Social Lens - Chapter Gillman e Du Bois (Race)

8/10/2019 Social Lens - Chapter Gillman e Du Bois (Race)

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The Challenges of

Gender and Race:

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

and W. E. B. Du Bois

s we've seen, the social project of modernity is based on the idea, value,

and belief in equality, and that this belief comes from a more fundamental assumption about human beings: Every individual is capable of

discerning truth, born with the capacity to reason, and not only able but required

to make decisions that guide his or her life and contribute to the welfare of society

at large. However, you also know that the social project fell well short of the mark

the belief in equality was in truth founded upon practices of inequality. estern

capitalism, for e!ample, was built on black slave labor as well as upon the free labor

that women provided and continue to provide. omen were also e!cluded from

owning property in estern societies until the middle of the nineteenth century,

and they didn't have the right to vote in democratic elections until well into the

twentieth century. "ender continues to be the basis for the unequal distribution of

income: #n $%%&, the median income for women in the nited (tates with a college

degree was $)* less than for men +.(. ureau of -abor (tatistics, $%%/. "ender

is also a factor in violence: omen in the nited (tates are ) times more likely to

suffer violence from a partner than men are +ureau of 0ustice (tatistics, n.d./. #n

addition, it's estimated that 1o2oof rape victims are female versus * that are male

+3(3 4ape 5revention Education, $%%/.

ben compared to other systems of inequality, gender has unique characteris

tics. It is the oldest system of economic and political discrimination and was quite

likely the first. "ender is also ubiquitous: #t's found in virtually every situation and

thus crosscuts every other system of stratification. 6urther, gender is structured in

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2 MODERNITYAND THE SOCIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

such a way as to keep group members from connecting, sharing grief, and building

solidarity8there is no neighborhood or ghetto for gender. 9oreover, gender isrequired of every single person thus, children are intentionally and thoroughly

trained in gender, sometimes even before birth. 6inally, gender is the social category

that is most powerfully linked by most people to biological, genetic, and religious

causes and legitimations.

Charlotte Perkins Gilman !1"6#$1%&'

Theorist's Digest

Concepts and Theor! The Socia" E#o"$tion o% Gender

Balancing Self- andRace-PreservationCynaecocentric TheorySexuo-Economic Relations

S$&&ar

Taing the Perspecti#e()e&inis&

T(E)R*+T,+ D*GE+T

Brief Biogra-h.

Char"otte Perins Stetson Gi"&an *as +orn Char"otte Perins on ,$" -. /012. in Hart%ord.

Connectic$t3 Her %ather *as re"ated to the 4eecher %a&i". one o% the &ost i&portant A&erican

%a&i"ies o% the nineteenth cent$r3 Gi"&an's great($nc"e *as Henr 5ard 4eecher. a po*er%$"

a+o"itionist and c"erg&an. and her great(a$nt *as Harriet 4eecher Sto*e. *ho *rote Uncle

Tom's Cabin *hich %oc$sed the nation's attention on s"a#er3 Gi"&an's parents di#orced ear"."ea#ing Char"otte and her &other to "i#e as poor re"ations to the 4eecher %a&i". &o#ing %ro&

ho$se to ho$se3 Gi"&an gre* $p poor and *as poor" schoo"ed3

Gi"&an's ad$"t "i%e *as &ared + t$&$"t$o$s persona" re"ationships3 Her %irst &arriage in

/006. to Char"es Stetson. ended in di#orce3 Gi"&an *rote a no#e""a a+o$t the re"ationship.

ca""ed The Yellow Wallpaper, *hich is sti"" +eing read in *o&en's st$dies co$rses toda3 The

+oo te""s the stor o% a depressed ne* &other 7Gi"&an herse"%8 *ho is to"d + +oth her

doctor and h$s+and to a+andon her inte""ect$a" "i%e and a#oid an *riting or sti&$"ating

con#ersation3

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The *o&an sins deeper into depression and &adness as she is "e%t a"one in the

e""o* *a""papered n$rser3 Gi"&an's %ee"ing o% hope"essness against the trann o% &a"e(

do&inated instit$tions is heard in the repeated re%rain o% 9+$t *hat is one to do:9 4et*een

her %irst and second &arriages. a period o% a+o$t /; ears. Gi"&an had a n$&+er o%

passionate a%%airs *ith *o&en3 Ho*e#er. her second &arriage(to George Gi"&an. a co$sin(

pro#ed to +e at "east a so&e*hat s$ccess%$" and i&portant re"ationship %or Char"otte!

So&e o% her +est *or *as done d$ring the co$rtship and a%ter the &arriage3

In her "i%eti&e. Gi"&an *rote o#er ;.222 *ors. inc"$ding short stories. poe&s. no#e"s.

po"itica" pieces. and &a


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Conce-ts and Theor: The +ocial E/olution of Gender

"ilman is an evolutionist. -ike (pencer, she generally understands the history of

human society as moving from simple to comple! systems, with various elements

being chosen through the mechanism of survival of the fittest. "ilman argues that

humans began as brute animals pursuing individual gain. (urvival of the fittest at

that point was based on individual strength and competition. ;he males would

hunt for food and fight one another for se!ual rights to the females. It was a day

by8day e!istence with no surplus or communal cooperation. ealth was, of course,

unknown, as it requires surplus and social organi


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-ike 9ar!, "ilman argues that this new environment, this social structure thatimproved humanity's chances of survival, is the economy. 7ll species are defined by

their relationship to the natural environment. (tated in functionalist terms, struc

tures in an organism are formed as the organism finds specific ways to survive

+structure follows function/ the same is true in society. ;he economy is the struc

ture that is formed in response to our particular way of surviving, and it is thus our

most defining feature. e are therefore most human in our economic relations.

9ar! argued that we are alienated from our nature as we are removed from direct

participation in the economy, as with capitalism. "ilman also argues that alienation

occurs, but the source of that alienation is different. here 9ar! saw class, "ilman

sees gender. "ilman, in fact, is quite in favor of capitalism8in no other system has

our ability to survive been so clearly manifested. Even so, there are alienating influ

ences that originate in our gendered relationship to the economy, most specifically

the limitation of women's workforceparticipation.

Balancing +elf$ and Race$Preser/ation

-ike 9ar!, "ilman argues that the basic driving force in humanity is economic

production: 3reative production is the way that we as a species survive. #n all

species, survival needs push the natural laws of selection, which results in a func

tional balance between self8preservation and race-preservation. Aatural selection

in self8preservation develops those characteristics in the individual that are needed

to succeed in the struggle for self8survival. #n the evolutionary model, individuals

within a species fight for food, se!, and so on. Aatural selection equips the individual for that fight.

4ace8preservation, on the other hand, develops those characteristics that enable

the species as a whole to succeed in the struggle for e!istence. "ilman is using the

term race in the same way #'m using the term s!ecies" that is, she's using it in the

more general sense, rather than to make racial distinctions. ;he most important

point here is that the relationship between self8 and race8preservation isbalanced:

#ndividuals are selfish enough to fight for their own survival and selfless enough to

fight for the good of the whole species.

"ilman's idea is interesting because most evolutionists assume that these two

factors are one and the same in other words, self8preservation is structured in such

a way that it functions as species8preservation. ;his assumption is what allows

social philosophers like 7dam (mith to take for granted that severe individualism

in systems like capitalism is natural and beneficial. "ilman insightfully perceives

that these two functions can be at odds with one another. (he thus creates an

empirical research question where many people don't see any problem or make a

value judgment, such as in the inherent goodness of capitalistic free markets.

Human evolution then becomes specific. ecause of our overwhelming depen

dency on social organi


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the race8self8preservation proportion social laws and customs and the institu

tions, culture, and habits of a society. ;his social loop becomes humankind'sunique environment. Df course, we still relate to and are affected by the natural

world, but the social environment becomes much more important for the human

evolutionary progress +or lack thereof/. ;his entire process works together to

increase the likelihood of the survival of the human race.

;hat's the model of how things are supposed to and did work for quite some

time. ut a threshold was reached and patriarch and monogamy became dysfunc

tional +we can see the same thing with technological control of the environment

creating to!ic waste and lack of sustainability/. ;he same central dynamics are

present: Economic necessity pushes the laws of selection, which in turn produce the

proportion of self8 to race8preservation characteristics, which then create laws and

customs that reinforce those characteristics and produce social behaviors, culture,

and institutions that strengthen and justify the laws and customs. ;his time, how

ever, the social loop doesn't result in greater species survivability, but, rather, in gen

der, se!, and economic dysfunctions.

Gnaecocentric Theor.

"ilman argues that human se!uality and the kinship structure were evolution

arily selected. #n the predawn history of humankind, it became advantageous for us

to have two se!es that joined together in monogamy. 6rom an evolutionary per

spective, the methods of reproducing the species are endless. ;hey run from the

e!tremes of hermaphroditism +both se!es contained in a single organism/ to

multiple8partnered egg hatcheries. ecause human beings need high levels of culture and social organi


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;he second thing "ilman draws from this theory is that the women's move

ments, and all the changes that they bring, are part of the evolutionary path forhumanity. hile women's economic dependence upon men was functional for a

time, its usefulness is over. #n fact, "ilman tells us, the women's and labor move

ments are misnamed8they ought more accurately to be called human movements.

;he reason that we've become aware of the atrocities associated with male domi

nance at this time in our history is that the dysfunctions are now greater than the

functions. ;he behaviors and problems of patriarchy have always e!isted, but the

benefits outweighed the costs and it therefore remained functional. Aow,because

of the level of social and economic progress, it is time to cast off this archaic form.

+e0uo$Economic Relations

"ilman characteri


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from interacting with the natural environment, their bodies change: ;hey becomesmaller, softer, more feeble, and clumsy.

;he increase in se! distinctions leads to greater emphasis on se! for both men

and women. ;he importance given to se! far e!ceeds the natural function of pro

creation and comes to represent a threat to both self8 and race8preservation. ;he

natural ordering of the se!es becomes perverted as well. #n most animals, it is the

male that is flamboyant and attractive this order is reversed in humans. ;o orient

women toward this inversion, the se!ual sociali?,pp. 1$%81$1/


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"ilman argues that the creative efforts of men, which should be directed to

durable commodities for the common good, are subject to the creation and main

tenance of a @false market.@ omen are thus alienated from the commodities they

purchase because they don't participate in the production process nor are their

needs naturally produced, and men are alienated because they are producing goods

and services driven by a false market.

;he morbid e!cess in se! distinction disables the laws of natural selection and

puts self8 and race8preservation out of balance. 7s a result, the customs and laws of

society respond, as do the social institutions and practices +accumulation of prece

dent/. #nstitutions and practices that properly belong to humankind become gen

dered. 6or e!ample, the governing of society is a @race8function,@ but in societies

that limit women's workforceparticipation, it is seen as the duty and prerogative of

men. Iecorating is also distinctly human it is a function of our species, but it isperceived as the domain of women. 4eligion, an obvious human function, is dom

inated by men and has been used to justify the unequal treatment of women, as

have law, government, science, and so forth.

Eet "ilman does tell us that things are changing. (he sees the women's move

ments as part of our evolutionary path of progress. #mplied in this conclusion is

the idea that equality is a lu!ury. nder primitive circumstances, only the strong

survive. ;he weak, the feeble, and the old are left behind or killed. 7s social rela

tionships come into e!istence, cooperation is possible, and as people cooperate, a

surplus develops. 6or the most part, the powerful control the surplus and turn it

into wealth, yet at the same time, it is then feasible to support some who had once

been cut off. ;hese people are integrated into society and society continues to

grow. #t becomes more comple! and technically better able to control the environment and produce surplus. #n turn, other groups are brought into the fold,

and increasing numbers of disenfranchised groups are able to live and prosper. #t

is "ilman's position that just as technical progress is our heritage, so is ever

e!panding equality. Evolution of the species not only involves economic advance

ment but increasing compassion as well ethical and technical evolutions are

ine!orably linked.

7t the present evolutionary moment, we are only hindered by our own blind

ness. e can afford the lu!ury of complete equality, but we fail to see the problem.

"ilman says that this is due to a desire for consistency: v=e don't notice what we are

used to. Even evil can become comfortable for us and we will miss it when it's gone.

;his is one of the reasons why slavery wasn't seen as evil for so many years of our

history. e also have a tendency to think in individual terms rather than general

terms. #t's easier for us to attribute reasons for what we see to individuals rather

than to broad social factors.

eing used to them, we do not notice them, or, forced to notice them, we

attribute the pain we feel to the evil behavior of some individual, and never

think of it as being the result of a condition common to us all. +"ilman,

1899/1975,p.

84)


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+ummar.

J "ilman is a critical evolutionist. 7ll species fight for survival and create

organic structures to help them survive in their environment. #n this case, the

function produces the structure. 6or humans, the primary evolutionary structure is

the economy. #t is through the economy that we as a species survive.

J hen women were removed from the economy through male domination,

several things happened. 6irst, women were taken out of the natural environment

of economic production and given a false environment8men, and indirectly the

home and family, became women's environment. "ilman is a social evolutionist

and argues that, as every species will, woman changed in response to changes in

her environment. ;his change in environment made the distinctions between the

se!es more pronounced. 4ather than being equipped to economically produce,

women became equipped to pursue a husband +their survival depended upon it/.

;heir bodies became smaller and softer from disconnection with the natural

world, and women augmented these changes through artificial means +such as

makeup, clothing, etc./. Human beings now have a morbid e!cess in se!

distinction, and as a result, the natural order has been reversed. #n most animals,

it is the male that is marked for attraction in humans, it is the female. #n order to

produce this artificial order, girls have to be sociali


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produced more and achieved higher levels of technological control. ;hus, pulling

women out of the workforce functioned to allow the economy to develop fully.

J Humans have, however, reached the point where the suppression of women

is more dysfunctional than functional. ;he women's movements are sure signs that

evolution is pushing us toward higher levels of equality.

T2*3G T(E PER+PECT*4E$5E*3*+

The ter& feminism *as %irst $sed to re%er to %e&inine traits in genera"3 It *asn't $nti" the )irst

Internationa" 5o&en's Con%erence o% /0; that the ter& too on its critica". po"itica" +ent3

Since then it has +een associated *ith t*o princip"e ideas3 The %irst is a set o% ideas and +e"ie%sa+o$t no*"edge and *as o% go#erning that are de%ined as distinct" %e&inist and are set

against the &asc$"inist *as o% e>ercising po*er and no*ing a+o$t the *or"d3 The second

re%ers to a #ariet o% perspecti#es that are $sed to $nderstand gender ine$a"it3 These t*o

&ain ideas can +"end together in #ario$s *as %or di%%erent theorists. +$t Gi"&an c"ear" %a""s

in the "atter. as she adopts positi#is&3

In 5estern E$ropean societies ine$a"ities o% gender ha#e +een addressed thro$gh three *a#es

o% %e&inis&3 In"ings o% the %irst *a#e +egan *hen ideas a+o$t the e$a" rights o% *o&en

e&erged d$ring the En"ighten&ent3 The %irst signi%icant e>pression o% these concerns *as Mar

5o""stonecra%t's +ooA indica!ion of !he "igh!s of Woman /@;83 4$t the %irst *a#e o%

%e&inis& didn't +eco&e organi?ed $nti" the /060 Seneca )a""s Con#ention. *hich ca""ed %or

e$a" rights to #ote and o*n propert. %$"" access to ed$cationa" opport$nities. and e$a"co&pensation %or e$a" *or3

The second *a#e o% %e&inis& gre* o$t o% the ci#i" rights &o#e&ents o% the /12s3 P$+"ication

o% Si&one de 4ea$#oir's The #econd #e$ /68 and 4ett )riedan's The Feminine Mys!i%ue

7/1-8 *ere partic$"ar" i&portant %or this second *a#e o% %e&inists. as *as the %o$nding in

/11 o% the Nationa" Organi?ation %or 5o&en 7NO583 Centra" iss$es %or this &o#e&ent *ere

pa e$it e$a" access to


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13Cha-ter 7 9 Cha""enges o% Gender and Race! Gi"&an and D$ 4ois

4$t &ore recent". it has gained c$rrenc *ith re%erence to age3 It appears that the e>periences

o% o$ng. conte&porar %e&inists are di%%erent %ro& those o% second(*a#e %e&inists3

Yo$ng %e&inists gre* $p in a socia" *or"d *here %e&inis& *as part o% co&&on c$"t$re3 These

o$ng *o&en are a"so p"aing o$t so&e o% the post&odern ideas o% %"$id identities3 The res$"t

is that &an o$ng %e&inists can +est +e descri+ed thro$gh contradiction and a&+ig$it3As

,enni%er Drae 7/@8 sas in a re#ie* essa. 95hat $nites the Third 5a#e is o$r negotiation o%

contradiction. o$r rea&p"e. third

*a#ers &ight c"ai& their right to dress se> %or %$n *hi"e si&$"taneo$s" critici?ing patriarch

%or o+t

%e&inist is in Chapter /2! ,anet Sa"t?&an Cha%et?3 Lie Gi"&an. Cha%et? $ses positi#isticscience to $nderstand gender ine$a"it3 Her concerns are3 in eeping *ith second(*a#e

%e&inists! po"itica" and econo&ic rights3 The other three %e&inists genera"" tae the &ost

critica" approach and $estion the %o$ndations o% socia" scienti%ic no*"edge3 )or the&.

the "i%e e>periences and perspecti#es o% &en and *o&en are di%%erent. and gender

e$a"it is &ore %$nda&enta" than str$ct$ra" eC$a"it(th$s. *hi"e a%%ir&ing the concerns

o% second *a#ers. their interests &ore c"ose" coincide *ith third(*a#e %e&inists3 Doroth

E3 S&ith 7Chapter /@8 %oc$ses on the $ni$e conscio$sness and "i#ed e>perience o% *o&en3

S&ith arg$es that *o&en ha#e a +i%$rcated a*areness o% the *or"d. sp"it +et*een the

o+periences3 Patricia Hi"" Co""ins 7Chapter /@8

o%%ers a c"ear criti$e o% positi#istic socia" science and arg$es %or the po*er and insight o%

%e&inist *as o% no*ing3 Co""ins is a"so interested in the *as race and gender co&e

together %or *o&en3

W. E. B. Du Bois !1"6"$16%'

Theorist's Digest

Concepts and Theor! C$"t$ra" Oppression

His!ory as &deology

"epresen!a!ion

#!ereo!ypes and #lippery #lopes

The &mpac! of Cul!ure on !he 'erson

Concepts and Theor! The Dar Nations and 5or"d Capita"is&

The (eed for Color

S$&&ar

Taing the Perspecti#e(Race Theor


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hile gender is more universal, the use of race as a category of distinction has historically been more destructive. ;hough women have

been seen as less than men, in general their essential humanity has

n't been denied. ;he modern category of race, however, is based on such a distinc

tion. hile people have obviously alwaysbeen aware of differences of skin tone and

facial features, in premodern societies race wasn't an important way that people

used to mark difference. 4eligion, territory, and eventually being civili


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sa* %irsthand the "egac o% s"a#er in the So$th3 As a res$"t. D$ 4ois +eca&e an arden

ad#ocate o% socia" change thro$gh protest3 His +e"ie% in con%rontation and dissent p$t D$

4ois at odds *ith 4ooer T3 5ashington. a pro&inent +"ac "eader *ho %a#ored

acco&&odation3 This disagree&ent *ith 5ashington in%"$enced the ear" part o% D$4ois'

po"itica" "i%e he %o$nded the Niagara Mo#e&ent in "arge part to co$nter 5ashington's

arg$&ents3

Thro$gh &ost o% his "i%e. D$ 4ois genera"" %a#ored integration. +$t to*ard the end he

+eca&e disco$raged at the "ac o% progress and increasing" t$rned to*ard 4"ac

Nationa"is&! He enco$raged +"acs to *or together to create their o*n c$"t$re. art. and

"iterat$re. and to create their o*n gro$p econo& o% +"ac prod$cers and cons$&ers3 The

c$"t$ra" stand *as directed at creating +"ac pride and identit the %or&ation o% a +"ac

econo&ic co&&$nit *as the *eapon to %ight discri&ination and +"ac po#ert3 D$ 4ois *as

a"so a principa" %orce in the Pan(A%rican &o#e&ent. *hich *as %o$nded on the +e"ie% that a""

+"ac peop"e share a co&&on descent and sho$"d there%ore *or co""ecti#e" aro$nd the

g"o+e %or e$a"it3 In the "atter part o% his "i%e. D$ 4ois +eca&e disheartened at the "ac o%

change regarding the co"or "ine in the =nited States3 In the end. he reno$nced his citi?enship.

p"oitation o% +"acs aro$nd the *or"d3

2e Conce-ts

Centered s$+


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;here are a couple of things that strike the thinking reader as he or she spends

time with Iu ois' te!ts. ;he first is that Iu ois centers the subject in his writing. Dne of the things most of us are taught in college English is that we should

write from a de8centered point of view. e are supposed to avoid using @#@ and

@me@ and should always write from an objective perspective. et Iu oisbegins

one of his most famous works, The Souls of Blac% &ol% with the phrase @etween

me and the other world .. ' #n another place he wonders, @ho and what is this

#... K@ Iu ois isn't being self8centered nor is he unaware of the rules of compo

sition. Iu ois is being quite deliberate in his use of personal pronouns and the

centered subject. # believe one of the things he is telling us is that race is not some

thing that can be understood through the cold, disassociated stance of the

researcher. 4ace and all marginal positions must be e!perienced to be understood.

Iu ois uses his life as the canvas upon which he paints the struggles of the black

race in 7merica and in the world.

;he other thing that impresses the reader is that much of Iu ois' writing is a

multimedia presentation. Iuois moves back and forth among intellectual argu

mentation, song, prayer, poetry, irony, parable, data, riddles, analogy, and declara

tion. He weaves a tapestry for the reader, one that touches every part of the reader's

being. He wants us to be able to understand the objective state of blackness as well

as e!perience its soul. #n this he reminds me of a colleague of mine. 9y colleague is

a black man who has done some ama, emphasis added/.

;here are two things # think this subjective stance implies: ;he first is my own

comment, the other is something # think Iu ois has in mind. 6irst, any secondary

reading of Iu ois, such as the book you have in your hands, falls short of the

mark. ;his is generally true of any of the thinkers in this book8you would be

much richer reading Iurkheim than reading what somebody says about

Iurkheim8but it is particularly true of Iu ois. 5art of what you can acquire


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Cha-ter 7 F Cha""enges o% Gender and Race! Gi"&an and D$4ois 17

from reading Iu ois is an e!perience, and that e!perience is a piece of what Iuois wants to communicate.

;he second implication of Iu ois' multidimensional, subjective approach is

theoretical. Iuois +1%G21)a/ says that @the Aegro is a sort of seventh son, born

with a veil, and gifted with second8sight in this 7merican orld8a world which

yields him no true self8consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the

revelation of the other world@ +p. 1%$/. Iu ois employs spiritual language here.

;he veil of which he speaks is the birth caul. #n some births, the inner fetal mem

brane tissue doesn't rupture and it covers the head at delivery. ;his @caul@ appears

in about 1 in 1,%%% births. Iue to its rarity, some traditional cultures consider such a

birth spiritually significant and the caul is kept for good luck. ;he same is true of

the seventh son reference. ;he seventh son is considered to have special powers, and

references to such are to be found in many folk and blues songs as well as in the

ible. ;he @second8sight@ is a reference to clairvoyant or prophetic vision.

;hus, Iu ois is saying that because of their e!periential position, 7frican

7mericans are gifted with special insight8a prophetic vision8into the @7merican

orld.@ ;hey see themselves not simply as they are they also see their position from

the perspective of the @other world@8the white social world around them. #n other

words, blacks and other oppressed groups have a particular point of view of society

that allows them to see certain truths about the social system that escape others. ;his

idea of critical consciousness goesback to 9ar!. 9ar!ian philosophy argues that only

those on the outside of an oppressive system can understand its true workings it is

difficult to critically and refle!ively understand a system if you accept its legitimation.

#n other words, capitalists and those who benefit from capitalismby definition believein capitalism. It is difficult for a capitalist to understand the oppressive workings of

capitalism because in doing so the person would be condemning himself or herself.

"enerally, Iu ois' perspective is more in keeping with contemporary theories

of difference than others of his time. Dne of the things that oppression in moder

nity has done is deny the voice of the other. #n the Iurkheim chapter, we saw that

one of the necessities for social solidarity is a collective consciousness8or what

some contemporary theorists refer to as a grand narrative( 9odern nation8states

provide all8encompassing stories about history and national identity through a

grand narrative. ;he purpose of these narratives is to offer a kind of Iurkheimian

rallying point for social solidarity. ;his sort of solidarity is necessary for nations to

carry out large8scale programs, especially such things as coloni


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character/. Iuois' perspective is quite in keeping with this emphasis. #n his own

work, he uses the subjective mode to e!press the e!perience of the oppressed. He

becomes a representative figure through which we might understand the plight of

black people in 7merica. 5art of what this multiple8voice approach entails is valu

ing the outsider's point of view. #nterestingly, Iu ois is much more in tune with

the feminist idea of standpoint theory than either 9artineau or "ilman, neither of

whom privileges outsider knowledge. #n that sense, Iu ois' work contains a more

critical edge, again in keeping with much of contemporary analysis.

#n my opinion, # think that Iu ois' lasting contribution to social theory is his

understanding of cultural o!!ression( #n the section we will see that it is just as nec

essary as structural oppression in the suppression of a social group. Iuois' under

standing of this process is quite good. He argues that cultural oppression involves

e!clusion from history, specific kinds of symbolic representations, and the use ofstereotypes and their cultural logic of default assumptions. ;his cultural work

results in a kind of double consciousness wherein the disenfranchised see them

selves from two contradictory points of view. However, Iuois isn't only interested

in cultural oppression he also gives us a race8based theory of world capitalism. e

will see that it isn't only the elite capitalists that benefit from the e!ploitation of

blacks and other people of color the middle class benefits as well.

Conce-ts and Theor: Cultural )--ression

(istor as *deolog.

#f we can get a sense of the subjectivity that Iu ois is trying to convey, we might

also get a sense of what horrid weight comes with cultural oppression.

ndergirding every oppressive structure is cultural e!clusion. hile the relative

importance of structure and culture in social change can be argued, it is generally

the case that structural oppression is legitimated and facilitated by specific cultural

moves8historical cultural e!clusion in particular. #n this case, 7frican 7mericans

have been systematically e!cluded from 7merican history, and they have been

deprived of their own 7frican history.

History plays an important part in legitimating our social structures this is

known as history as ideology(Ao one living has a personal memory of why we cre

ated the institutions that we have. (o, for e!ample, why does the government func

tion the way it does in the nited (tatesK Ao one personally knows instead, we have

a historical account or story of how and why it came about. ecause we weren't

there, this history takes on objective qualities and feels like a fact, and this facticity

legitimates our institutions and social arrangements unquestionably. ut, Iu ois

tells us, the current history is written from a politici


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Iu ois, however, holds out the possibility of a scientific history( ;his kind ofhistory would be guided by ethical standards in research and interpretation, and

the record of human action would be written with accuracy and faithfulness of

detail. Iu ois envisions this history acting as a guidepost and measuring rod for

national conduct. Iu ois +1G?21)c/ presents this formulation of history as

a choice. e can either use history @for our pleasure and amusement, for inflat

ing our national ego,@ or we can use it as a moral guide and handbook for future

generations +p. BB%/.

It is important for us to note here that Iuois is foreshadowing the contempo

rary emphasis on culture in studies of inequality. 9ar! argued that it is class and

class alone that matters. eber noted that cultural groups8i.e., status positions

add a comple!ity to issues of stratification and inequality. ut it was not until the

work of the 6rankfurt (chool +see 3hapter 1 on 9ar!/ during the 1G%s that a crit

ical view of culture itself became important, and it was not until the work of post

modernists and the irmingham (chool in the 1>%s and 1&%s that representation

became a focus of attention. Eet Iu ois is e!plicating the role of culture and rep

resentation in oppression in his 1%G book, The Souls ofBlac% &ol%(

Re-resentation

Re!resentation is a term that has become e!tremely important in contemporary

cultural analysis. (tuart Hall, for e!ample, argues that images and objects by them

selves don't mean anything. e see this idea in 9ead's theory as well. ;he meaning

has to be constructed, and we use representational systems of concepts and ideas todo so. Re!resentation then, is the symbolic practice through which meaning is

given to the world around us. It involves the production and consumption of cul

tural items and is a major site of conflict, negotiation, and potential oppression.

-et me give you an illustration from Iu ois. 3ultural domination through rep

resentation implies that the predominantly white media do not truly represent

people of color. 7s Iuois +1$%21)d/ says, @;he whites obviously seldom pic

ture brown and yellow folk, but for five hundred centuries they have e!hausted

every ingenuity of trick, of ridicule and caricature on black folk@ +pp. ?8)%/. ;he

effect of such representation is cultural and psychological: ;he disenfranchised

read the representations and may become ashamed of their own image. Iu ois

gives an e!ample from his own work at The Crisis +the official publication of the

A7735/. The Crisis put a picture of a black person on the cover of the maga


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dictionary. 3ultural signs and images can also have secondary, or connotative,

meanings. ;hese meanings get attached to the original word and create other, widerfields of meaning.

7t times these wider fields of meaning can act like myths, creating hidden mean

ings behind the apparent. ;hus, systems of connotation can link ideological mes

sages to more primary, denotative meanings. #n cultural oppression, then, the

dominant group represents those who are subjugated in such a way that negative

connotative meanings and myths are produced. ;his comple! layering of ideologi

cal meanings is why members of a disenfranchised group can simultaneously be

proud and ashamed of their heritage. 3ase in point: ;he black office colleagues to

whom Iu ois refers can be proud of being black but at the same time feel that an

image is too blac%(

+tereot-es and +li--er +lo-es

#n addition to history and misrepresentation, the cultural representation of

oppression consists of being defined as a problem: @etween me and the other

world this is ever an unasked question....How does it feel to be a problemK@ +Iu

ois, 1%G2l)a, p. 1%1/. 4epresentations of the group thus focus on its short

comings, and these images come to dominate the general culture as stereotypes:

hile sociologists gleefully count his bastards and his prostitutes, the very

soul of the toiling, sweating black man is darkened by the shadow of a vast

despair. 9en call the shadow prejudice, and learnedly e!plain it as the natural

defense of culture against barbarism, learning against ignorance, purityagainst crime, the @higher@ against the @lower@ races. ;o which the Aegro cries

7men +Iuois, 1%G21)a, p. 1%?/

# want to point out that last bit of the quote from Iu ois. He is saying that the

black person agrees with this cultural justification of oppression. Here we can see

one of the insidious ways in which cultural justifications can work. #t presents us

with an apparent truth that once we agree to can refle!ively destroy us. Here's how

this bit of cultural logic works: ;he learned person says that discrimination and

prejudice are necessary. hyK ;hey are needed to demarcate the boundaries

between civili


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e!amples of this process in gender, such as in the statements @all men are createdequal@ and @there was a four8man crew on board.@ #s the use of the masculine pro

noun meant in its specific or its general meaningK 7re we referring to men specifi

cally or to mankindK v=hen such slippery slopes of language occur, it is easy for

society to obliterate or oppress a cultural identity, which is one reason why feminist

scholars talk about the invisible woman in history.

Iu ois has a similar slope in mind, but obviously one that entails race. #n the

section from The Souls of Blac% &ol% from which # have been quoting, Iu ois

+ l%G2l)a/ says that the Aegro stands @helpless, dismayed, and well8nigh

speechless@ before the @nameless prejudice@ that becomes e!pressed in @the all

pervading desire to inculcate disdain for everything black@ +p. 1%G/. #n )ar%*ater

Iu ois +1$%21)b/ refers to this slippery slope as a @theory of human culture@

+p. ?%?/ that has @worked itself through MtheN warp and woof of our daily

thought@ +p. ?%?/. e use the term @white@ to analogously refer to everything that

is good, pure, and decent. ;he term @black@ is likewise reserved for things or

people that are despicable, ignorant, and that instill fear. ;here is thus a moral,

default assumption in back of these terms that automatically includes the cultural

identities of white and black.

#n our cultural language, we also perceive these two categories as mutually e!clu

sive. 6or e!ample, we will use the phrase @this issue isn't black or white@ to refer to

something that is undecided, that can't fit in simple, clear, and mutually e!clusive

categories. ;he area in between is a gray, no8person's land. It is culturally logical,

then, to perceive unchangeable differences between the black and white races,

which is the cultural logic behind the @one drop rule@ +an historical slang term usedto capture the idea that a person is considered black if he or she has any black ances

tor/. 7gain, keep in mind that this movement between the specific and the general

is unconsciously applied. 5eople don't have to intentionally use these terms as ways

to racially discriminate. ;he cultural default is simply there, waiting to swallow up

the identities and individuals that lie in itspath.

The *m-act of Culture on the Person

Iu ois attunes us to yet another insidious cultural mechanism of oppression:

the internali/.

;o conceptuali


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based on their general status group +being an 7merican/. hat this means is that

people in disenfranchised groups see themselves from two perspectives.-et's think about this issue using 3ooley's notion of the loo%ing-glass self #n

3ooley's theory, the sense of one's self is derived from the perceptions of others.

;here are three phases in 3ooley's scheme. 6irst, we imagine what we look like to

other people we then imagine their judgment of that appearance and finally, we

react emotionally with either pride or shame to that judgment. Aote that 3ooley

didn't say we actually !erceive how others see and judge us rather, we imagine their

perceptions and judgments. However, this imagination is not based on pure specu

lation. It is based on social concepts of ways to look +cultural images/ ways to

behave +scripts/ and ways we anticipate others will behave, based on their social

category +e!pectations/. #n this way, Iuois argues that 7frican 7mericans inter

nali


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constructed. 7gain, Iu oisbeat contemporary social theory to the punch: e didn't

begin to seriously think of @white@ as a construct until the 1>%s, and it didn't

become an important piece in our theori


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Cha-ter 7 F Cha""enges o% Gender and Race! Gi"&an and D$ 4ois 25

J 3apitalism is based on e!ploitation: Dwners pay workers less than the value

of their work. ;herefore, capitalism must always have a group to e!ploit. #n global

capitalism, where the capitalist economy overreaches the boundaries of the state, it

is the same: ;here must be a group to e!ploit. "lobal capitalism finds such a group

in the @dark nations.@ 3apitalists thus e!port their e!ploitation, and both capitalists

and white workers in the core nations benefit, primarily because goods produced

on the backs of sweatshop labor are cheaper.

T2*3G T(E PER+PECT*4E$RCE T(E)R9

I'#e %o$nd that the *ritings o% peop"e *ho st$d and thin a+o$t race tend to +e distinct anddi%%erent %ro& peop"e *riting a+o$t other socio"ogica" iss$es3 Pro+a+" the +est no*n o%

9c"assic9 race theorists in the =nited States is . E. 43 D$ 4ois. *ho *rote %ro& the /02s

thro$gh the ear" /12s3 D$ 4ois ga#e $s a n$&+er o% signi%icant theoretica" ideas. s$ch

as do$+"e conscio$sness. and prod$ced so&e o% the %irst socia" scienti%ic st$dies o%

+"ac

A&ericans3 Yet. reading D$ 4ois is &ore than reading theor and data. it is an ex!erience( Inhis *riting D$ 4ois &o#es +ac and %orth a&ong inte""ect$a" arg$&entation. song. praer.

poetr. iron. para+"e. data. ridd"es. ana"og. and dec"aration3 He *ea#es a tapestr %or the

reader. one that to$ches e#er part o% the reader's +eing3 He *ants $s to +e a+"e to $nderstand

the o+perience see&s %air" co&&on a&ong A%ricanA&erican *riters3 A co""eag$e o% &ine *ho teaches A%ricanA&erican Socia" Tho$ght in o$r

depart&ent said it this *a! 95hen these %o"s *rite 333 the are presenting a "ens o% d$a"

rea"it. +"acness inA&erica. A&erica on +"acness! 'Ho* do I %ee" a+o$t & co$ntr and ho*

does & co$ntr %ee" a+o$t &e:9' 7S3 C$reton. persona" co&&$nication. Octo+er . ;2283 A

good conte&porar e>a&p"e o% this approach is Corne" 5est. *ho *e'"" consider in Chapter /@3

Ho*e#er. this iss$e isn't "i&ited to socio"ogists(it r$ns deeper3 $ite a %e* A%rican A&erican

a$thors *riting a+o$t race in %iction. essa. poetr. and the "ie. tend to inc"$de *hat *e see

as socia" and socio"ogica" theor. +eca$se 9cha""enging race "egac to$ches on e#erthing *e

no* to +e socio"ogica"J9 7B3 C$reton. persona" co&&$nication. Octo+er . ;2283

I thin that a good part o% the reason %or this t*o%o"d nat$re o% +"ac *riting is d$e to the %act

thatto *rite a+o$t +"acness is to *rite a+o$t h$&anness3 )rant? )anon 7/A1/H;2268 *riting

a+o$t co"onia"is& and race said. 'The ruling s!ecies is %irst and %ore&ost the o$tsider %ro&e"se*here. di%%erent %ro& the indigeno$s pop$"ation. 'the others9' 7p3 B. e&phasis added83 He

*rote this in co&parison to Mar>'s idea o% the 9r$"ing c"ass39 )or )anon 9r$"ing c"ass9 does not

ade$ate" capt$re ho* this tpe o% r$"ing taes p"ace3 It's not a c"ass iss$e. it is as!ecies issue(Racia" oppression s$are" stands on dening or "i&iting the h$&anness o% +"acs3 Th$s

centering race in *riting. either creati#e or scienti%ic. can a"*as e#oe the e>istentia" cr 9Ho*

does it %ee" to +e a pro+"e&:9 in response to 9&eas$ring one's so$" + the tape o% a *or"d that

"oos on in a&$sed conte&pt and pit9 7D$ 4ois. /A2-H/AA1. pp3 /2/(/2;83

+Continued,


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7Contin$ed8

Additiona"". this approach to doing socio"og and *nt&g chronic"es and p$ts in the

p$+"ic record the #er h$&an e>periences o% +"acs "i#ing $nder inh$&an circ$&stances3

This record ser#es t*o p$rposes3 It %irst preser#es a tr$er histor o% +"ac e>perience %or the

A%rican A&erican co&&$nit3 The *ritings. +oth discip"inar and other*ise. contain

generationa" no*"edge that pro#ides the +$i"ding stones %or a +"ac identit that 9speas

to the e>istentia" iss$es o% *hat it &eans to +e a degraded A%rican9 and 9in#o"#es se"%

respect and se"%(regard. rea"&s insepara+"e %ro&. et not identica" to. po"itica" po*er and

econo&ic stat$s9 75est. ;22/. p3 @83 The second p$rpose is that these *ritings o%%er %or

9p$+"ic cons$&ption the 'so$" o% +"acness' 333 in a societ that addresses +"acness as

de#iant9 7S3 C$reton. persona" co&&$nication. No#e&+er ;2. ;2283 The proc"ai& the

strength o% a peop"e pro#en in a ca$"dron o% s$%%ering3 This *as $ndo$+ted" the intentthat D$ 4ois had *hen he penned the a+o#e *ords %or the +eginning "ines o% The #ouls of

)lac* Fol*+

KM thans to Dr3 Ste#en 4. C$reton. Associate Pro%essor. =NCG Depart&ent o% Socio"og %or

en"ightening con#ersations and price"ess insights into the *ritings o% +"acA&ericans3A"" the

&istaes are &ine a"" the pear"s o% *isdo& are his3

learning ore$Primar. and +econdar +ources

F )or D$ 4ois. I reco&&end that o$ pic $p The $ford W E+ )+ u)ois "eader, edited +

Eric S$nd$ist3 It contains t*o o% D$ 4ois' +oos in their entiret .The #ouls of )lac* Fol*

and ar*wa!er as *e"" as &riad other i&portant *ritings3

F )or Gi"&an. start *ith The Yellow Wallpaper, and then &o#e on to Women and

Economics, The Home, Human Wor*, and The Man-Made World, or ur

Androcen!ric Cul!ure+

F Each o% these thiners a"so p$+"ished a$to+iographies 7in %act. D$ 4ois *rote t*o. at

di%%erent points o% his "i%e8! )or D$ 4ois. The Au!o0iography of WE+ )+

u )ois1 A#olilo%uy on iewing My 2ife From !he 2as! ecade of &!s Firs! Cen!ury, and us* of

awn1 An Essay Toward an Au!o0iography of a "ace Concep!,3 and %or Gi"&an. The

2i4ing of Charlo!!e 'er*ins 5ilman1 An Au!o0iography

F In ter&s o% introd$ctions to other neg"ected theorists. I reco&&end Ho*ard 4rat?'s

reader. (egro #ocial and 'oli!ical Though!, ./0-120" and The Women Founders1

#ociology and #ocial Theory, .30-130 + Patricia Madoo Lenger&ann and ,i""Nie+r$gge(4rant"e3


27/30


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7Contin$ed8

F According to D$ 4ois. one o% the *as c$"t$ra" oppression *ors is + e>c"$ding the

#oices and contri+$tions o% a speci%ic gro$p in the histor o% a societ3 The Anti

De%a&ation Leag$e has a gro$p e>ercise ca""ed 9na&e %i#e39 The cha""enge is to

na&e %i#e pro&inent indi#id$a"s in each categor! A&ericans &a"e A&ericans

%e&a"e A&ericansA%rican A&ericans Hispanic A&ericans Asian or Paci%ic Is"ander

A&ericans Nati#e A&ericans ,e*ish A&ericans Catho"ic A&ericans pagan

A&ericans se"% identi%ied ga. "es+ian. or +ise>$a" A&ericans A&ericans *ith disa+i"ities

and A&ericans o#er the age o% 1B3 )or *hich categories can o$ na&e %i#e pro&inent

peop"e: )or *hich can't o$ na&e the %i#e: 5hat does this i&p" a+o$t the *a *e ha#e

constr$cted histor in this co$ntr: In addition to tring this acti#it on o$rse"% or

a %riend. go to the 4iograph Channe"'s 5e+ page 7***3+iograph3co&83 There o$*i"" %ind a searcha+"e data+ase o% o#er ;B.222 peop"e *hose "i#es are dee&ed

i&portant3 Tr each o% the categories that *e &entioned3 5hat did o$ %ind:

Weaving the #hreads (building theory!

F Gi"&an gi#es $s a #er speci%ic theor o% gender oppression3 Co&pare her theor *ith

*hat Mar> said a+o$t gender oppression3 Ho* are these thiners si&i"ar and di%%erent

on the iss$e o% gender: 5hich do o$ thin is &ore acc$rate: 5h: Ho* do the

di%%erent theories create di%%erent ideas a+o$t ho* to +ring a+o$t gender e$a"it:

F One o% 5e+er's %actors in socia" strati%ication is stat$s3 Race and gender are +oth stat$s

gro$ps3 Co&pare and contrast Gi"&an's and D$ 4ois' theories to 5e+er's theor o% stat$s

and socia" change3 5hat do Gi"&an and D$ 4ois add: Ho* signi%icant are their

additions: ,$sti% o$r ans*er3


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id$T;3entieth Centur.

+ociological Theor.

Cha-ter ": Str$ct$ra" )$nctiona"is&! Ta"cott Parsons and Ro+ert M3 Merton

Cha-ter : Con%"ict Theor! Le*is Coser. Ra"% Dahrendor%. and

Randa"" Co""ins

Cha-ter 1#: Str$ct$res o% Racia" and Gender Ine$a"it! 5i""ia& ,$"i$s 5i"son

and ,anet Sa"t?&an Cha%et?

Cha-ter 11: E>change Theor! George Ho&ans. Peter M3 4"a$. and

Randa"" Co""ins

Cha-ter /;! The Late Modern Person and the Sit$ation! Er#ing Go%%&an.

Haro"d Gar%ine". and R3 S3 Perin+anaaga&

Cha-ter /-! Critica" Theor! ,$rgen Ha+er&as

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Documents

Social Lens - Chapter Gillman e Du Bois (Race)