. This alternative must be worked out, because it’s

about correcting a perceived injustice. It means eliminating the roots causes terrorism. In order to reach this, leaders should address the educational reform and utilize the

media.

Finally, governments should use diplomacy tools effectively to gain international

support on fighting against terrorism, ensure a standardized approach to the problem through timely activities abroad as well as benefit from the international consultation.

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