The purpose of sociology is to answer questions about social life and the social world!
EG:Why do middle-class children generally achieve better exam results than working class children?Sociological Research Methods: Choosing a research method

http://www.flixya.com/files-photo/m/b/i/mbilalrafique-2303277.jpgThe following are issues we need to think about when deciding which research methods to use..
For the exam, you must learn these definitions, as they can be worth two marks!Primary Data- Information collected by sociologists themselves for their own purposes.
EG: Social surveys (Observations/Interviews), Experiments, Observations

http://www.sadacanada.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Disney-Cartoons-Tom-And-Jerry-Funny-Pictures-And-Wallpapers-5.jpgSecondary Data- Information that has been collected or created by someone else for their own purposes, but which the sociologist can use.
EG: Official Statistics, Documents, such as letters/newspapers

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_sY9FRN6Xib4/S-GN6af8o6I/AAAAAAAAdcs/pQlnd-NouC0/s640/funny_graphs_and_charts_11.jpgQuantitative Data- Information in numerical form that can be presented in graph form
EG: Closed ended questions, Structured Interviews, Official statistics

http://allthingslearning.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/dummies-classroom-observation.jpg
Qualitative Data:Information that focuses primarily on the meanings of things. These are data, which are no represented numerically but expressed in words.
EG: Unstructured Interviews, Participant observation

So how do we select the right one for our research?
Different methods and sources of data have differentstrengthsandlimitationsand we need to be able to evaluate these when selecting which on to use.
We can look at these strengths and limitations in terms of practical, ethical and theoretical issues!

http://blog.intohigher.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/money.jpeghttp://blogs.coventrytelegraph.net/passtheremote/CartoonClock.jpgPRACTICAL ISSUES
Time and Money
Different methods require different
amount of time and money.
Eg: Interviews-You would need to train staff,
therefore becomes more costly,
whereas participant observations are cheaper
but may take longer.http://banmilleronbusiness.com/files/shocked_face.jpghttp://images.colourbox.com/thumb_COLOURBOX3692397.jpg


Personal skills
and Characteristics
Each sociologist possesses different
personal skills which affects their
ability to use different methods.
Eg: Participant observation requires
the ability to mix with people easily-
you need good powers of observation
and trust.
Not all have these skills therefore
it difficult to use these methods!





Research Opportunity:
Sometimes the opportunity
to carry out research
occurs unexpectedly-meaning
it wont be possible
to use structured methods
Eg questionnaire-Long to prepare

http://trevorkaye.weebly.com/uploads/3/3/2/7/3327378/1164422_orig.jpgETHICAL ISSUES
Ethics refers to moral issues of right and wrong.
The British Sociological Association (BPS)
sets out guidelines for
the conduct
of research including:

Informed Consent
Participants are given comprehensive
information about the true aims and purpose
of the experiment.

http://www.jmorganmarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/privacy.jpgConfidentiality and Privacy
Keep identity of research participants a secret-
to help prevent possible negative
effects of them.
Personal information-kept confidentialhttp://www.donoharm.us/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderpictures/.pond/decal.JPG.w300h300.jpgEffects on research participants
Be aware of the possible effects of their work on those
they study.
(Prevent such harmful effects)http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg/220px-Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg.pngVulnerable groups
Special care should be taken where research
participants are vulnerable
(Age/disability)

http://schoolofdisney.com/Stories/Pinocchio/disney_pinocchio_08.jpgCovert Research
Researches identity is hidden from people
being studied-
This creates serious ethical issues
(E.g. Lying to people in order to win their
trust to obtain info)

THEORETICAL ISSUESThis refers to questions about what we
think society is like and whether we
can obtain an accurate,
truthful picture of it.

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_w9XO9zBePXE/S2IrhKTxmbI/AAAAAAAACA4/dGm1kLuaCJE/s400/discrimination_cartoon.jpgValidity
A true picture of what something is really like.
Allows researcher to get closer to the truth.
(Eg. Qualitative methods such as participant observation
is more valid and a truthful account)

http://mypeaceofheaven.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/designall-e1341597730743.jpg?w=314&h=242Reliability
A reliable method is one which
when repeated by another
researcher, give the same results.http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-PhzAMeGA3Ek/TbIfmQTHvKI/AAAAAAAAEIk/EnbzW0MoxmE/s1600/smiling-planet-earth-cartoon-thumb2794720.jpgRepresentativeness
Refers to whether or not the people
we study are a typical
reflection of the target population.

http://blog.3dcart.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/yay.jpg

Quick Check Questions

1. Explain the difference between (a) quantitative and qualitative data (b) primary and secondary sources of data.2. Give one example of (a) a primary method that produces quantitative data (b) a secondary source that give qualitative data.3. Identify two ethical issues that sociologists may face in studying people.4. True or False? If a method is reliable then is another researcher uses it they should get the same results.5. What does Validity mean?6. Name two practical issues that might affect a researchers choice of method.

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS: ExperimentsLaboratory experiments
Consists of two groups:

1. TheEXPERIMENTAL GROUP: With this group, we might vary the variables/conditions
2. TheCONTROL GROUP: With this group, the condition/variables stay the sameReliability:Once an experiment has been conducted, other scientists can replicate it.

The lab experiments are highly reliable producing the same results each time because the original experimenter can specify what steps were followed in the original experiment so others can repeat it.

It is a very detached method: the researcher merely manipulates the variables and records the results.

The scientists personal feelings and opinions have no effect.

The lab experiment has major advantages as the method can be used to identify cause and effects. This is why positivists may use this method as they favour the scientific approachADVANTAGES OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTAchieves their main goal of reliability

Careful control of experimental conditions

Reliable data because other researchers can replicate the experiment

Allows the researcher to identify and measure behaviour patterns quantitatively and to manipulate variables

DISADVANTAGES OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTSOften impossible/ unethical to control the variables

Using a small scale participants means that the results may not be generalised or representative

It fails to achieve their main goal of validity

Un-natural behaviour

Our behaviour cant be simply explained in terms of cause and effect-there is always an element of free-will

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS:
- It is impossible to identify/control all the variables that might exert an influence, i.e. a childs educational achievement.

- Laboratory experiments cannot be used to study the past- It is impossible to control variables that were acting in the past rather than the present.

- Study small samples- It is difficult to investigate large scale- This reduces the representativeness.

Participants are given comprehensive information about the true aims and purpose of the experiment.

ETHICAL PROBLEMS
-May be difficult to gain an INFORMED CONSENT-It is difficult to obtain if the participant is a child or has disabilities

THEORETICAL PROBLEMS
Research by the social psychologist ELTON MAYO at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company (1925) provides a useful illustration of one of the major problems for social science using experiments: THE HAWTHORNE EFFECT.

-He investigated if lighting had any effects on production levels
-They found BOTH increased and decreased lighting led to increase performance
-This had nothing to do with lighting-It was a result of the increased ATTENTION paid to workersField experimentsA field experiment is an experiment that is conducted in the field . That is, in a real world situation.

In field experiments the participants are not usually aware that that they are participating in an experiment.

Advantages and Disadvantage ofField experiments:No Hawthorne effect as Ps dont know they are taking part

Unethical= no informant consent

Using experiments to investigate EducationMany sociologists claim that teachers expectations of different groups of pupils have important effects, leading to labelling, the self-fulfilling prophecy (It is the process by which ones expectations of a person leads that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations) and unequal achievement. Both field and lab experiments can be used to investigate these Expectancy effects. These can be positive or negative.http://www.beautilicious40bride.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/cartoon-camera.jpgLABORATORY EXPERIMENTS AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONSLab Experiment done regarding teacher expectations:Harvey and Slatin (1976)

Charkin et al (1975)

Mason (1973)

Harvey and Slatin (1976)
Aim: to investigate whether teacher had preconceived ideas about children from different social classes.
Procedure:
Sample of 96 teachers.
Each P was shown 18 photos of children from different classes.
To control variables the photos were equally divided in terms gender and ethnicity.
They Ps were asked to rate the children on performance, parental attitudes to education, aspiration etc.

Finding:
Lower-class children were rated less favourably, especially by more experienced teachers.
Teachers based their judgements on student they taught.
Showing that teacher label children based on social class and uses these labels to pre-judge their potential.

http://images.clipartof.com/thumbnails/440338-Royalty-Free-RF-Clip-Art-Illustration-Of-A-Cartoon-Nervous-School-Boy-Holding-Out-A-Bad-Report-Card.jpgCharkin et al (1975)Procedure:
48 students from UNI (sample) were asked to give lesson to 10 year old boys.
1/3 of them (the high expectancy group) were told the boys were smart.
1/3 where told the boys had poor motivation and low IQ (low expectancy group.
1/3 were given no information. The lessons were then filmed.
Finding:
The High expectancy group were given more eye contact and positive body language than the low.
Showing that expectation are passed to pupils through non-verbal communication.

http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTvLJci906qw-Qg26pKwuKCAWEs7WSfAns_7z69PewciWgkl_E7

http://school.discoveryeducation.com/clipart/images/dmbtest.gifMason (1973)
Aim:whether negative or positive expectations had a greater effect
Procedure:Teachers were given positive, negative and neutral reports of pupils.
The teachers were then given video tapes of the pupil doing an exam, watching to see whether any mistakes were made.
Finally the teachers ask to predict the pupils attainment at the end of the year.
Findings:Negative expectations had a greater effect on a teachers expectations.

http://cf.ltkcdn.net/stress/images/feat-lg/123569-280x190r1-frog.jpgEthical Issues:Lab experiments rarely use real children = so no children suffer negative effects ( e.g. Mason and Harvey and Slatin)

Charkin et al (1975) used real children= unethical because :

Vulnerable group

Dont understand nature of experiment due to limited ability

Lack of informed consent

Psychological damage

Narrow Focus:Focus on one aspect of teacher expectation (e.g. body language)= allows researcher to isolate variable and examine it more thoroughly

Teacher expectations are not see with the wider process of the labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-VWCyERIOrPY/T3htK59DrzI/AAAAAAAAB_U/iavCByy8v50/s1600/Funny+School.jpgPractical IssuesSchools are large= many factors may affect teachers expectations (e.g. Class size and streaming ect.)= impossible to identify and control variables which may affect teacher expectation.

Cannot investigate impact of government policies as lab experimentsare too small scale.

Field experiment and teacher expectationsRosethenal and Jacobsons (1968)Aim:investigate extent of self-fulfilling prophecy

Procedure :Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, in 1968, gave all the children in an elementary class a test and told teachers that some of children were unusually clever (though they were actually average).
They came back at the end of the school year and tested the same class again.
The children singled out had improved their scores far more than other children.

Findings:If a person thinks we are clever or stupid, they will treat us that way.
If we are treated as if we are clever, stupid, we will act, and even become, this way.
The person has thus had their prophecy about us fulfilled.
This is also known as thePygmalion Effect.

http://images.fungopher.com/l/M/S/lMSLdwPmb/Funny-Animals-I-took-an-IQ-test-and-the-results-were-negative.jpg

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rw9pEunfeTA/UIqEvAv1JnI/AAAAAAAAAag/9KgJ7MpUcjk/s1600/girl_crying1.gifEthical Issues:Best work when Ps are unaware of their involvement= deception

Some children may have been held back emotional because they were seen as less and given less attention

http://dinochiesa.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/easy-button.jpgReliabilityRosethenal and Jacobsons simple researcher design= easy to repeat

Must consider individual differences e.g. age of pupils and teaching style = unlikely original can be replicated exactly.

http://download.101com.com/CAM/Images/2010/20100430microsoft1.jpgValidityRosethenal and Jacobsons claimed teacher expectations were passed through classroom interactions yet had no collected no data to support this.

Claiborn (1969) Found no evidence of teacher expectations being passed through classroom interactions

Broader focusStudy was longitudinal = allowing them to identify tends over time

Rosethenal and Jacobsons looked at the whole process of labelling from teacher expectations through their effect on pupils, rather than single element in isolation

Sociological Research Methods: Surveys

http://www.oneswindon.org.uk/survey_2.jpgSocial surveys involve gathering information by asking people questions about their lives, attitudes or behaviour.

Social surveys take two basic forms:

Written questionnaires:respondents are asked to complete and return by post or e-mail.

Interviews:either face- to- face or by telephone

http://www.lisnealcollege.com/Portals/Lisneal/Surveys.bmpThe questions we ask can be of two types:

Closed-ended questions:People choose their answers from a limited range of answers e.g. yes/no/ dont know

Open- ended questions:Participants answer freely in their own words and there are no pre-selected choices.

Once we have chosen a suitable topic for research, there are a number of stages we need to go through before we can start gathering data.These include(1)formulating an aim or hypothesis:Anaimis a statement that identifies what sociologists intend to study and hopes to achieve by carrying out the research.E.g. collect data on a particular topic- peoples religious beliefsAhypothesisis a possible explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence to prove it true/false.Advantages of hypothesis:Gives a direction to the research

Gives a focus to what questions are asked in questionnaires/interviews, since their purpose is to gather information that will either prove/refute our hypothesis

http://www.wphillips.com/Examine.gifIf the hypothesis turns out to be false, we must discard it. This is not necessarily a bad thing; in fact it means we have made some progress.Even if the hypothesis turns out to disprove, it means that we have learned something new. http://www.docustar.com/images/uploads/social_network_iStock_000016124263XSmall_thumb.jpgBefore we do research, we need to define our sociological ideas in such a way that they can be measured.The process of converting a concept into something that can be measured is calledoperationalisation.

A problem that can arise when operationalising concepts is when different sociologists operationalise the same concept differentlyE.g.we might agree that occupation is a useful operational definition of class, but disagree about whether a routine office worker is working-class or middle-class.Disagreements like these can make it hard to compare the findings of different pieces of research.

http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/hmps/goofy%20doc.jpgOnce we have a hypothesis, the next stage is to produce a draft version of the questionnaire/interview that we intend to use, and to give this a trial run.This is known as a(2)Pilot study.Advantage of a pilot study:

Iron out any problems

Refine/ clarify questions and their wording

Give interviewers practice, so that the actual survey goes as smoothly as possible

Sociologists often aim to produce generalisations that apply to all cases of the topic they are interested in. However, we do not have the time or money to include everyone, so we have to choose a(3)sample of peopleto include.Asampleis a smaller sub-group drawn from the wider group that we are interested in.Thepurpose of samplingis to ensure that those people we have chosen to include in the study are representative or typical of the research population.SamplingStep 1:the target population is ALL the people that we want to make a statement about E.g. all the students in EnglandStep 2:The sampling frame- the people we actually have access to. E.g. all students at Barnet CollegeStep 3:Sample- those are the people we actually select and test.Sampling technique

StrengthsLimitations

Opportunity sampleConsists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time the study is carried out and fit the criteria you are looking for.-Quick, cheap & easy

-Potentially get a large sample size- Not representative of the target population because you only get certain types of peoplee.g. just old people

Random SamplingEvery member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.-Its a fair sample method and it should result in a representative sampleBy chance it could end up being an unrepresentative sample as you could select randomly people from the same category/ background (e.g. all boys)

Stratified samplingInvolves classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each category in the same proportion as they are in the population.

-Highly representative as it is a mini-version of the target group-time-consuming

-those chosen may not want to take part

Volunteer/self-selected samplingConsists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert.-Can potentially gain a large sample as adverts can reach a wide range of audiences-unrepresentative sample something in commone.g. time on their hands/highly motivated etcTherefore difficult to generalise results.

PRACTICAL reasons why it may be possible to create a representative sample:The social characteristics of the research population e.g. age/gender may not be known.

It would be impossible to create a sample that was an exact cross-section of the research population.

Impossible to find/create a sampling frame for that particular research population

Potential respondents may refuse to participate in the survey

In cases where it is not possible to obtain a representative sample, sociologists sometimes use:Snowballs sampling

This involves collecting a sample by contacting a number of key individuals, who are asked to suggest others who might be interviewed, and soon, adding to the sample, until enough data has been collected.

Opportunity sampling

Involves choosing from those individuals who are easiest to accessE.g. selecting from people on the street

Theoretical reasons why it may be possible to create a representative sample:Interpretivists believe that it is more important to gain valid data and an authentic understanding of social actors meanings than to discover general laws of behaviour.Once finalising the questionnaire/interview and selected the sample, we can begin to collect data about the topic.

AdvantagesDisadvantages

Practical advantages:-Quick to gather large quantities of data from large numbers of people e.g. postal questionnaires.-Cheap-Datas usually easy to quantify (particularly where pre-coded/ closed ended questions are used)-Can be processed quickly by computer to reveal the relationship between different variables.Practical problems:Researcher cant be sure:-Whether respondent has received the questionnaire-Whether it was returned completed by the person whom it was addressed to.-Sometimes offer incentives (entry into a prize draw)- persuade respondents to complete it-Data tends to be limited-Need to be fairly brief- respondents are unlikely to return a long, time-consuming questionnaire-limits amount of information that can be gathered from each respondent.

Reliability:-Reliable- if repeated by another researcher, should get similar results to those gained by the first researcher.-When repeated, a questionnaire identical to the original one is usedPostal questionnaires- no researcher present to influence the respondents answers.Inflexibility-Once the questions have been finalised, the researcher is stuck with them & cant explore any new areas of interest.

Detached/Objectivity (unbiased):-sociologist personal involvement with their respondents is kept to a minimum.Lacks validity:-Does not give a true picture of what has been studied.-Most detached of all primary methods

Representativeness:-Collect information from large number of people, results stand better chance of representing wider population.Response rate-Some respondents may not provide full and accurate answers- validity is low

-Some respondents may lie, forget, not know or understand or try to guess the answers.

Hypothesis:-Useful for testing hypothesis about cause & effect relationships between different variables.Questionnaires as snapshots-They give a picture of social reality at only one moment in time.

-Therefore they fail to produce a fully valid picture because they do not capture the way peoples attitudes and behaviour change.

Ethical issues:-pose fewer ethical issues than most other research methods-Although questionnaires may ask intrusive/ sensitive questions, respondents are generally under no obligation to answer them.

Researchers should gain their:-Informed consent-Guarantee respondents anonymity-make it clear that they have a right not to answer any of the questions.Lying, forgetting and right answerism-gathering data depends on the respondents willingness and ability to provide full and accurate answers.

-respondents may:*Lie*Forget*Not know*not understand the question*try to please the researcher

Questionnaires

Using Questionnaires to investigate education

Difficult for pupils because:-Their grasp of abstract concepts is generally less than of adults.-More difficult for them to sociological ideas into language that they would understand.

Involves turning abstract ideas into a measurableform

Operationalisation of Concepts

A problem of this:Sociologists have to over-simplify the questions

Samples and sampling frames:ParentsA sampling frame consists of lists of:

StaffPupils

http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/thumbimg_600/1303221388yhv5G3.jpg

http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQfMgE-nORhVSHMe4UGrz6DVqGu9H1y_rBf50Rl4FnR0E-mQH_jhttp://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTmhk_un33bO-6ERXrkKp55yig6aTOE2Pwj5i5akaY37AEaH0wD4g

The most common sampling method used in schools isready-made opportunity samplesof pupils and teachers.

Problemssociologists face when wanting to obtain a representative sample of pupils:Gaining access to confidential information may pose practical problems.Schools may not keep lists that reflect the researchers interests.

Access and the response ratehttp://1.bp.blogspot.com/-n8WEq3WKYfc/UGx_6kr4oAI/AAAAAAAAK9U/DeP02dmJyIU/s1600/funny-class.jpgSchools may be reluctant to allow sociologist to distribute questionnaires because:

Of the disruption of lessons

They object to the researchers chosen topic

If questionnaires were allowed to be conducted the response rate might be high because:

The head teachers authority, pressurises teachers & students to cooperate

Head teacher may allow time to be taken out of lessons

Higher response rate = more representative data

However response rates may be low because:

Teachers are often too busy = reduce response rate

Practical issuesA practical advantage of questionnaires is that:

Very useful for gathering large quantities of basic educational information quickly and cheaply.

RUTTER (1979) AO1

RUTTER (1979) A02

-> Used questionnaires to collect large quantities of data from 12 inner London school.

-> He was able to compare:*Achievement*Attendance*Behaviour

-> Data generated by questionnaires is often: *limited*superficial

-> The data provided correlations between variables but not explanations for these correlations

-> Questionnaires are unsuitable for children because:

*unsuitable for those who cant read reasonably

*certain learning disabilities

3 reasons why questionnaires may be impractical/ unsuitable to use with children:

Questionnaires->Participants have to be able to read/understand the questions

Children->have shorter attention span than adults (questions have to be brief)

Childrens life experiences are limited-memory are different from those of adults (wont know the answers)

http://thesidenoteblog.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/wom-2.jpgWhat might reduce the validity of questionnaire:

Word of researchers presence->questions may become known throughout the school long before all pupils/ teachers have been given it.

Anonymity and detachmentUseful when researching sensitive education issues like bullying.

Anonymity may overcome pupils embarrassment/fear of retribution from pupils.

Response rate may be higher

Pupils may be more likely to reveal details of their experience of being bullied.

http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQi1c2YN8a94NvIrDd8LCaAklreVWEJZjoN5Hlm6jYGuE0fQk9r

http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTj9YOGVzgAtVFHMFPh0T6OWNMpZIrD0ExdoqkjN7MrevjTyVKjReassurance may be difficult as there is little/no personal contact with the researcher.Interpretivist sociologists emphasise the importance of developing rapport

They reject questionnaires as a means of researching young people = lack of contact with respondents make rapport difficult

Questionnaires are formal documents -> anti-school subcultures may refuse to cooperate.

Difficult for pupils because:-Their grasp of abstract concepts is generally less than of adults.-More difficult for them to sociological ideas into language that they would understand.

Involves turning abstract ideas into a measurableform

Operationalisation of Concepts

A problem of this:Sociologists have to over-simplify the questions

Samples and sampling frames:ParentsA sampling frame consists of lists of:

StaffPupils

http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/thumbimg_600/1303221388yhv5G3.jpg

http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQfMgE-nORhVSHMe4UGrz6DVqGu9H1y_rBf50Rl4FnR0E-mQH_jhttp://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTmhk_un33bO-6ERXrkKp55yig6aTOE2Pwj5i5akaY37AEaH0wD4g

The most common sampling method used in schools isready-made opportunity samplesof pupils and teachers.

Problemssociologists face when wanting to obtain a representative sample of pupils:Gaining access to confidential information may pose practical problems.Schools may not keep lists that reflect the researchers interests.

Access and the response ratehttp://1.bp.blogspot.com/-n8WEq3WKYfc/UGx_6kr4oAI/AAAAAAAAK9U/DeP02dmJyIU/s1600/funny-class.jpgSchools may be reluctant to allow sociologist to distribute questionnaires because:

Of the disruption of lessons

They object to the researchers chosen topic

If questionnaires were allowed to be conducted the response rate might be high because:

The head teachers authority, pressurises teachers & students to cooperate

Head teacher may allow time to be taken out of lessons

Higher response rate = more representative data

However response rates may be low because:

Teachers are often too busy = reduce response rate

Practical issuesA practical advantage of questionnaires is that:

Very useful for gathering large quantities of basic educational information quickly and cheaply.

RUTTER (1979) AO1

RUTTER (1979) A02

-> Used questionnaires to collect large quantities of data from 12 inner London school.

-> He was able to compare:*Achievement*Attendance*Behaviour

-> Data generated by questionnaires is often: *limited*superficial

-> The data provided correlations between variables but not explanations for these correlations

-> Questionnaires are unsuitable for children because:

*unsuitable for those who cant read reasonably

*certain learning disabilities

3 reasons why questionnaires may be impractical/ unsuitable to use with children:

Questionnaires->Participants have to be able to read/understand the questions

Children->have shorter attention span than adults (questions have to be brief)

Childrens life experiences are limited-memory are different from those of adults (wont know the answers)

http://thesidenoteblog.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/wom-2.jpgWhat might reduce the validity of questionnaire:

Word of researchers presence->questions may become known throughout the school long before all pupils/ teachers have been given it.

Anonymity and detachmenthttp://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQi1c2YN8a94NvIrDd8LCaAklreVWEJZjoN5Hlm6jYGuE0fQk9rUseful when researching sensitive education issues like bullying.

Anonymity may overcome pupils embarrassment/fear of retribution from pupils.

Response rate may be higher

Pupils may be more likely to reveal details of their experience of being bullied.

http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTj9YOGVzgAtVFHMFPh0T6OWNMpZIrD0ExdoqkjN7MrevjTyVKjReassurance may be difficult as there islittle/no-personalcontact with the researcher.

Interpretivistssociologists emphasise the importance of developing rapport

They reject questionnaires as a means of researching young people = lack of contact with respondents make rapport difficult

Questionnaires are formal documents -> anti-school subcultures may refuse to cooperate.

Practical issuesResponse rate

*Training interviewers is straight forward & inexpensive.

-However this is more costly than simply posting questionnaires

*Can cover quite large numbers of people with limited resources

-However still cant match potentially huge numbers as postal questionnaires*Have higher response rate because people find it harder to turn down a face-to-face request.

-However, it undermines the validity of any generalisations made from the findings.

ReliabilityValidity

*Reliable because it is easy for the researcher to standardise & control them

*The advantage of all interviews having the same questionsisthat any other researcher should get the same results.-Usually produces invalid data because:

-Uses closed-ended questions (restrict interviewees to choose from a limited number of questions)

-People may lie/exaggerate (produce false data)

InflexibleFeminist criticisms

-The researcher has already decided what is important

-This may not coincide with what the interviewee thinks is important

Graham (1983)

Argues that structured interviews are patriarchal and give a distorted, invalid picture of womens experience.

This type of research method imposes the researchers categories on women making it difficult for them to express their experiences.

Structured interviews

Advantages of unstructured interviews

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Rapport and sensitivity

Practical problems

*Interviewer has the opportunity to develop a relationship with the respondent.

*Reassurance can be offered and trust develops.

*Thus more valid information can be gathered.

-Takes a long time to conduct(researcher will have a small sample compared with the larger numbers in structured interviews)

-Training needs to be more thorough than for structured interviews

The interviewees world

Reliability

*No set questions the interviewee is given the opportunity to talk about things that are important to him/her.

*Valid data

*gives interviewees the freedom to talk about the issues that concern them.

Unreliable because:

-not standardised

-each interview is unique

-Impossible for another researcher to replicate

Checking Understanding

Quantification

*make it easier for interviewer/interviewee to check each others meanings

-open-ended questions-> difficult to count up & quantify

-lack of quantitive data = less useful for establishing cause and effect relationships

Unstructured interviews

http://cristinatacata.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/interview.gifInterviews to investigate educationPractical issuesYoung peoples linguistic & intellectual skills are less developed than those of adults

This leads to misunderstanding and incorrect/ incomplete answers (invalid)

Unstructured interviews are better to conduct:

-Allows the interviewer more scope to clear up misunderstandings by re-wording questions/ explaining their meaningInterviews with young people may be more successful because young people tend to have better verbal skills

ReliabilityStructured interviews in schools are unlikely to be valid because:

-young people are unlikely to respond favourably to such a formal style.

Access and response rateWhen interviewing teachers the researcher might first have to obtain the permission of both the:

-local education authority

-head teacher

Schools might be reluctant because interviews disrupt lesson time.

The interviewer as teacher in disguise

Bell (1981) -> pupils might see interviewers as a teacher in disguise

This can affect the validity of the data:

-pupils may see the teachers approval by giving untrue but socially acceptable answers

Group interviewsStrengthsLimitations

*creates safe peer environment

*reproduce the small group settings that young people are familiar within classroom

*Reduces the power imbalance between adult interviewer and young people

-Pupils are often strongly influenced by peer (may reduce validity of data)

Individuals may conform to peer expectations.

http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQypa-lqAzIzAWaieQMHYctHXKib0nWeNc4P7kBfWSACZaqyQzo

Participant Observations

Non-participant observationParticipant observation

Observing a group without actually taking part

Researcher is actually taking part in the event while observing

Overt observation

Covert observation

True identity of the researcher is disclosed

Researcher takes on a fake identity posing as a genuine member of the group

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-y-nkNF9sBY8/TXbKBg_3hhI/AAAAAAAAALw/GGpJrnGWVnA/s1600/stalker-cartoon.jpgIssues when conducting a participant observation:Getting in:some are easier than others

Acceptance:the researcher will have to win the trust of the group

Staying in: researcher needs to be able to stay in the group & complete the study.

Going native:problem of staying in the group is becoming over- involved which lead to the researcher being biased.

Getting out:leaving the group may be difficult.

Advantages of Overt observationDisadvantages of Overt observation

*avoids the ethical problems of obtaining information be deceit & when studying deviant groups.

*observer can take notes openly

*Allows researcher to use interview method to check insights derived from observations

-group may refuse the researcher

-risks creating the Hawthorne effect

Advantages of observations

Disadvantages of observations

ValidityBy actually observing them we could obtain a rich source of qualitative data that provides a picture of how they really live.

Practical disadvantages:-very time consuming-researcher needs to be trained-personally stressful &demanding-requires observational & interpersonal skills

InsightAllows researcher to gain empathy through personal experience.

By actually living as a member of the group, we can gain insight into their way of life.

RepresentativenessGroup studied is usually very small & the sample is often selected haphazardly.

Doesnt provide a sound basis for making generalisations.

FlexibilityAllow sociologists to enter the situation with a relatively open mind about what they will find

Open-mindedness allows researcher to discover things that other methods may miss.

ReliabilityUsually produces qualitative data, this can make comparisons with other studies difficult.

Advantages of covert observationDisadvantages of covert observation

*reduces the risk of altering peoples behaviour

*it preserves the naturalness of peoples behaviour

-keeping up an act may lead to physical harm

-ethical issues-> deception

-presence of new member may alter group dynamics

Observation to investigate education

Structured observational structuresPractical issues:Flanders system of interaction analysis categories (FIAC)- favoured by positivists

FIAC-observer uses a standard chart to record interactions at 3 second intervals, placing each observation in one of 10 pre-defined behaviour categories.

-observations can thus be easily converted into qualitative data simply by counting the number of times each type of behaviour occurs.Flanders found that in the typical American classroom 68% of the time is taken up by teachers talk, 20% by pupil talk & 12% lost in silence/confusion.

FIACquicker, cheaper & require less training

Reliability:FIAC uses only 10 categories of classroom interaction, which makes it relatively easy for other researchers to apply in standardised way.

Also generates quantitative data, which makes the findings easy to compare with those of other studies.

Validity:Interpretivist sociologists criticize structured observation of classroom interaction for its lack of validity.

Simply counting classroom behaviour & classifying it into a limited number of pre-decided categories ignores the meanings that pupil/teachers attach to it.

http://mindmillion.com/images/money/01-large-cartoon-cash.gifLess structured Observational methodsPractical issues:Observations in schools are time consumingtherefore more money is spent

Personal characteristics:http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-mnffKhSxBL8/UDnlROhPxyI/AAAAAAAAAoc/z9ng0dv3ayY/s1600/NoPrivacy.jpgAge , gender, ethnicity affect the process of observation

Wright (1992)found that African Caribbean ethnicity produced antagonistic reactions from some white teachers.

Schools are busy public places, so observer may find it difficult to find the privacy needed to record observations.

Ethical issues:Observation normally has to be conducted overtly because pupils are at a greater vulnerability & limited ability to give informed consent.

Delamont refers to guilty knowledge being an ethical issue.

-That every observer in a school learns things that could get pupils into trouble.-In some cases, this may even involve the law-stealingMost research in education has to be overt.

This gives rise to the Hawthorne effect.

http://image.shutterstock.com/display_pic_with_logo/483673/96293333/stock-photo-fake-disguise-cartoon-96293333.jpgKings (1984)he tried to blend into the background in an infant school

-Spends short periods of time in the classroom to allow the children to become familiar with his presence.-So as not to be seen as a teacher.-He avoided eye contact &politely refused their requests for helphttp://2.bp.blogspot.com/-XGgr2GhsLjo/Th684PiTF3I/AAAAAAAABE8/t2sfzp2wwxs/s1600/reason+girls+like+winter+funny+statistic+picture.jpgOfficial statisticsOfficial statistics are quantitative data gather by the governmentThe government collect statistic to help in policy making.Advantages of official statisticsDisadvantages of official statistics

Practical advantagesStatistics allow comparisons to be made between groups. EG Compare statistics on educational achievement/Crime rates.

They are a free source of huge amounts of quantitative data. Only the state can afford to conduct large scale surveys costing millions of pounds

Because official statistics are collected at regular intervals and they are longitudinal they show trends and patterns over timePractical disadvantagesThe government collects information for its own purposes and not for those of sociologist = so there may be none available in the topic sociology is interested in
The definition that the state uses in collecting the data may be different from those the sociologist = e.g. family, truancy and poverty may be defined differently in sociology

Representativeness: Advantages
They have a large sample (the entire population) they are more representative than small scale surveys done by sociologists with limited resources better basis of generalisation

Representativeness: Disadvantages
Some statistics may be less representative than others

Reliability: AdvantagesReliable because they are compiled in a standardised way by trained staff, following set procedures

Reliability: Disadvantages
Official statistics are not always reliable- census coders may make a mistake when recording data form.
Or member of the public may fill in the form incorrectly

Validity: AdvantagesGive an accurate picture-Eg number of Births/DeathsValidity: DisadvantagesSoft stats such as police stats give a less valid picture as the police don not record all crimes

Education- using official statisticsPositivists:See them as avaluable resourcefor sociologists. They take for granted that official statistics are social facts; true objective measures of the rate of crime suicide etc. They often use them totest their hypotheses. E.g. Durkheim.

Interpretivists:Argue that official statistics are not real things or social facts that exist out there in the world. Instead, they aresocially constructedthey merely represent thatlabels some people give to the behaviour of others.
For example,Atkinsonstated suicide statistics do not represent the real rate of suicides that have actually taken place, but merely the total number of decisions made bycoroners to label some deaths as suicides.
The government collects official statistics to help save time and money for sociologists. Some sociologists use official statistics to establish correlations between different social factors. An example of this may be that sociologists use statistics from the exam results on children who are entitled to free school meals, shows a correlation between material deprivation and achievement.

http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTS2dEo0OKPp8M-WHXM8Didq2GBQVHSfL83YPRFsmw_mcNf_pFN_QDOCUMENTSThe term document refers to any written text. Such as personal diaries, government reports, medical records, novels, newspaper etc.Public documents-Public documents are produced by organisations such as government departments.Personal documents-Include things such as letters a, dairies, photo album and autobiographiesInterpretivists tend to favour documentsbecause they achieve their main goal of validity. By:

They are not usually written with the research in mind and can thus be authentic statement of their authors view

They provide us with provide qualitative data that gives us insight into the authors world-view and meanings

Positivists rejects documentbecause they do not achieve reliability, Generalisability and representativeness by:They are often unstandardized and unreliable

They are often unrepresentative = only literate people can write letters and diaries

In interpreting documents, R may imposing their own meanings on them

Historical documents- Personal or public documents create

Practical advantages and disadvantagesThey are a free source of huge amounts of quantitative data. Only the state can afford to conduct large scale surveys costing millions of pounds

Only the government has the power to compel people provide them with information

Statistic allow for comparison between groups

Because official statistics are collected at regular intervals and they are longitudinal they show trends and patterns over time

The government collects information for its own purposes and not for those of sociologist = so there may be none available in the topic sociologists are
interested in.

Assessing documentshttp://blog.lib.umn.edu/isss/graduate/cartoon.jpgAs John Scott argues, when assessing documentary sources, the general principles are the same as those for any other type of evidence. He puts forward four criteria for evaluating documents:
Authenticity:Is the document what it claims to be? Are there any missing pages?

Credibility:Is the document believable? Was the author sincere?

Representativeness:Is the evidence in the document typical?
Meaning:May have to be translated from a foreign language

http://www.thewordworks.co.uk/media/4034/case%20study%20pix%20.pngCASE STUDIES
A case study is a study of one particular case or instance of something.
It may be the study of a particular school, factory or hospital or the study of a single individual such as a widow or a retired person.ADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES

They use qualitative methods like interviews, which provide a rick insight into particular groupBecause case studies look at only one or a few cases, they cannot claim to be representative.

The major limitation of the method therefore is that we cannot make generalisations from them

They study exceptional cases, which would otherwise be unethical to be inducing.It is often necessary to use recollection of past events as part of the case history and such evidence may be unreliable.

Longitudinal Studies
Study that follows thesame sample or group over an extended period of time.

ADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES

Can trace developments over a period of time, not snapshots

Problems with keeping track of the sample , and participants who drop out may not be typical of those who stay in making the sample unrepresentative

Also can make comparisons over time

Demographical changes in the research population may mean that the original sample is no longer representative

Large amount of data produced may be difficult to analyse and by definition, results cannot be obtained quickly: time consuming and costly

Hawthorne Effect may occur

http://s3.amazonaws.com/readers/2012/06/01/longitudinal-studies_1.jpg

http://narwhaler.com/img/at/d/thumbs-up-lady-cool-story-bro-aTDGo6.jpgLife Histories:
Often used in case studies of individuals.
They are a good qualitative method used mainly by Interpretivists to understand how individuals construct and interpret their life worlds.
They involve collecting and recording individuals experiences.
This can be done either by the individual writing down their own life story (autobiography).
Or by a semi-structured or unstructured interview, which the researcher then writes up as a life story.
Life histories are a rich source of insight into both a persons individual experiences, presented from their own point of view, and into the wider social forces that affect their lives.STRENGTHS OF LIFE HISTORIESLIMITATIONS OF LIFE HISTORIES

Rich source of insight into both a persons individual experiences, presented from their own point of view.Life stories conducted through interviews require the ability to emphasise with the subject and good listening skills

Time Consuming

Interview bias

http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lh5bdpoKvK1qgr7ego1_500.jpgTriangulation:
The use of two or more different methods or sources of data so that they complement each other, the strengths of one countering the weaknesses of the other and vice versa; e.g. using both a qualitative method (participant observation) and a quantitative method (structured interviews).
-By combining different methods in this way, we can get the best of both words: both reliable quantitative data covering large numbers of cases, as favoured by positivists, and valid qualitative data looking at a smaller number of cases in depth, as preferred by interpretivists.
-E.g. Newby (1977): study of Suffolk farm workers. This study uses a variety of methods and sources including participant observation and a survey. He argues that these two methods complement each other.Exam style Question and AnswerC:\Users\The GoksuFamily\Documents\fdgfdgfdgfdgfdgfdg\img061.jpgC:\Users\The GoksuFamily\Documents\fdgfdgfdgfdgfdgfdg\img064.jpg

C:\Users\The GoksuFamily\Documents\fdgfdgfdgfdgfdgfdg\img065.jpgC:\Users\The GoksuFamily\Documents\fdgfdgfdgfdgfdgfdg\img066.jpg