Social psychological approaches to explaining aggression

Social psychological theories of aggression, for example social learning theory, deindividuation

Institutional aggression

Biological explanations of aggression

Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression

Genetic factors in aggressive behaviour

Evolution and human aggression

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including infidelity and aggression

Evolutionary explanations of group display in humans, for example sport and warfare

THEORIES OF AGGRESSION

1) Every essay can be broken up into smaller units or ‘modules’

2) The AO1 content should be about 200 words, the AO2 about 400.

3) You need a 100 word version and a 200 word version for each theory.

4) This is six points (33 words each) of AO1 for the 200 word version, three for the 100 word version.

5) For AO2, aim for eight points at 50 words a point.

Theory 1 – Deindividuation Theory

Deindividuation Theory

A process whereby normal constraints on behaviour are weakened as persons

lose their sense of individuality.

Deindividuated people are likely to behave

aggressively because their attention to how others might evaluate them is

reduced.

Zimbardo (1969)

Zimbardo (1969)

When groups of female participants were required to deliver shocks to another

student to ‘aid learning’, those in the

deindividuated condition shocked for twice as long

as those in the individuated condition.

AO2 - The baiting crowd

AO2 - The baiting crowdThe relationship between

deindividuation and aggression is supported by Mann’s analysis of suicide jumpers. Mann (1981)

found that in half the cases reported in newspapers, the

crowd had baited the victim to jump. These incidents usually

occurred at night and when the crowd was large, features likely

to produce a state of deindividuation in members of

the crowd.

Problems with deindividuation

It can increase prosocial behaviour!

Problems with deindividuation

The link between deindividuation and aggression is limited because rather than pursuing behaviour ‘based on

primitive urges’, deindividuation may cause people to conform to a ‘local’ group norm. This need not necessarily be anti-social, which could therefore account for some contradictory findings concerning increased prosocial

behaviour in large crowds.

Issues, Debates, Approaches

Gender bias in research

Issues, Debates, Approaches

Cannavale et al. (1970) suggests that there is a gender bias in

deindividuation research with an increase in aggression evident only in all-male groups. Males

and females tend to act differently under conditions of

deindividuation. Males appear to be more prone to disinhibition of

aggressive behaviour when deindividuated than are females.

INSTITUTIONAL VIOLENCE

IMPORTATION MODEL (Irwin & Cressey)Prisoners bring their own social histories and traits into prison therefore are violent to start with.

RESEARCH SUPPORTHarer and Steffensmeier (2006) – 58 US prisons, black inmates had significantly higher rates of violent behaviour but lower alcohol and drug-related misconduct compared to white inmates – reflected social trends outside prison

THE FACTSPrisons are violent places. Violent acts in prisons risen by a third in last five years (Howard League, 2009). Murder rate in prisons can be double that in community (Wilson, 2005)

However…This prediction is not supported by other research. Study of 800+ inmates (DeLisi et al., 2004) - no evidence that violent gang membership had any bearing on violent behaviour while in prison.

IDA point… Cultural bias in research.Study of 82,000 prisoners (Gaes et al., 2002) showed Hispanic prisoners more violent than average and Asian prisoners less violent. Ethnicity therefore an important determinant of institutional aggression.

DEPRIVATION MODEL (Sykes, 1952)Aggression is the product of the stressful and oppressive conditions of prison itself (crowding, heat, noise, loss of freedom) RESEARCH SUPPORTMcCorkle et al. (1995) – overcrowding, lack of privacy and lack of meaningful activity significantly influence violence.Light (1990) – as overcrowding in prison increases, so does violent behaviour among inmates.

THE FACTSWilson (2010) - Most violence occurs in environments that are hot, noise polluted (e.g. shouting, banging cell doors) and overcrowded (prison population increasing year on year)

However…Many of the ‘stresses’ identified by Sykes in 1952 have reduced considerably as a result of prison reform, yet violence remains high.

IDA - Real-world applicationWilson (1990s) – changed levels of noise, heat and crowding at HMP Woodhill, led to dramatic decrease in violent conduct.

Model challenged by research by Poole and Regoli (1983). Best indicator of violence among juvenile offenders was pre-institutional violence regardless of situational factors in institution.

NEURAL MECHANISMS

Serotonin, in normal levels, exerts calming, inhibitory effect on neuronal firing in the brain.

Low levels of serotonin remove this inhibitory effect with the consequence that individuals less able to control impulsive and aggressive behaviour.

SEROTONIN

However, if there is less serotonin in these frontal areas, there is less inhibition of the amygdala. As a result, when the amygdala is stimulated by external events, it becomes more active, causing the person to act on their impulses, and making aggression more likely.

THE AMYGDALA

Serotonin typically works in the frontal areas of the brain to inhibit the firing of the amygdala, the part of the brain that controls fear, anger and other emotional responses.

Metabolite levels - Low in

cerebrospinal fluid of people who

display aggressive behaviour (Brown

et al., 1982). Dexfenfluramine - Aggression levels rose

following administration of dexfenfluramine among males only

(Mann et al., 1990) .

Evidence from animal studies - Rosado et al. (2010) aggressive dogs averaged 278 units of serotonin, while the non-aggressive dogs averaged 387 units.

Scerbo and Raine (1993) meta-analysis examined serotonin levels in antisocial individuals - found lower levels of serotonin than normal.

AO2

A major challenge to the belief that research on animals can easily be generalized to humans, was provided by the Seville Statement on Violence (1986).

Scientists from 12 different countries formally challenged a number of popular beliefs based on scientific findings with animals and humans that have been used to justify violent behaviour in humans.

This included the idea that human aggression is instinctual, or could be reduced to the action of neurochemicals as suggested by animal models of aggression.

IDA

NON-HUMAN ANIMALS IN AGGRESSION RESEARCH

Hormonal mechanisms

Testosterone produces male characteristics, one of which is thought to be aggressive behaviour. Levels reach a peak in young males, then decline.

Cortisol has an inverse relationship with aggression as low levels of cortisol are related to high levels of aggressive behaviour.

TESTOSTERONE AND CORTISOL

Cortisol mediates the action of testosterone and so inhibits the likelihood of aggressive behaviour. Popma et al. (2006) found significant positive relationship between testosterone and aggression only in participants with low cortisol levels.

Alternative explanation – low ANS arousal = low cortisol levels = experienced as unpleasant. Aggressive behaviour is then one way to create stressful situation to provoke ANS activation and cortisol release.

EXPLAINING THE LINK

Inconsistent evidence – T - Archer (1991)

found relationship but Bain et al. (1987) didn’t

among violent offenders

Research support - C – Longitudinal study

by McBurnett et al. (2000) found that boys

with lowest levels of cortisol also most

aggressive.

Inconsistent evidence – C -

Some studies show no evidence for the link,

others (e.g. Gerra et al., 1997) have found higher cortisol levels related to

aggressive behaviour.

T - Most studies rely on a narrow sample (prisoners) and rely on self-reports or assumed levels of aggression from severity of offence.

AO2

Most of what we know about the link between testosterone and aggression is from studies of males only.

Some research (e.g. Archer et al, 2005) suggests that the relationship between testosterone and aggression may be even stronger among women.

Eisenegger et al. (2011) found that testosterone could make women act ‘nicer’ rather than more aggressively depending on the situation. This lends support to the idea that, rather than directly increasing aggression, testosterone promotes status-seeking behaviour of which aggression is one type.

IDA

GENDER BIAS IN RESEARCH

EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSIS OF AGGRESSION

Aggression is a solution to a range

of adaptive problems (e.g.

deterring long-term mates from

infidelity. Solving these problems enhanced the survival and reproductive

benefits of the individual; hence,

this mental module would have spread through the gene

pool.

INFIDELITY AND JEALOUSY

Cuckoldry occurs when a woman deceives a man to invest into offspring that

are not his own

Does it happen?Up to 13.8% of women admitted to ‘extra-pair copulations’ (Baker & Bellis, 1990).

So what?Cuckolded men

lose both invested resources and reproductive opportunity.

Then what?Men evolved

mate-retention strategies driven

by sexual jealousy

INFIDELITY AND JEALOUSY

The detection or suspicion of infidelity (voluntary sexual relations

between an individual who is married and someone who isn’t their spouse) is a key predictor of partner violence

(Daly et al., 1982).

A 2006 BBC online survey (The Love Map, BBC, 2006) found that men are

more likely to engage in extra-marital affairs than women, but also discovered that one in ten women admitted to be being unfaithful to

their husbands.

INFIDELITY AND JEALOUSY

A consequence of men's perceptions or suspicions of their wives’ sexual

infidelity is sexual coercion or partner rape. Camilleri (2004) found that sexual assault of a female by

her male partner was directly linked with the perceived risk of her

infidelity.

INFIDELITY AND JEALOUSY

The link between infidelity and partner violence is supported by

the finding that the risk of a partner’s infidelity predicts

sexual coercion among males, but not among females

(Camilleri, 2004).

This is significant because males, but not females, are at risk of

cuckoldry, i.e. unwittingly investing resources in genetically

unrelated offspring.

INFIDELITY AND JEALOUSYBuss (1988) suggests that males have a number of strategies that have evolved specifically for the

purpose of keeping a mate, including ‘negative inducements’ in the form of violence or threats of violence to

prevent her from straying.

Because sexual jealousy is a primary cause of violence against women, those who are perceived by their

partner to be threatening infidelity are more at risk of violence than

those who are not.

INFIDELITY AND JEALOUSY

Research supports the proposed link between sexual jealousy, mate-retention strategies and partner-directed violence. A US

survey by Shackelford et al. (2005) found women reported

that those partners who frequently used mate-retention tactics (such as vigilance and emotional manipulation) were the most likely to use violence

against them.

A REAL-WORLD APPLICATION

The majority of women cite sexual jealousy on the part of their male partner as the cause of his violence against them (Dobash and Dobash, 1984)

The use of mate-retention strategies may therefore be seen as an early indication of potential violence against a female partner. Relationship counselling can then be sought before situation escalates into actual violence.

IDA