Sociology

Definition: the study of the origin, development, and structure of human societies and the behavior of individual people and groups in society

* Topics: Culture, Social Structure, Groups, Organizations, Social Class, Education, Sports, Population, and Urbanization

Culture

Society

• knowledge, language, values, customs, norms, and material objects

• Varies from group to group• Explain human social behavior• Guide relationships with others

Culture

Society• A structured community of people• Share a common culture

Cultural Transmission:• the way of passing or learning knowledge, skills,

attitudes, and values from person to person

Methods:Formal- deliberate & intentionalInformal- through observation and imitationPrimary- intimate, face to face groupsSecondary- schools, churches, mass media

I.) What is Socialization?

Socialization: a process that begins at birth and is ongoing in which individuals learn human social behavior

II.) Agents of Socialization

Agents of Socialization: Members/groups within society that influence individual human social behavior

Family School Peer Groups Mass Media Social Class

Family•Think, Speak, Norms, Values, Beliefs, Attitudes, Relationships, and Self-Image

Schools• Hidden Curriculum• discipline, order, cooperation, conformity• Rules & Regulations

Peer Groups• make their own decisions• develop self-sufficiency• learn to get along with others• experiment

Mass Media• serve as role models to imitate• teach ways of society

Self Concept: Image of oneself separate from others “I” unlearned/spontaneous acts “Me”self-created acts of conformity

Looking Glass Self: what you think others believe about you

Perception Imagine Evaluate

Significant Others: people whose opinions are most important to our self concept

Example: Mother, Father, Siblings, Spouses

Example:

Boss to impress

Example: Acting Out

Role Taking: Seeing others through the eyes of someone else The Process:

Imitation (18 months to 36 months) Play (3 years to 4 years) Game (5 years and up)

Generalized Other: Rely less on others and more on understanding

Example:

Asking for a Raise

Example: ShopliftingRight vs. Wrong

I.) What exactly is a Group?

Group: at least two people who have one or more goals in common and share common ways of thinking and behaving

II.) A “Group” is not

Social Category: people who share a social characteristic

Social Aggregate: people who are temporarily in the same place at the same time

High School Seniors

Waiting in Line

III.) A “Group” is

Primary Group: people who know each other well, are emotionally close, and seek one another's company* Based on Primary Relationships (intimate, caring, personal, fulfilling)

How to develop?• small in size• face to face contact• continual contact• social environment

Function?• emotional support• socialization• conformity

Examples:Best Friends

Close NeighborsPlay Groups

Secondary Group: people who share only part of their lives and are together to accomplish a task or goal* Based on Secondary Relationships (impersonal, limited emotion)

How to develop?• social environment• segment of person’s life

Function?• to accomplish a goal• to complete a task

Examples:Clerks & Customers

Work GroupsVolunteers

Reference Group: a group used for self-evaluation by which one forms attitudes, beliefs, norms.

In GroupsExclusive group that demands intense loyalty

Out Groups

Opposed by in-group for competition and opposition

B a s e d O n :B e h a v i o r,S y m b o l s ,A c ti o n s ,

P l a c e s

Examples: Cliques, Teams, Countries, Races, Gangs, Neighborhoods

IV.) NetworksSocial Network: all of a person’s social relationships• Not a “group” itself• Includes both “primary” & “secondary” groups

Primary Groups

(2)

Secondary Groups (2)

In-GroupSocial Category

Social Aggregate

I.) Social Stratification

Definition: hierarchical arrangement of individuals into divisions based on dimensions within a society

Based on following dimensions: Income Wealth Power Prestige

Income: amount of money received within a given period of time by an individual or group

Power: ability to control the behavior of others (attached to the social positions we hold)

Wealth: all economic resources possessed by an individual (everything you own)

Prestige: level of respect/admiration in which one is regarded by others (based on social position & voluntarily given)

II.) Layers of Social Stratification

Each layer represented by a “social class” Definition: economic or cultural arrangement of groups

within a society based on variables

Examples of Variables:• Education• Income• Occupation• Family• Power• Prestige

III.) Social Inequality

Definition: individuals in a society that do not have equal social status

Examples of Social Inequality:• Economic: inequality based on distribution

of wealth and income

• Gender: obvious or hidden inequality of power/reward based on gender

• Racial: unequal treatment based on physical characteristics

IV.) Explanations of Stratification

Conflict Theory: Inequality exists due to willingness of other to exploit peopleInequality impedes progressThose whom have power keep others powerless to keep status quo Positions in society exist only as those in power deem them important

V.) Class Consciousness

Definition: the awareness of belonging to ones social class or socioeconomic status within a given society

What is Social Mobility?

Definition: Movement from one class —or more usually status group—to another

Types of Social Mobility

Horizontal MobilityMovement from one position to another within the

same social levelEx: Changing jobs without altering occupational statusMoving between social groups having the same social

status.

Vertical Mobility Movement from one social level to a higher one

(upward mobility) or a lower one (downward mobility)

Ex: Changing Jobs or Marrying Cultural diffusion from one social level to another The adoption by one economic class of the fashions

current or formerly current in a higher class.

Intergenerational MobilityMovement within or between social classes and

occupations, the change occurring from one generation to the next

Ex: Father to Son; Mother to Daughter

Social Institutions“The Family”

So, what exactly is a family?Family Definition: a group of people related by either

blood, marriage, or adoption

- definition varies from society to society- definition can change over time

“Family has the greatest impact on human behavior”

Family of Orientation: family that one is born into

∞ Gives name identity∞ Give heritage∞ Gives ascribed status∞ Grants orientation to the world

Family of Procreation: established upon marriage

∞ Legal to have children∞ Gives name∞ Becomes ones family of orientation∞ Grants orientation to the world

Social Institutions:“Education”

I.) History of Schools and Education

A. Early purpose:1. Enculturation (passing of culture)2. Socialization (passing social values & behaviors)

B. Pre-Literate Societies: taught orally & by imitation by family & the community

C. Literate Societies: taught literacy and basic skills

Social Institutions:“Religion”

I.) The Sociological Study of Religion

A. Sociologists DO:1. Examine the cultural and social aspects of religion that can

be measured and observed

B. Sociologists DO NOT:1. Study the unobservable

spiritual side2. Determine which religions

people should follow

The Sociological Meaning of Religion

A. Definition of Religion:1. Unified system of beliefs & practices

concerned with sacred things

B. Sociological Separation:1. Sacred: holy; set apart and dedicated

to a religious purpose2. Secular: not religious or spiritual in

nature

C. Sociological Observable Displays of Religion: (Religiosity)1. Beliefs = what people consider as true (is a God vs. no God)2. Rituals = private or public acts (church/prayer)3. Intellectual Dimension = knowledge about faith (scripture)4. Experience = feeling attached to expression (closeness to)5. Consequences = decisions made based on religion (abstinence)

Demography: The Study of Population

• Demography– The study of human population

• Fertility– The incidence of childbearing in a country’s

population• Crude birth rate

– The number of live births in a given year for every 1,000 people in a population

• Mortality– The incidence of death in a country’s population

• Crude death rate– The number of deaths in a given year for every 1,000

people in a population• Infant mortality rate

– The number of deaths among infants under one year of age for each 1,000 live births in a given year

• Life expectancy– The average life span of a country’s population

• Migration– The movement of people into and out of a specified

territory– Immigration

• In-migration rate– Number of people entering an area for every 1,000 people in the

population

– Emigration• Out-migration rate

– The number of people leaving for every 1,000 people

– Both types usually happen at once• Push-pull factors

• Demographic transition theory– Links population patterns to a society’s level of

technological development– Stage 1 – Pre-industrial agrarian societies

• High birth rate, high death rate– Stage 2 – Industrialization

• Death rate falls, birth rates remain high– Stage 3 – Mature industrial economy

• Birth rate drops, death rate drops– Stage 4 – Postindustrial economy

• Demographic transition complete• Low-birth rate, steady death rate• Japan, Europe, and the U.S.

• Environmental Deficit– Profound long-term harm to the natural environment

caused by humanity’s focus on short-term material affluence

• Environmental concerns are sociological• Environmental damage to air, land, or water is

unintended• Environmental deficit is reversible

– Societies create environmental problems– Societies can undo many of them

What is Diversity?

• Cultural diversity refers to the wide range of cultural differences found between and within nations– Can be a result of natural circumstances (climate,

geography) or social circumstances (technology or demographics)

– Societies can be homogeneous or heterogeneous– Heterogeneity in the U.S. (see chart – p. 91)

Subculture

• A category of people who share distinguishing attributes, beliefs, values, and/or norms that set them apart in some significant manner from the dominant culture.

Counterculture

• A group that strongly rejects dominant societal values and norms and seeks alternative lifestyles

Ethnocentrism

• The practice of judging all other cultures by one’s own culture

• Based on the assumption that one’s own way of life is superior to all others– Can be positive or negative

Why might this map be considered

ethnocentric?

Cultural Relativism

• The belief that the behaviors and customs of any culture must be viewed and analyzed by the culture’s own standards

Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity

• Race – A group of people who have been identified as having real or alleged physical characteristics. It is the fact

that these biological traits are endowed with social meaning that brings them into the realm of the social

sciences.• Ethnicity – refers to people who share common cultural characteristics and ethnic identity; they share a sense of

“oneness”, and a shared fate. • Marriage across racial and ethnic lines, while not

uncommon, is not typical for sociological and demographic reasons; attitudes, beliefs, access.

Race vs ethnicity

• Race is often treated as ideology – ethnicity as a real phenomenon.

• Racial refers mainly to physical terms,

– ethnic rather to cultural terms.

• Race refers to them, – ethnicity to us.

• Both concepts always imply social relationship.

Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity

• Minority – a group that has less power than the dominant group, has less esteem and prestige, and is often the target of discrimination. The two major characteristics are distinctive

identity and subordination. The sociological meaning of minority does not refer to the numerical size of a group, nor to any specific ethnicity, race, or other real or imaged factors

as these factors are relative to a specific society.esteem – the honor that accrues to an individual filling

a positionprestige – the honor associated with an occupation or

other position in a social system

Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity

• Prejudice – an attitude which predisposes an individual to prejudge entire categories of people unfairly. This attitude is rigid, often emotionally loaded, and resistant to change; “re-

fencing” and closed mindedness.• Discrimination is a behavior resulting in unfair, unequal, or

harmful treatment based upon a prejudice.• One may confront discrimination by focusing on attitudes,

behaviors, or both. It is usually most effective to begin with the discriminatory behaviors in order to provide some relief for those

discriminated against. The official organs of the state must support these efforts to eliminate discriminatory behaviors or

they will most likely continue; institutional discrimination.

Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity

• Stereotype – a rigid and often inaccurate image that summarizes a belief. Because stereotypes reflect beliefs rather than facts,

they are often illogical and self-serving. (Discussion)• Stereotypes persist in culture because: (functions for those using

them)a) stereotypes can work to elevate the status of the group which

engages in it;b) stereotyping reduces the need to think by creating “universals”,

and not having to acknowledge individualistic characteristics; and,

c) Stereotyping can work as a social-psychological mechanism for reducing guilt in the minds of those who practice prejudice and

discrimination

Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity

• Stereotype –particular stereotypes are often used for different groups, such as the concept of “laziness”.

Laziness has been applied to Blacks, Hispanics, Polish, Irish, and Native-Americans. It has also been used to

explain why someone is the member of a lower class or poor.

• COGNITIVE LEVEL– THE IDEA OR THOUGHT

• JEWISH PEOPLE ARE GREEDY

• EMOTIONAL LEVEL – ATTACHING FEELINGS TO IDEA

• LEARNING TO FEEL ANGER TOWARDS WHITES

• ACTION-ORIENTATION LEVEL– PREDISPOSITION TO ACT (discrimination)

• MORE LIKELY TO VERBALLY OR PHYSICALLY ATTACK A TARGETTED GROUP

• VERBALIZATION– JOKES, COMMENTS, RACIAL SLURS

• EXCLUSION– KEEPING PEOPLE MARGINAL

• AVOIDANCE– NOT TRAVELING IN CERTAIN AREAS

• PHYSICAL ABUSE– PHYSICAL ATTACKS

• GENOCIDE– SYSTEMATIC KILLING OFF OF A GROUP

• PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION BEGIN AS ETHNOCENTRIC ATTITUDES

• AS A RESULT, GROUPS CAN BE PLACED IN A SITUATION WHERE THEY ARE SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED AND LABELED

• A GROUP’S SITUATION, OVER TIME, IS THUS EXPLAINED AS A RESULT OF INNATE INFERIORITY RATHER THAN LOOKING AT THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE FOR REASONS; THE CYCLE THEN REPEATS ITSELF