Social TransitionsSocial Transitions Historically

Common Practices in Social Redefinition

Process

Separation

Transition

Re-incorporation

Rites of Passage

Changes in Clarity & Continuity

Contemporary Adolescence

Socialization is…The process by which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of their culture

Socialization Outcomes

1.1. Self-regulationSelf-regulation – ability to comply with social – ability to comply with social normsnorms

2.2. Role preparationRole preparation – for roles in work, gender, – for roles in work, gender, institutions such as marriage, parenthoodinstitutions such as marriage, parenthood

3.3. Cultivation of Cultivation of sources of meaning sources of meaning – “– “what’s what’s important?” “What’s to be lived forimportant?” “What’s to be lived for?”?”

Adolescence as a Social Invention

• Adolescence defined primarily by being distinct from childhood or adulthood, not by cognitive and biological changes

• Inventionists stress that because we perceive adolescence as distinct, it exists as a distinct period of the lifespan – Relative to other cultures and historical periods– Problems experienced during adolescence may

be due to society’s definition of adolescence, not cognitive or biological changes

• Roots in the Industrial Revolution• Young people excluded from labor force

– Economic dependence on elders

• Formal schooling is lengthened• New Terminology

– Teenager

– Youth

– Emerging adulthood

Adolescence as a Social Invention

Emerging Adulthood

• Arnett’s (1998) term for ages 18-25 caught between adolescence and adulthood, characterized by:– Exploring possible identities before making

enduring choices– Unstable work, romantic relationships, and living

situations– Focus on oneself and independent functioning– Subjective feeling of being caught between

adolescence and adulthood– Subjective feeling that life holds many possibilities

Social Redefinition• A time of change in social roles and

status

• How society defines adolescence– Contemporary society vs. traditional

cultures

• Implications for development– Identity, autonomy, responsibility, intimacy,

sexuality, achievement

Social Redefinition and Psychosocial Development

• Identity– Attainment of adult status causes adolescent to feel more adult-like

• Autonomy – Adult status leads to shifts in responsibility, independence, and

freedom

• Intimacy, dating and marriage – Need for new decisions about sexual activity

• Achievement– Becoming a full-time employee; leave school of their own volition

The Process of Social Redefinition

• Contemporary America: Movement through a series of status transitions with a cohort over a period of years– Driving, purchasing alcohol, etc.– Generally begins at age 15 or 16 – Permission to drive, work, leave school– Voting, age 18– Purchasing alcoholic beverages, age 21

• Timetable is affected by economics, politics, and culture

The Process…

• Three themes:–Separation

–Transition

–Reincorporation

The Process…

• Separation– Extrusion: Real or symbolic separation

from parents

Social Redefinition: Three Major Components

• Transition– Separation of males and females

• Brother-sister avoidance

– Passing on of cultural, historical, and practical information • from the adult generation to the newly

inducted cohort of young people

The Process of Social Redefinition

• Some societies mark social redefinition of the young person with a dramatic and elaborate initiation ceremony called a rite of passage

• This often marks the beginning of a long period of training

Social Redefinition: Rites of Passage

• Cushion emotional disruption

• Anchoring– Provides a sense of belonging to both individual

and society

• Inform – Individual and society– Attempt to provide clarity

Social Redefinition• Reciprocity

– Privileges and rights in exchange for good conduct

• Change in status– Interpersonal– Political– Economic– Legal

Changes in Status

• Two-sided alteration in status

–Given privileges/rights reserved for society’s adults

– Increased expectations for

• self-management

• personal responsibility

• social participation

Four Major Changes in Status

• Interpersonal• Political• Economic• Legal

Changes in Interpersonal Status

• Addressed with adult titles• Maintain new types of social

relationships with – Parents and elders– Younger individuals whose status

has not yet changed

• New interpersonal obligations– Taking care of and setting example

for younger members of family

Changes in Political Status

• More extensive participation in the community’s decision making– Voting (U.S. citizens) – Ceremonial life (Navajo people -

formal initiation ceremony)

• Expected to serve their communities in emergency and train for warfare

Changes in Economic Status

• May own property and maintain control over their income– Until age 16, belongs to parents– Until 18, cannot enter into legal contract like

a car lease

• Age is a prerequisite for employment in certain occupations– Child labor laws in the United States

• Expected to pay taxes

Changes in Legal Status

• Ability to participate in activities typically reserved for adults– Gambling– Purchasing alcohol, smoking – Driving, voting

• Expected to take increased responsibility for self-management and social participation

Types of transitions I

• Clarity – explicit markers of beginning and end of adolescence – Traditional cultures – ceremonies,

initiations– Contemporary culture

• Less of an emphasis on attainment of roles

• Arnett (1998) – what defines adulthood?– Accept responsibility for consequences of actions

– Financially independent

Social Transitions: The Importance of Clarity

• Lewin’s “Marginal man”– caught between two cultural systems and feel

alienated by one or both . – threats to identity may lead to higher levels of

deviance, excessive anxiety and psychiatric instability

• Contemporary trends in status according to Arnett:

– Less emphasis on attaining a specific role and more emphasis on self-reliance

– Decline in importance of family roles– Similar criteria for males and females, fewer gender-

typed role expectations

Social Transitions: Clarity in Industrialized Societies

• Given the absence of clarity– People of the same chronological age may feel

more mature or less mature than age-mates– No clear indication of when adult

responsibilities and privileges begin

• How adolescents view themselves today– Less emphasis on attainment of specific roles– Less emphasis on importance of family roles– Fewer gender role differences

Social Transitions: Clarity in Traditional Cultures

• Social redefinition is clearly recognized• Formal initiation ceremony

– Boys: timing of ceremony varies– Girls: timing usually linked to menarche– Physical appearance is often changed

(clothing, circumcision)

• Adults clearly differentiated from children

Social Transitions: Clarity in Previous Eras

• Baby boom generation (1950s-1960s)– Finishing school, moving out, getting married

all occurred early and within narrow timeframe

• Transition in the early 19th century was more disorderly and prolonged (like today)– School – viewed as children– Work – viewed as adults– Timetable depended on household/family

needs

Types of transitions II

• Continuity – smoothness of passage into adulthood– Continuous

• Gradual transitions, in which the adolescent assumes the roles and status of adulthood bit by bit

• Assume new roles a bit at a time with lots of preparation and training

– Discontinuous • Sudden transitions, in which the adolescent’s entrance

into adulthood is more abrupt, with little or no training • Thrust into new roles with little preparation

Continuity and Discontinuity

• Modern society is very discontinuous– Little preparation for roles of worker, parent,

citizen

• Call to improve “school-to-work transition”– Youth apprenticeship model– Options for non-college-bound high school

students– Make transition more like traditional cultures &

previous eras

Discontinuity• Socializing of adolescents for adult roles (worker,

parent) – adequate?

• Contributes to psychological and behavioral problems– Benedict – creates stress

• Abrupt transitions– Teenage parents

– School drop-outs

– Moving out of family home

The Transition into Adulthood in Contemporary Society

Two trends are reshaping the transition

(1) The transition period is getting longerPuberty occurs earlier and schooling lasts longer.

(2) Success in the labor force is more dependent on formal schooling

Contemporary Transitions

• In all societies:– Adolescence is a period of

social transition

– The individual comes to be recognized as an adult

• The social transition is less explicit in contemporary U.S. society than in traditional cultures

Osgood, Ruth, Eccles, Jacobs, & Barber (2005)

Historical Comparison of Transition Ages

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1890 1990

Year

Age (years)

Leaving formal educationEntrance to peer group and youth cultureEntrance to occupational lifeEntrance to marriage and partnership

The Transition into Adulthood in Contemporary Society

• Adolescents are living at home longer than ever before

– 55% U.S. 20- to 22-year-olds

– May be a result of increased costs of housing and transportation