Social Justice Lenses and Authentic Student Voicesresearch article that critical information could be gleaned from listening to the authentic voices of students by using a social justice

Jose Lalas & Eva Valle

75Volume 19, Fall 2007

Social Justice Lensesand Authentic Student Voices:Enhancing Leadership for Educational Justice

Jose LalasUniversity of Redlands& Eva ValleUniversity of Redlands

Abstract: In addressing the issue of educational inequality and achievement gap, this research article demonstrates that critical implications could be gleaned from listening to the authentic voices of students by using a social justice lens. A social justice perspective in educational leadership is essential in evaluating the impact of race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, poverty, and disability on the educational outcomes of students in urban schools.

Recentstudieshavedocumentedthatstudentsinurbanschoolsfacemanyeducational,social,economic,andculturalchallengesthatareas-sociatedwithrace,ethnicity,andpoverty(Haycock,1998;Haycock,Jerald,andHuang,2001;Singham,2003).Inaddition,itiscommonknowledgenowthatachievementgapisarealitybetweenmainstreamstudentsandminoritystudentsandmanyeffortsareunderwaytostudy,understand,anddismantletheexistingeducationalinequality(Lopez,Magdaleno,&Reis,2006;Barone,2006;Portes,2005).Thereisalsonodisagreementthatweneedtolearnasmuchaswecanaboutthegrowingnumbersof

Educational Leadership and Administration

Social Justice Lenses

76 Educational Leadership and Administration

studentsofcolorandEnglishlanguagelearnerswhoattendurbanschoolssothatwecanincreasetheirlevelofacademicachievement.MillerandEndo(2004)sharedthestoriesofurbanEnglishlanguagelearners(ELL)througharesearchtechniquecallednarrativeinquiry.TheyexplainedtheplethoraofproblemstheyencounterintheU.S.schoolsystemandrecommendedstepsteacherscanfollowtohelpELLstudentsbecomesuccessfulinanewcultureandanewlanguage.WhileLazar(2004)calledfor“culturallysensitiveliteracyteachers”inurbanschools,DillerandMoule’s(2005)recentprimeroncross-culturalteachingaccentuatesthesignificanceofrecognizingculture,understandingculturaldifferencesintheclassroom,anddefiningculturalcompetency. Althoughtherehavebeenwell-documentedandwell-arguedposi-tionsthatknowledgeabouturbanstudents,standard-basedinstructionalperspectives,andothereducationalreformsaredwarfedbythe“powerof urban poverty” (Anyon, 2005) and cannot transform the society’sfundamentalinequities(Aronowitz&Giroux,1985),schoolleaderscancontributeinmanysignificantandpracticalwaysinunpackingandap-proachingthechallengeofdiversityissuesandpavetheroadforsocialjusticetoimprovetheschoolingofurbanstudents.Whileeducationalagenciesandresearch institutionsattemptsophisticatedapproachesinfindingsolutionstothe“achievementgap,”wedemonstrateinthisresearcharticlethatcriticalinformationcouldbegleanedfromlisteningtotheauthenticvoicesofstudentsbyusingasocialjusticelens.Asocialjusticeperspectiveineducationalleadershipisessentialinevaluatingtheimpactofrace,ethnicity,class,gender,sexualorientation,poverty,anddisabilityontheeducationaloutcomesofstudentsinurbanschools(Marshall&Oliva,2006;Moule,2005).

Using Social Justice Lenses

Inthisarticle,weemploythe lensesofcriticalpedagogy (Freire,1974;Shor,1987;Gadotti,1994;Wink,1997),fundsofknowledge(Moll&Gonzalez,2001),politicsofcaringandconnectedness(Valenzuela,1999),resiliency(Trueba,1999),andsocialnetworking(Stanton-Salazar,2001)toanalyzestudents’experiencesandtodepictthesocialconditionsprevalentinurbanschoolsthatdirectlyimpacttheachievementofpoorstudentsandminoritystudents(Freire&Macedo,1987;Giroux,1988;Shor&Pari,1999;Cushman,Kintgen,Kroll&Rose,2001;Fehring&Green,1987;Heffernan,2004;McLaughlin&DeVoogd,2004).Inaddi-tion,weusethecriticalandpoliticalconstructof“inquiryasstance”forunderstandingandanalyzingthepurposes,practices,andpoliciesofschoolanditsimpactonstudents’lifeopportunities(Cochran-Smith,2004).In



takinginquiryasstance,weviewstudents’learningascentral,gatherandanalyzedatafromclassroomandschoolcontexts,valuestudents’culturalandlinguisticresources,andadvocateforstudentsandtheirfamilies(Cochran-Smith,2004).Thefollowingarebriefdefinitionsofthese“socialjusticelenses”:

Funds of Knowledge Itreferstotheinterconnectionsornetworksofthestudents’iden-tities,schools,families,neighborhoods,communities,andoveralllivedexperiences that they have acquired through life. Minority studentshaveavarietyofcommunityandhouseholdexperiencesthatshapethestrengthstheybringintheclassrooms.Therearealwaysnetworksoffriends,relatives,andcommunitycontactsthatfacilitatedifferenttypesofeconomicassistance,laborcooperationandreferral,andsocietaladvance-mentandparticipation.Itisimportantthatschoolleadersacknowledgethese“fundsofknowledge”andusetheseresourcestofacilitatestudentlearningandintellectualadvancement.Thestudents’multipleidenti-ties,socialbackgrounds,andlivedexperiencesaredynamicsourcesof“fundsofknowledge”(Moll&Gonzalez,2001;Moll,1994).

Resiliency Itisaprocessbywhichpoor,diverse,andimmigrantchildrenandtheirfamilieslearntorelyupontheirculture,family,peers,andethniccommunityassourcesofsupport,framesofreference,andshieldsfrommanyof thenegativeattitudes that instilldiscriminationand fostermarginalization.Ithasbeenshownthatstudentswhomaintainastrongself-identitywiththeirsocialandculturalcommunityareabletodowellinschoolinspiteofsocialinequitiesandotheroddsagainstthem(Trueba,1999).Schoolleadersshouldrecognizethenotionofresiliencysothattheymaybeguidedonhowtocomplementandbuildthestrengthofstudents’positivepersonaltraits,self-esteem,anddispositions.

Politics of Caring and Connectedness Valenzuela(1999)highlightedtheimportanceofwhatshereferstoasthe“politicsofcaring,”aconceptthatemphasizestheneedtoestab-lishreciprocalrelationsofrespectandsupportbetweenstudentsandeducators.Sheexplainedthatstudentsandteachersneedtodeveloppositivefeelingsoftrustandnurturemeaningfulrelationshipsinordertoenhancetheirlearningandacademicsuccess.Ithasbeenfoundthatstudentswhohavestrongconnectionswithfriendsandschoolpersonnelincludingtheirteachersandcounselorsare“morelikelytoresistthepullofgangsthatofferanalternativeformofconnectionforalienated



students(Oscher&Fleischman,p.84,2005).Valenzuelaalsoinsistedthatbeforestudentscancare aboutschooltheybelievethattheyhavetobecared for,respected,andvaluedbytheirpeers,teachers,andad-ministrators.Schoolleadersneedtobeconcernedwiththecontentofwhattheirstudentsarelearninganditsrelevancetotheirlivesandtothelargersociety.

Social Networking Stanton-Salazar(2001)recognizedthevaluableroleofparentsandencourageslanguageminoritystudentstodevelopbilingual-biculturalformsofidentitythatcanservetostrengthentheirsocialvalues,bridgecultures,andallowthemtoexcelacademically.Recognizingthatganas(motivation)andpotentialsarenotalwaysenoughtoproducepositiveresultsinahighlycompetitiveeducationalenvironment,Stanton-Sala-zaralsostressedtheneedtonurturelinksorsocialnetworkingwith“institutionalagents“suchasteachers,counselors,andmentorswhocanguidethewayforneweducationalopportunities.Thesupportprovidedbytheseinstitutionalagentscanservetodefendtheirinterests,providethemwithconstructiveadvice,andguidetheiroverallprogress.

Critical Pedagogy Criticalpedagogyisaviewpointconcernedwiththedevelopmentofcriticalconsciousnessthatisbroughtaboutnotthroughintellectualeffortalonebutthrough“praxis”—throughtheauthenticunionofactionandreflection(Freire,1974;1998).Itisnota“lifelessmethodologicalimperative”ofteachingabstractformsofknowledgebutaneducationalprocessinwhichdialogue,vision,andcompassionareattentivetothedemocraticrightsandconditionsofstudents(Giroux,1983;1988).Forexample,itviewsliteracydevelopmentinurbanschoolsmorebroadlyasaprocessthatincludesnotonlylearninghowtodecipherorreadwordsbutalso“readingtheworld.”Thismeansunderstandingthehistorical,sociological,political,andculturalcontextsthatinturninfluencesone’slanguageandliteracydevelopment(Freire&Macedo,1987).Shor(1999)assertedthatcriticalpedagogyinvolvesquestioningreceivedknowledgeandimmediateexperiencewiththegoalsofchallenginginequalityanddevelopinganactivistcitizenry”(p.11).Hedrewtheconnectionbetweenlearningandsocialchangebyemphasizingtheneedtotakea“moralstandonwhatkindofhumanesocietyanddemocraticeducationwewant”(p.23).

Critical Inquiry as Stance Byincorporatingacriticalinquiryasstance,schoolleaderswould



viewitscommunityofteachersandlearnerswithconfidencethattheyhavethecompetencetoexpandtheirreasoning,seekoutmultipleper-spectives,andbecomeactivethinkers(McLaughlin&DeVoogd,2004).Consequently,schooladministrators,teachers,andstudentscouldlearntoquestiontheestablishedknowledge,interrogatemultipleviewpoints,focusonsociopoliticalissues,andtakeactiontopromotesocialjustice(Seely-Flint,Lewison,&VanSluys,2002).Schoolleadersneedtobeat-tentivetostudents’“voicesofpainandvoicesofhope”inurbanschools(Rabow,2004)toincreasesocialawarenessandfocustheirpolicy,cur-riculum,andinstructiontomeettheneedsofurbanstudents.

Methods and Procedures

Ourstudyemployedaqualitativeresearchtechniquecalled“narrativeinquiry.”Thequalitativeprocessinvolvedfivesteps:(1)identificationoftheurbanstudentswhoarewillingtosharetheirexperiences,(2)develop-mentofthewritingpromptthatwoulddrawoutthestudents’experiences,(3)collectionandreadingofthestudents’narratives,(4)descriptionandanalysisofthecontentofthestudentsnarratives,and(5)drawingouteducationalimplicationsemergingfromthedescriptionandanalysis.

Participants in the Study Weasked35post-secondarystudentswhorecentlygraduatedfromurbanhighschoolslocatedinsouthcentralLosAngelestowriteabouttheireducationalexperiences.Allthirty-five(35)studentsattendedur-banpublicschoolsandmanagedtograduatefromhighschool.TheyallattendedanurbanuniversityinLosAngeleswheretheresearchersorauthorsofthisarticletaught.Althoughalltheparticipantsinthestudyattendedauniversitywhenthisstudywasconducted,theirrelativelysuccessfuleducationaljourneyswereneithersmoothnorseamless.Mostof thesestudentswereolder,non-traditionalstudentsofcolorwhoseeducationalexperiencesweretatteredandthwartedbyseriousobstaclesrelatedtotheattributesofpoverty,genderbiasorracialdiscrimination.While thousands of students in similar circumstances overwhelmedbysocialinequitiesinurbanschoolsdroppedoutofschool,ouruniqueparticipantsinthestudydecidedtostayinschoolandfightfortheirrighttoachieveaqualityeducation.Asaresult,theygainedacriticalunderstandingoftheneedforeducationalreformandsocialjustice. Theirpersonalexperiencesandattributesprovideduswithlessonsthatwecanusetoimprovetheschoolingofstudentsinurbanschools.Theselessonscouldservesasinspirationforotherstudentswhonevermadeitto,orthroughcollege.



Theparticipantsinthestudydemonstrated“successstories”thatreflecttheirrichfundsofknowledge,resiliency,andcriticalviewandappreciationofthepositiveinfluencespublicschoolshaveofferedthem.Whileitwillbeequallyimportanttohearthevoicesofthelesssuccessfulurbanstudents,theexaminedexperiencesoftherelativelysuccessfulparticipantsinthecurrentstudyprovidedtheschoolcontexts,personalattributes,andexperiencesthatcouldfacilitatetheirachievementinurbansettingsdespitetheirlowsocioeconomicand/orethnicminoritybackgrounds. Currentliteratureineducationhasdocumentedthe“inequitywithindiversity,inequitywithinassessment,inequitywithinstandards,andinequitywithincurriculum”(Barone,2006;England,2005;Portes,2005;Kozol,2005;Steinberg&Kincheloe,2004;Kozol,1992).Theauthorsofthecurrentstudywereinterestedinexamininghowmuchofthese“ineq-uities”wereperceivedbytheparticipantsthroughouttheireducationalexperiencesandhowtheycopedtoachievetheiruniversityeducation.Theywereaskedtorespondtothiswritingprompt:

Thinkaboutyourexperiencesinyourelementary,secondary,andcollegeschoolingthathaveanimpactonyourunderstandingofthedifferentformsofinequitiesthatexistinoursociety.Writeareflectiveessaybydescribingyourexperiencesandexplaininghowtheinequitiesthatyouperceivedmayhaveormaynothavecontributedtoanyofyoursuccessorfailure.Includeinyoures-sayhowyourunderstandingoftheseinequitiesinfluencesthewayyouunderstandandanalyzetheevents,situations,objects,andideasaroundyou.

Theoverallobjectiveofthispromptistoelicitamongthestudentstheirpersonalexperienceswhichmayincludethemajorevents,people,rolemodels,teachers,subjects,peergroupsandothersocialchallengesthatcharacterizedtheirschoolingfromelementarythroughcollege.Thewritingpromptwasdesignedtoprovidetheparticipantswithanoppor-tunitytointerprettheirownlivedexperiencesusingtheirownauthenticvoices and to reveal their recollections of their schooling experienceswithemphasisontheirperceptionsofthe“inequities”citedinpublishedliterature.Moreimportantly,thepromptwascreatedforparticipantstodescribehowthese“inequities”builttheircharacterandresiliency.Asaqualitativestudy,theauthorsexaminedtheeffectsofurbansocialcontexts,events,objects,andideasintheirsuccessesandfailures.

Data Collection and Data Analysis Allthenarrativeswerereadbythetworesearchersfocusingonthe



participants’personalreflectionsoftheirelementaryschool,secondaryschool,andcollegeexperiences.Participantsnarratedtheirownindi-vidualstoriesandrevealedtheirpersonalinterpretationsoftheirlivedexperiencesandviewof classroomsandschoolsas“socially situatedspaces”(Hawkins,2004).Weanalyzedeach“educationalnarrative”andchronicledthesocialbackground,socialclimateoftheschool,andpathfromelementarytowardshighereducation.Thesepersonaltestimoniesprovidedrichlessons,insights,andimplicationsforschoolteachersandadministrators.Thenarrativesreflectedcommonproblemsconfrontedbystudentsinurbanschoolsanddocumentedhowtheconstraintsofsocialclass,racialtensions,gendersocialization,andimmigrantorgen-erationaldifferencesmaydirectlyandindirectlyshapetheiracademicachievements.

Description and Analysis of Findings from Students’ Stories Thestudents’detailedessayswereread,synthesized,andanalyzedcarefullyforsocialthemesreflectedintheirlifeexperiences.Manyformsofsocialinequitieswereidentifiedandsortedintocategories.Thenarra-tivesprovidedrichsourcesanddescriptionsof“inequities”thattheyhavefacedinurbanschools.Becausetheseinequitiesarecommontermsandoccurrences,theresearcherswereabletoalmostliterallyidentifytheminthenarrativesasthetermswereexplicitlyandattimes,implicitlymentionedbytheparticipantsthemselves.Itissignificanttopointouthere that theresearchersof thecurrentstudycarefullyreadall thenarrativestogetherandalwaysreachedaconsensusinidentifyingandcategorizingtheinequitiesexpressedinthestudents’narratives.Table1 lists the social inequities students mentioned in their narratives.Themaincategorieswereracialprejudice,religiousprejudice,genderprejudice, classdifferences,andcultureand languageprejudice.Theotherissuesmentionedthatdidnotfitthecategoriesidentifiedintheparticipants’narrativesweredrugandalcoholuse,generationaldiffer-ences,andgangparticipation.Havingtheseperceivedsocialinequitiesreflectedintheparticipants’narrativesisanindicationofhowseriousandimportantitisforschoolleaderstolistentotheauthenticvoicesofurbanstudents. Fromthiscollectionofthirty-five(35)narratives,six(6)representa-tivenarrativeswereselected.Thesixnarrativeswereselectedonthebasisoftheirappropriateness,clarity,andrelevanceinrevealingtheirperceptionsofsocialinequitiesinschools.Theresearchersestablishedconsensusinselectingthesixnarrativesthatprovideavarietyofsocialexperiences,perceivedsocial inequities, studentsuggestions throughtheirownwords,andlessonslearned.Thebasicsetofcriteriausedbythe



researchersinselectingthesixnarrativeswerevarietyofissues,studentsuggestions,andlessonslearned.Duplicationofissues,suggestions,andlessonslearnedwerecarefullyavoided.Theselectedsixstudentswereallfirstintheirfamiliestoattendcollege.Theessaysreflecttheauthenticvoicesoftheparticipantsandhighlightthestudents’“perceivedsocialinequities,” “words of wisdom,” and “lessons learned” in their schoolexperiences.Allnamesinthenarrativeshavebeenchangedtoprotecttheconfidentialityoftheparticipants.

Table1.OverallSocialInequitiesPerceivedbyStudentsinUrbanSchools.

RacialPrejudice• interracialdifferences• racialsegregation• racialviolence• stereotyping• bullying

ReligiousPrejudice• religiousintolerance• stereotyping

GenderPrejudice• gendersegregation• unfairtreatment• stereotyping

ClassDifferences• lowincome• stereotyping• doublestandard-male/female

CultureandLanguagePrejudice• languagebarrier• languageaccent• stereotyping• differenttraditions,familyorientations• culturalclash

OtherInequities• drugandalcoholuse• generationaldifferences• gangparticipation



Presentation and Analysis of Findings from 6 Selected Case Studies

(1) Pascual—Navigating Through the Systemwith Determination and Support PascualM.wasborninEcuadorbuteducatedintheUnitedStates.Heisfirstinthefamilytoattendcollegeandhashighhopesofbecomingafamousanthropologist.Hismotherraisedhimasasingleparentandworkedhardtoprovidehimwiththebasicnecessitiesoflifeandwasastrictdisciplinarian. Perceived Social Inequities.HecametotheU.S.speakingonlySpan-ish.Inhisnarrative,henotes“inthosedaystheydidn’thaveteacher’sassistantstohelptheLatinochildrenthatspokeSpanish.”HehadtostumblethroughschooluntilhegainedfluencywithEnglish.PascualacknowledgedthatheadmiredateachernamedMrs.R.,forsheinstilledhimwithconfidenceandinspiredhimtoexcel.“ShewasaLatinaandshewouldtellmymotherthatIwassmartandIwouldbeaprofes-sionalintheworld,someday.”PascualalsoenjoyedthesupportofaLatinacounselor,namedMrs.L.Shehelpedguidehiscurriculum,gavehimadviceaboutcollegeandmoreimportantly,“shecaredabouthowIwasdoinginschool.”Thepersonalattention,guidanceandsupporthereceivedfromthisteacherandcounselorhelpedbuildhisconfidence,self-esteemandensurehissteadyacademicadvancement. AlthoughPascualwasfluentandtookprideinspeakingSpanish,“[he]soonlearnedthatitwaspreferabletospeakEnglishandtheuseofSpanishwasnotreallyappreciated.”Hekeenlyobserved,“thatalltheLatinokidswouldspeakEnglishtolookgoodandrelatetothe‘whitekids’becauseweallwantedtobelikethe‘whitekids’becausetheyhadallthenicematerials.”Hedepictedtheracialclimateoftheschoolastense.Itincludedthepresenceofvarioussocialgroupingssuchasgangmembers, skaters,whitepower,gothic, ravers, rebles (boysandgirlsthatwear605jeans,tightclothesandleatherboots),ballers,(thosewhoworeexpensivebrandnameclotheslikeGuess,Nautica,etc),andthechuntis,(Nortenos—thosewhorecentlycamefromMexicodressinglikecowboys).Pascualneverjoinedanyofthembutinsteadplayedsportsandjoinedthesalsaclub.Intheeleventhgrade,hedescribedhowsomemembersofthewhitepowergroupspray-paintedethnicslursontheschoolwalls.Theythreatenedtobombtheschoolonacertaindaybut,fortunately,itneverhappened. Pascual’s Words of Wisdom and Lessons.Pascualstressedtheneedto“defineandexpandourselves,forexamplelearnmoreaboutpeople,placesandevents.Also,wehavetoconfrontourownracismandbiases,honestly acknowledge these biases and begin to question them, and



nothideracismbutopenlydiscussitasitappearsinourlives.”Pascualexemplifiedthestrongdeterminationtoadvanceacademicallybecause,asheemphasized,he“wanteditbadly.”Heunderscoredmotivationasakeycomponenttosuccess.Hismotheralsoassistedbypushinghimtoexcel.Sheprovidedhimwiththeconfidenceandsecuritytostrivetodohisbestechoingthe“cultureofpossibility”thatPatriciaGandaramentionedinherstudyofeducationalmobility(1995).However,itisthroughhisassocia-tionwithwhatRicardoStanton-Salazar(2001)describedas“institutionalagents”—teachers,counselors,coaches,andmentors—thatenablePascualtosuccessfullynavigatethroughtheeducationalsystem.

(2) Elsa J.—Affirming the Importanceof Culture, Language and Ethnic Pride ElsaJ.wasbornandraisedinSouthCentralLosAngeles,wheresheattendedthelocalpublicschools.AfterafewyearslivinginsouthcentralLosAngeles,herfamilymovedoutofthe“barrio”intoamoremiddleclasscommunityknownasPicoRivera.Thistransitioncausedhertoundergoadramaticrevelationconcerningherculture,language,andethnicidentity.Shewrote:

OnethingthatIwillalwaysrememberabout{el barrio}…ishowitinspiredmetobecomeproudofwhoIamandwhereIcamefrom...Myfatheralwaystoldmybrotherandme…nevertobeembarrassedofnuestra cultura,..wewerenotallowedtospeakEnglishathomeunlessitwasnecessary...Asayoungchild,…IresentedhimbecauseIwantedtospeakEnglish:afterall,Iwasan“American.”

Perceived Social Inequities.Inhernarrative,ElsarevealedhowsheenjoyedherkindergartenteacherMs.B.because“shemadeusfeelwel-comedandwaspatientwithus.”ThekindnessexhibitedbyMsB.,stoodinstarkcontrasttothemean-spiritedbehaviorofMs.G.,herfourthgradeteacher.Ms.G.“mademylifemiserableandruinedthelittleconfidenceIhadasachild.”Since,Elsa’sfirstlanguageisSpanish,Ms.G.ridiculedherbysaying“Can’tyouread,areyoustupid?IrememberprayingtoGodforhernottopickmebecauseIdidnotwanthertomakefunofmeorcallmenamesinfrontoftheclassroom.” Soonthereafter,Elsalostthedesiretolearnandherschoolgradesdroppeddramatically.Herparentsnoticedhernegativeattitudetowardsschoolandtransferredherintoanotherclassroomwhereshecheerfullyasserted,“Myteacherdidnotmentallyabuseme.”Elsaclaimedthatthenegativelearningexperiencelefthermentallyandemotionallyscaredandisoneofthereasonswhysheisstillnot“abletospeakinfrontofagroupofpeople.”



Elsa’s Words of Wisdom and Lessons.Atthisimportantjunctureinhereducation,Elsa’sfatherdirectlyintervened.HeemphasizedtheneedtopreservetheMexicanlanguageandcultureinordertoinstillherwithasenseofprideandself-esteem.Headoptedstrictrules—demandingthatSpanishbethelanguageofthehomeandthemeansofcommunicationamongthefamilyandinsistedthatEnglishbereservedforonlythoseindividualsunabletospeakSpanish.AlthoughElsaandhersiblingsresentedthisimpositionofSpanish,itforcedthemtopracticetheirna-tivelanguage. Elsa eventually realized that cultural assimilation was not theanswertoherproblems.Sheadmittedthat,“IwasdenyingmycultureanditwasfoolishofmenottowanttospeakSpanishifitwaspartofmyidentity.”Moreover,shewasashamedandembarrassedbythere-sentmentanddiscriminationperpetuatedbyherChicana/oclassmates.Theyridiculedand insultedrecentMexican immigrants (whomtheyreferredtoas“wetbacks”)strugglingtolearnEnglish.TheseChicana/os,Elsanoted,“hadel nopal en la frente(themapofMexicoimprintedontheir face)”yethypocriticallyrefusedtospeakSpanish.Theseracialattitudesinspiredhertogainarenewedsenseofethnicprideandtodeclare,“Afterwards,IpromisedmyselfthatIwouldspeakSpanishandcontinuemyMexicantraditionsandwouldnotdenymi gente.” Elsa’sgreatculturalawakeninginspiredhertoenrollinChicana/oStudiesclassesattheuniversityandbolsteredheracademiccapabilityanddiffusedthehurtandshamecausedbyMrs.G.’snegativecommentsduringherearlyyearsofelementaryschool.Insteadofgivinguphopesheadvisesthatweuniteandadvocateforchange.Shewrote:

IjusthopethatnootherchildrenhavetoexperiencethehumiliationsthatIfacedinMs.G.’sclassroom.But,inordertostopthesetypesofthingsfromhappening,weasasocietyandasparentshavetocometogetherandchangesomeofthebadthingsinourschoolsystem.Weneedtouniteandbeourchildren’svoices.

(3) Jonathan—Fighting Racial Segregation and Appropriating His Own Ethnic Identity JonathanH.beganhiseducationinaninnercityschooldistrictinLongBeach.Attheageofsix,Jonathan’sfatherwasshotintheheadanddied.Thistragiceventcausedhisfamilytobe“thrownintoawhirlwindofconfusionandinstability.”Hisimmigrantmotherimmediatelyaban-donedtheU.S.anddecidedtotakeherchildrenbacktoherhomelandofTrinidadandTobago.HisfamilyeventuallyreturnedtotheUnitedStates,whereJonathanwasbussedtoamiddleclassschoolandtrackedintoalowreadinggroup.Hequicklynoticedhisabilitygroupwasoften



neglectedandexcludedfromthesimpleprivilegesofferedtothehighabilitygroup.Heexplainedthathelearnednothingwhenheattendedhisneighborhoodelementaryschoolsituatedinamajority“black”area.Heclaimedthattheteacherallowedthechildrentosimply“playaroundintheclass.”ThislackofmotivationcausedJonathantofeel“confused,badandhopeless.” Perceived Social Inequities.Toimprovethequalityofhiseducation,Jonathan’smotherenrolledhiminamagnetschoollocatedinaveryaffluent,“White”neighborhood.Jonathanexplainedthat“despitethehugebusingeffortforinnercitystudentswewerestillclandestinelysegregated from ourWhite counterparts. Even lunch was indirectlysegregated.”TheprivilegesofWhitestudentsthatheobservedcausedJonathantodesiretobe“justliketheWhitekids”andheexplains:

IremembergoingthroughastagewhereIlistenedtorockmusic,beggedmymomforapaperbag lunchandOceanPacific (surferclothes). Iwantedtoski,haveblondstraighthair,andaskateboard.IwantedtobejustliketheWhitekids.AlthoughIwantedto,IwasnevergoodenoughtohangoutwiththeWhitekids.ThroughoutJuniorHighmostofmyfriendswereChicana/os/Latina/osorCambodian.IwastotallydisconnectfromotherBlackpeople.

Thistypeofculturaldenialandself-hatewasperpetuatedthrough-outhismiddleandhighschoolyears.Regardless,ofhisteachers’highexpectations,Jonathanwasunabletofocushisattentiononhisstudiesduetotheemotionaldistresshewasunder.Hebegantoactout,becamedisobedient,gotintofights,andtheadministrationrespondedbyimpos-ingvarioustypesofdisciplinaryaction.Jonathannotedthatmostofthe“affluent”andpredominantly“White”schoolsheattended,sharedsimilarpatternsofracialsegregationbut,exhibiteddifferentdegreesofpervasivenessasheexplains:

Eventhefootballteamwassegregatedwhenwedividedintooursocialgroups.TherewasasmallmixedgroupofplayersthatIsocializedwith.Theotherssocializedwiththeirrespectiveracialgroups…AtMountainSpringtherewasalwaysracialtension.BlackandLatinogangswerefightingforturfandWhitesweregenerallydisgruntledbecauseoftheinnercityproblemsminoritiesbroughtwiththem.

Jonathan’s Words of Wisdom and Lessons.Aftergraduatingfromhighschool,Jonathanenrolled ina fewcoursesata localcommunitycollege.However, he soon discovered he lacked the organization and necessary“criticalthinkingskills”toadvancehiseducation.Headmitted,“Ifailedallmyclassesthatyearanddroppedout.”Inreflectinguponhispublicschooldifficulties,Jonathanholdstheschoolresponsibleforhewas“encouragedto



excelinsportswhileIremainedamediocrestudent.”Heassertedthat“col-legeprepcoursesdidnothing,butpreparemeforfailure.”Hisparentscouldnothelphimbecause“theywereeitherbusyordidnotknowhowtodotheworkthemselves”andhisteachers“didnotcareaboutwhatthestudentslearned.” Jonathanblamedhisandhisfriends’shattereddreamsandmissedopportunitiesonthelackofinstitutionalsupportanddeficientmethodsofteachingprevalentthroughoutthepublicschoolsystem.Heelaboratedupontheinequitiesofthesystemandexplainsthat:

Weweremoldedtotakeourplaceatthe...bottomofthepyramid…[and]wearebeingpreparedtoworkinservice,trade,andlow-levelmanage-mentpositions.Iamstilltryingtoheavethestagnatingpublicschooldoctrine(Eurocentricculturalmodel)andreplaceitwithacriticalandmulticulturalparadigm.

Jonathanlamentedthelackofethnicrolemodelsandrecallsthat“mostoftheprofessionalstaffintheschoolsIattendedwherefemaleandWhite.”The lackof critical inquiryapparent inhis coursesalsofrustratedhim.Hedecried“thecurriculumgiventousleftmewithasensethatnothingwaswrongwiththeworldandallproblemsweresolved.Ididnotrealizethatthereweredissentingviewstowhatwewerelearning.” FormanyyearsJonathandeniedhisownheritageanddesiredtobe“justliketheWhitekids”butknewhewouldneverbe“goodenough”tobe fullyacceptedbythem.Hewrote:“Iwantedtoski,haveblondstraighthair,andaskateboard.IwantedtobejustliketheWhitekids.”This“Whiteprivilege”instilledhimwithself-hatredthatcausedhimtoremaindistantfromotherAfricanAmericans.AlthoughJonathanhasgraduatedfromtheUniversityandmaintainsadiversecircleoffriends,hehasnotyetfullycometotermswithsomeofthepastinequitiesandthepainfulexperiencesheendured.Jonathan’snarrativeilluminateshisstruggleagainstracialsegregationandtheculturalalienationthatstudents of color experience within the Eurocentric culture in mosturbanschools.

(4) Michael H.—Political Activismas a Viable Alternative to Poverty and Crime MichaelH.isanAngloAmericanwhodepictshisearlyeducationalexperienceas“chaotic,”causinghimtomoveover30times.Sometimeshe moved down the block; other times all the way across town. Hisfamily’slifewasnotthemostwholesome.Hisfatherservedtimeinjailforseveraldrinkinganddrivingcitationswhilehismotherspentmostof



hertimeworkingtosupportthefamily,leavingMichaelandhisbrotherunsupervised.AsMichaelexplained,“Wewerealwaysdoingsomethingthatmightbeconstruedasillegal.”Atfirst,theydidsimplethingslikebreakingintoschoollockers,butsoonbegantobreakintolocalschools,houses,andcars.Thislandedhisbrotherintoprisonwherehespentmostofhishighschoolyearsandearlytwenties.Hisbrother’smember-shipinadeadlyurbangang,however,earnedMichaeltherespectandprotectionheneededatschoolandonthestreets. Perceived Social Inequities.Duringhiselementaryeducation,Michaelenrolledinsixdifferentschools.Thismadeitdifficultforhimtounder-standthesubjectmatterorthegoalsofinstruction.Hewasneveragoodstudentnotearningmorethana“D+”averageandconsideredhimselfluckytohavegraduatedfromhighschool.Hissinglemom’slonghoursatworkforcedhimtoraisehimself.Heplayedwiththeotherpoorandethnicallymixedkidslivinginthesamesmallmodestapartments.Inclassherarelypaidattentionandwasoftenplacedindetention.Ratherthandohisassignedhomework,heplayedoutdoorsuntilhisparentreturnedhomefromaharddayofwork. DuringmiddleschoolhelivedinWhittierandLaHabra,orwhatheclaimsthelocalsreferredtoas“GuadaLaHabra”duetothelargenumberofLatina/orecentimmigrantsresidinginthisarea.Michaeldescribesthisasatimeandplacewherehesimply“didn’tlikeanybody.”Despitethislevelofsocialdiscomfort,MichaeldistinctlyrecalledhowrichkidswerebussedinfromaffluentneighborhoodsinanattempttointegrateWhittierschools.Henotedhowdifferentthesekidswerefromtherestofthemandthat“theyassociatedonlywiththemselves.Ifyouwereluckyenoughtoassociatewiththem,youcouldnothavefriendsfromyouown[local]neighborhood.” MichaeldidmanagetoestablishfriendshipsamongsomeoftheseeliteWhitestudents.Inordertospendmoretimehangingoutatthehomesoftheserichkids,hesoonstartedskippingclasses.Hislackofeconomicprosperity,however,madethewealthyWhiteparentsapprehensiveandtheyeventuallyprohibitedhimfrominteractingwiththeirchildren. Upongraduationfromhighschool,Michaelclaimedhe“hadnofu-ture”anddepictedhimselfas“aloneandhopeless”withoutthesupportofhispeergroup.Confusedandalienatedhebeganexperimentingwithdrugs.Hisfamilysituationhadbecomeevenmorechaoticandofferedhimlittlesupport.Michaelexplainshowisbrotherhadbecome“morepsychoticafterbeingshotbyarivalgang.”Michael‘smotherkickedhimoutofherhouse,forcinghimtomove-inwithhisstep-fatherwhohadsincebecomeaddictedtoheroin.Livinginthisenvironment,Michaelalsobegantoget“hassledbythecops”andstartedtopursuethesame



illicitlifestyleadaptedbyhisbrotherandfather.Atthiscriticaljunctureinhislife,anaffluenthighschoolfriendconvincedMichaeltoenrollinatleastonecourseatthelocalcommunitycollege.Hewrotethat:

…Iwasaddictedtoanideal,avisionabouthowtheworldshouldbe.Ibegantounderstandacriticallyimportantconcept:Educationisthekeytoliberation.IunderstoodthattheonlywayIcouldimprovemyconditionswasthrougheducation.ThemoreIknow,thelesshelplessIamaboutmysurroundings.”

Michael’s Words of Wisdom and Lessons.Michaelcontinuedtoenrollinpoliticalsciencecoursesandbecameabsorbedinpoliticalideas.Hewasabletoregaincontrolofhislifeandpursuedacareerthatprovidedhimaclearsenseofpurposeandcommitmenttosocialchange.Whenaskedhowandwhathemightchangeaboutthepresenteducationalsystem,Michaelinsistedthatthefirstandmostbasicstepwastointro-duceracial/ethnicdiversityinhistorycoursesandtextbooksthroughoutthecurriculum.Hebelievedschoolsshouldpaymoreattentiontothecontributionsandlegacyofpeopleofcolor,womenandpoorpeoplebe-cause“fortoolongthesecommunitieshavebeensteppedonandgivenaforcedhopelessness...”Hesharedhisowncriticalreflectionsconcerningtheorganizationofschooling:

…ifchildrenarecategorized,labeled,anddivided,itautomaticallyplacesavalueonthosechildrenandultimatelytheirfuture.Manychildren,likemyself,cometotheeducationalsystembruisedandbattered,ifweprovidethesechildrenwithaneducationalsystemthatdoesnotprovideanyknowledgeandanyrealpotentialfutureforthem.Thentheyarelost…Ultimately, Iwould liketoseethiswholesystemreworkedsothatchildrenwouldn’thavetogothroughthismazeofprivileged/non-privileged,sothattheirfuturewouldn’tbebasedonthegender,race,orclassbackground.

Michael’s intellectual development embodied Freire’s notion ofconscientization.Hisacquisitionofknowledgeledtoahigherlevelofself-awarenessandinspiredhimtoimplementpoliticalaction.Hisup-bringingreflectedsomeofwhatStanton-Salazar(2001)depictedasamixtureof“hopeanddespair.”Hisraceaffordedhimacertainamountofprivilegeandmembershipwithinthedominantculture,yethiswork-ingclassbackgroundplaceddefinite limitationsonhisopportunitiesforsuccessandhappiness.Althoughheinitiallyrejectedschooling,heeventuallylearnedhowtoembraceeducationasasourceofknowledge,power,andliberation.



(5) Tamara J.—Motherhood Provides Heran Inspiration to Learn TamaraJ.isatallandleanAfricanAmericanwomanwhoinheryoungerdayswas“veryathletic,participating in sprints, relaysandmarathonsaswellasthelongandhighjump.”ShewasborninIndi-anawhereshespentmostofherearlyelementaryschoolyears.Sheattendedalocalpublicelementaryschoolwhere,exceptforoneIndiangirl,allthestudentswhoattendedwereBlack.Shewrotethat“allofuschildrenwereinawebecausewe’dneverseenarealliveIndianpersonbefore.Everythingthatwe’dheardorseenofIndianswasintextbooksandintheirnativeregalia.WhenWhitestudentswerebusedintoherneighborhoodschool,Tamarawasshockedbecause“forthefirsttimeWhitepeopleattendedourschool.” Perceived Social Inequities.Tamaraeventuallymoved fromIndi-anatoSouthCentralLosAngelesandattendedalargeraciallymixedurbanpublicschoolwithover2,000students.ShedepictedtheracialcompositionasmostlyBlacksandLatinoswithasprinklingofWhitesandAsians.Sheexplained,“ItwasherethatIexperiencedmyfirstsocialinteractionswithHispanics.Infact,IhadneverevenseenaHispanicuntilImovedtoCaliforniaandIliterallyhadtoasksomeoneonedaywherehewasfrom.”Shebegantoexperienceracialtensionsonadailybasis.Shebecamefamiliarwithstudents“whodefiantlyidentifiedthem-selvesasgangmembers,andwherethesocioeconomicbackgroundoftheresidentsrangefrompovertylevel,workingclassandtheverylowendofthemiddleclass.” WhenTamarabecamepregnantasateenager,shedescribeditasa“bitter-sweettimeofmylifebecausewhileIwasdoingthingsthatIenjoyed,IhadtogiveupbasketballbecauseIbecamepregnant.IamhappythatIdidnothavetodropoutofschoolassomanyothershavebecausethe fatherandIhadaverysupportive family.” Instead,sheenrolledinanacademicallydemandingmagnethighschoolwhereshemetateacherwhoadvisedhernotonlyaboutacademicsbutalsoabouthowtoadvanceinlifeasayoungmotherwithhighaspirations. Tamara’s Words of Wisdom and Lessons.Aftergraduation,TamaradecidedtoattendaLosAngelescommunitycollege.Oneofthemajorobstaclessheencounteredwasthelackofinstitutionalsupportandanymeaningfulacademicadvice.Shenotedthat“noneofthecounselorsdidanycounselinginyourfavor...thereIlearnedIhadtowantsuccessformyself,notdependoneveryoneelseexpectingitorwantingitforme,ifsuccessformewastrulygoingtohappen.”ThiscommitmentreflectswhatRicardoStanton-Salazar(2001)hasconceptualizedas“unsponsoredself-reliance.”Tamaranotonlygraduatedfromthecommunitycollege



butalsoearnedBachelor’sandMaster’sdegreesfromauniversity.Sheexplainedhowadversityhelpedshapehercharacter:

Itrulyappreciateeachandeveryoneofmyacademicmomentsofex-posurebecausethosemomentshelpedtoshapethepersonIamtoday.Althoughparentsareourfirstteachers,schooliswherewespendthemajorityofourwakinghours.Schooliswheremyskillsofdiscipline,compassion,timemanagement,goalsetting,socialization,andaccep-tance of differences and similarities were enhanced, developed andfine-tuned.

(6) Parla K.—Struggling to BalanceCultural Traditions and Gender Equality ParlaK.wasbornandraisedinCalifornia,butherparentsfoughtdiligentlytopreservetheirIndianculture.Theyrequiredtheirchildrentodress inIndianclothes,demandedthat theyspeaktheirnativelanguageathome,andforcedthemtogiveprioritytotheneedsanddesiresoftheirfamilyandminimizedtheimportanceoftheirfriends.Parlaunderscored this cultural conflict,“I am Indian throughmybloodandAmericanthroughmyupbringing.”However,herparentsresentedAmericaforitsbrokenpromisesofeconomicprosperityandthesocialinequalitythattheyexperienced.Theyhadtoworkthelandandpickfruitintheburningsunforlowwagesinordertosupporttheirfamily.Sheexplainedthesenseofrejectionexperiencedbyherparents:

Americawasn’ttoofriendlytothembecausetheydidn’tlooklikeotherAmericans, theydidn’tdress like them, theydidn’t speak thesamelanguageasAmericans,andtheydidn’tknowthelifestylesorman-nerismsofAmericans.

Perceived Social Inequities.Parlaexplainedthatadjustmenttoschoolwasdifficult.Shewrote:

Allofthegirlsinmyclass,whoweremostlyWhite,alwaysworeprettydresses,differenthairstyles,newsandalsandevennailpolish.Iwasneverallowedtodothat.BecauseIdidn’tlookliketherestofthegirlsinmyclass,Ihadahardtimemakingfriendsthroughoutgradeschool.

Tomakematterworseherparentsinstilledadoublestandard—oneformalesandanotherforfemales.Theyallowedherolderbrothertoenjoyallthefreedomandindependencehedesiredbecause,afterall,hewas“aman”:

Culturally, Indian parents have always praised boys so much morethangirlsandhavethesesetgenderinequalitiesthatit’sextremelydisgustingtoeventhinkaboutit.Soknowingthatmybrotherhadall



thefreedomhewantedinhighschool,andInone,createdaresentmentinmetowardstheIndiancultureandmyparents.

Inaddition,Parla’sparentsexpectedhertoreturntoIndiaandmarryapersontheyhadselected.ThisglaringgenderinequitycausedahighlevelofmentalandemotionalstressforParla.Ultimately,shedecidedtogainmorecontroloverherlifeanddemonstratetoherparentsthatshewasn’tlosingher“Indian-nessbyaddingsome“American-ness”intoherwayoflife. Parlarefusedtoacceptthistraditionalroleofwomen.Shemovedawayfromherfamilytoattendauniversitywhereshejoinedseveralcampusorganizations,includinganIndianclubandaGreeksorority.Theseclubsinstilledherwithastrongersenseofidentityandtheop-portunitytoreconcilebothherIndiancultureandAmericanupbringing.RatherthantheconstantclashofculturesthatfueledherdisdainforIndiantraditions,shegainedarenewedsenseofethnicprideandcul-turalappreciationforherethnicheritage.“IamfinallyproudtoclaimmyIndianheritageandatthesametimeknowtheAmericanculture.” Parla’s Words of Wisdom and Lessons.Parlaacknowledgedthat,“Iwasjustassolidinmywaysasmyparentswereintheirs.”However,timeanddistance enabledher to critically reflectuponher culturalheritageandprovidedherwithadifferentorientation. Parla’sstruggletodefendherownvoiceandindependenceinlifemadeherastrongerperson.Shegainedanappreciationforwhatitmeanstobeamulticulturalperson.Sheplanstobecomeateacherandshareherunderstandingofculturaldiversitywithotherstudentsofcolorwhomayfacelanguagebarriers,culturalmiscommunication,genderbias,orgen-erationalgaps.ItistimeasParlastated,“toteachstudentsthetruth.”

Realistically,ourworldissodiverseandtolimitittoonlyonecultureisprovidingmygenerationandtheupcominggenerationsafalserealityandaneducationthatismeaningless.Iwantstudentslikeme,firstorsecondgeneration,toknowthatthey’renotaloneinthisfight,andifweallworktogetherwecanpreservetheheritageoftheirfamilyaswellaslearnthecultureofAmerican(whateveritmightbe)….Iwanttoteachstudents…thetruth,thatwearereallyaheterogeneoussociety,andit’stheirculturalbackgroundsthatmakeusallauniquemix.

Itisthis“uniquemix”ofculturalbackgroundsthatschoolsneedtoincorporateintotheircoursecurriculum.Afterall,asParlasoclearlydemonstrated,wearelivinginamorediverseworldthatrequiresanewvisionandapproachtowardslivingandlearning.Table2providesthesummaryoffindingsrelatedtoperceivedinequitiesandlessonslearnedfromstudents’urbanschoolexperiences.Italsoincludessomeselected



Table2.Perceived InequitiesandLessonsLearned fromSixRepresentativeUrbanStudents.

Students PerceivedInequities QuotesofWisdom LessonsLearned

Pascual uSpanishlanguage “Confrontourown Questionand bias racism” discussourbiases. u Lackofinstructional “ShewasaLatina Seekhelpbyusing helpinSpanish andshewouldtell institutional u Racialprejudice mymotherthatI agents—teachers, u Violenceatschool wassmartandI counselors,and u Poverty wouldbea coaches. professionalinthe world,someday.”

Elsa u Spanishlanguage “Weneedtounite Speakoutagainst bias andbeour injustices. u Lowteacher children’svoices.” Throughparental expectation “Afterwards, influence,use u Humiliationfrom promisedmyself ofSpanishat teacher thatIwouldspeak homestrengthens u Poverty Spanishand self-conceptand continuemyMexican identity. traditionsandwould notdenymi gente.”

Jonathan u Fatherwasvictim “Replacethe Buildselfconcept ofviolence educationalsystem toavoidself-hatred u Trackinglow withacritical anddisconnection abilitystudents andmulticultural fromone’scultural u Lowteacher paradigm.” heritage. expectation “Iwantedtoski, Honoring u Racialsegregation haveblondstraight differences— u Racialviolence/ hair,anda notbeingWhite— tension skateboard.I buildingties u Disconnectionfrom wantedtobejust acrosscultures hisBlackidentity liketheWhite andlearninglevels. u Poverty kids.”

Michael u Familydisconnection “Educationisthe Infusediversity u Lowteacher keytoliberation.” andethniccontent expectations “Ultimately,Iwould intohistoryand u Lackofparental liketoseethewhole othercourses. support systemreworked Treatallchildren u Racialsegregationsothatchildren equally. andbias wouldn’thaveto u Drugs gothroughthis u Gangaffiliation mazeofprivileged/ u Poverty nonprivileged.”



quotesor“wordsofwisdom”expressedbythesixrepresentativeurbanstudents.Whilebroadarraysofthemeswereidentifiedinthe35narra-tives,theselectedsix(6)narrativesrepresentedaninterestingcontrastandvarietyintermsofthesocialinequities,students’wordsofwisdom,andlessonslearned. InTable2,forexample,PascualM.underscoredtheimportanceofnurturingrobustsupportnetworksandestablishingcloseandcaringrelationshipswith teachers, counselors,andcoaches.ElsaJ.’snarra-tivedepictedthetremendousinfluenceoflanguage,cultureandethnicidentityinthelearningprocessaswellasnurturingstrongself-esteem.JonathanH.openlyandcandidlydiscussedtheimpactofracismanddiscriminationandadvocatestheneedtocreateamorediverse,inclusive,and hospitable learning environment where all students’ knowledgeandlivedexperiencesareequallyaccepted.MichaelHendersonvividly

Table2.PerceivedInequitiesandLessonsLearnedfromSixRepresenta-tiveUrbanStudents.(Continued)

Students PerceivedInequities QuotesofWisdom LessonsLearned

Tamara u RacialSegregation “Itrulyappreciate Adversitybuilds u Racialviolence eachandeveryone strength. andtension ofmyacademic Self-relianceto u Teenagepregnancy momentsof achievesuccess. u Poverty exposurebecause thosemoments helpedtoshapethe personIamtoday.” “IlearnedIhadto wantsuccessfor myself,notdepend oneveryoneelse expectingitor wantingitforme, ifsuccessformewas trulygoingtohappen.”

Parla u Genderbias “Iamfinallyproud Appreciation u Racialbias toclaimmyIndian forbeinga u Culturalconflict heritageandatthe multicultural sametimeknowthe person. Americanculture.” Balancing “Iwanttoteach cultural students…thetruth, traditions thatwearereallya andgender heterogeneoussociety.” equality.



describedthe impactofclassbackgroundandhoweconomicscarcitycoupled with negative familial influences can encourage students toengageingangs,drugs,andcrime.However,hispoliticalactivismandpositivepeerinfluenceinspiredhimtoredirecthislifetowardseduca-tion.TamaraJ.becameanAfricanAmericanteenmombutratherthansuccumbtodefeatanddrop-outofschool,sheutilizedthissituationasa“wakeupcall”thatinspiredhertolearnandexcel.ParlaK.strugglednotonlytobalanceherIndianheritageandherAmericanupbringingbutalsotofightforgenderequalityandherrightasanIndianwomantosecureacollegeeducation.

Implications for Teaching and Leading for Educational Justice

There were several important lessons gained from the personalstrugglesandeducationaljourneysreflectedinstudentnarrativesthatwereexaminedusingthesocialjusticelenses:theroleoffundsofknowl-edge,resiliency,connectednessandcaring,socialnetworking,criticalpedagogy,andinquiryasstance.Theuseoftheselensesinunderstandingandexaminingthestudents’narrativesmadethecurrentstudyunique.Ratherthannegatetheirsocialbackgroundanddiverselivedexperi-ences,theylearnedtoembracethemaspowerful“funds of knowledge”thathelpeddirectthemthroughthetrialsandtribulationstheywereforcedtoendure.Theyexhibitedahighsenseofresiliency duetothesourcesofsupportprovidedbytheirculture,familypeersandethniccommunity.Thesocial networksandstrongconnectionstheynurturedwiththeirteachers,counselorsandfellowstudentsshieldedthemfromviolenceand crimeoftenprevalentwithin their ethnic communities.Utilizinginquiry as a stance,theparticipantswereabletoreflectandre-examinetheirpasteducationalhistoriesandidentifypatternsofso-cialinequities.Usingtheviewpointofcritical pedagogy,theresearchersandtheparticipantswereabletounderstandthesocial,political,andculturalcontextsthatinfluencetheirpersonaldevelopment. Whattheparticipantsinthestudysharedwerethevaluablelessonstheyhaveacquiredthroughyearsofstruggleandtheirnarrativescanhelppavethepathtowardsocialandeducationaljusticeforotherstofollow.Theirauthenticvoicesofferedimplicationsforimplementingasocialandeducationaljusticeperspectiveintheclassroomandinleadingschoolsthroughopenconversation,articulationoftherichnessofdiversity,useofinequitiesastopicsforsocialandmulticulturalawareness,emphasisonpositivebehaviorandcaringconnection,anduseofcriticalliteracy.Basedonthefindingsofthisstudyweofferthefollowingrecommendations:

(1) Provide opportunities for students to discuss their experiences with



social inequities including racism and discrimination they perceive in school.Thenarrativesbroughttheexperiencesandemotionsoftheurbanstudentstolifebyportrayingtheirneighborhoods,homelife,varioustypesofparentalsupportorinvolvement,theirsocialgroups,andtheirparticipationwithinschool-sponsoredactivities.Throughtheseessays,thestudentsprojectednotonlytheirfrustrationsbutalsotheirtriumphsandproudlyacknowledgedthoseteachers,counselors,ormentorswhomadeadifferenceintheirlives.Studentssharedthechallengestheyconfrontedalongsidethecopingstrategiestheydevisedtohelpensuretheiracademicprogress.Althoughmostunderscoredtheneedtochangetheeducationalsystem,theydidnotknowhowtoinitiateinstitutionalreforms.Therefore,studentsneedtohaveopportunitiestospeakopenlyabouttheirownexperienceswiththevarietyofinequitiesthattheyper-ceiveinschools.Oneofthewaysforstudentstohavetheopportunitytovoicetheiropinionsisthroughteacher-drivenclassroominstructionalstrategies.Theteachercanusetheperceivedsocialinequitiesastopicssuchasracialprejudiceandgenderprejudiceorclassdifferences,forexample,forthematiclanguageartsandsocialstudiesunits.Whetheritisdoneasawholeclassactivityorindividualactivity,readingfictionandnon-fictionbookswithcarefullychosensocialjusticethemescouldstimulatethinkingandconversationaboutthesetopics.

(2) Students also need to become aware of the different ways in which racism interacts with other forms of inequities based on class, gender, language, and religious differences that can impede their self-esteem and academic achievement.Theycanbemadeawareoftheseissuesthroughdistrict-widediversityprogramsforteachers,staff,andstudents,aswellasthroughcarefullyplannedclassroomreading,writing,andorallan-guagedevelopmentactivitiesbytheteacher.AbookStirring Up Justice: Writing and Reading to Change the WorldwrittenbyJessicaSinger,forexample,hasmanysuggestionsforteachersonhowtocreatelearningenvironmentsthathonordiversityandencouragesocialjusticeactivism.Unfortunately,thestandards-basedteachingpracticesinmanystatesincludingCaliforniaarelackingin“stirringupjustice”curriculumandinstruction.

(3) Articulate with the students the richness of the diversity they bring in the classroom.Byexpressingtheir“voicesofpainandvoicesofhope”(Rabow,2004)throughwriting,weprovidetheopportunityforstudentstobreaktheir“silence”andtoconstructtheirowninterpretationsofknowl-edge,grapplewithissuesofpower,andestablishtheirethnicidentities.These narratives demonstrated how students directly experience thepainofracism,theabuseofsexism,andotherformsofinequitiesthat



arewoventhroughoutsocialinstitutionsandembeddedwithintheirownindividualconsciousness.However,thenarrativesalsorevealedthatstu-dentshavelivedexperiencesofdiversesocialnetworksinthecommunityandtheirfamilyhouseholdsneverfunctioninisolation.Itisimportantthatschoolleadersincludingteachersandadministratorsacknowledgetherichculturalbackgroundsandpracticesandhowtousethevarious“fundsofknowledge”tourbanstudents’advantage.

(4) Use the perceived social inequities as topics for social and multi-cultural awareness.Whilethenarrativesimplythatadversitycanbuildstrength,theyalsosuggestthatteachersneedtounderstandthischallengeinordertoprovidestudentstheassistanceandresourcesthatcanhelpthemadvanceintheirschooling.Thecriticalsocialissuesandinequitiescouldserveasdialoguetopicsforreflectivediscussiontoraisethestudents’levelsofsociopoliticalconsciousnessaswellastheirpersonal,commu-nity,andglobalawarenessforpotentialtransformationandsocialaction(Banks,2002;1996;Lalas,1991).Schoolleadersincludingpreserviceandinserviceteachersneedtoacknowledgethevalueofmulticulturalismanditsinfluenceindevelopingthestudents’positiveattitudestowarddifferentethnic,cultural,andreligiousgroups.Awarenessofone’sculturalidentityandthepositiveinfluencefundsofknowledgehaveonurbanstudentsdevelopthestudents’confidenceintheirabilitytosucceedacademicallyandsocially.

(5) Use critical literacy in expanding students’ responses.Criticalthinkingineducationmeansthatthecriticalpersonhasthecapacityanddesiretoseekreasons,truth,andevidence.Tobecriticalbasicallymeanstobemorediscerning inrecognizing faultyarguments,hastygeneralizations,assertionslackingevidence,truthclaimsbasedonun-reliableauthority,andambiguousorobscureconcepts.Inthelanguageofcriticalpedagogy,thecriticalpersonisonewhoisempoweredtoseekjusticeandemancipationfromoppressiveconditions.Criticalliteracyisapowerfulapproachinworkingwithallstudents,includingurbanstudentsandsecond language learners,becauseof theprime impor-tanceitgivestosocialengagement,authenticity,respectfordiversityinworldviews,andreflection.Schoolleadersincludingadministratorsandpreserviceandinserviceteachersneedtolearntheperspectiveofviewingcriticalliteracyasanaturalpartoflearninganduseteachingstrategiesthatfostercriticalliteracysuchasjuxtapositioning,theme-basedfocusgroups,problem-posing,andcreatingalternativetextsacrosscontentareas(McLaughlin&DeVoogd,2004).



Conclusion

Thedominantthemesexpressedinthestudents’educationalnar-rativesdemonstratethehistorical,social,political,economic,andcul-turalcontextsthatinfluencetheirpersonaldevelopmentandschoolingexperiences.Racialviolence,stereotyping,bullying,racialsegregation,poverty,languagebarrier,gangparticipation,anddrugandalcoholusearespecificcommonexamplesofsocialinequitiesthattheparticipantsinthestudydiscussed.Thismeansthatschoolleadersandteachersmustexertconcertedeffortstostudythehistorical,social,political,economic,andculturalconditionsthatpavethewayfortheexistenceofinequitiesand“savageinequalities”inmanyurbanschools. Thestudentnarrativesalsosuggestthattheschoolcultureandlearn-ingenvironmentsarenotconducivefortheeducationofethnicminorities,especiallytheEnglishlanguagelearners(ELL).RumbergerandGandara(2004),forexample,explainedthatthe“seveninequitableconditions”thatexistinCaliforniaaffectingtheopportunitiesoftheELLtolearnincludeinequitableaccesstotrainedteachers,inadequateprofessionaldevelopmentforteachers,inequitableaccesstoappropriateassessment,inadequateinstructionaltime,inequitableaccesstoinstructionalmate-rials,inequitableaccesstoadequatefacilities,andintensesegregationinschoolsandclassrooms.Theseinequitableconditionsandperceivedsocialinequitiesbythestudentsinthestudymustserveas“redflags”forschooladministratorstoenhancetheirunderstandingofinner-cityschoolcontextsandtoleadforsocialandeducationaljustice. Leadingforeducationalandsocial justice,accordingtoCochran-Smith(2004),mayincludeculturallyresponsiveteaching,makingcontentcomprehensible and accessible, effective and purposeful questioning,useofdifferentformsofassessmenttoinforminstruction,supportforstudents,collaborationwithparents,communitymembers,andotherprofessionals,knowinghowtointerpretdata,maintaininghighacademicstandards,beingateacher-researcher,andstrongadvocacyforequityanddemocracy. Asidefromdemocraticcitizenshipandafocusondemocracy,oth-erssuggestthatteachingand leading forsocial justicealso includes“anti-oppressioneducation”whichhighlightsdiversityinschoolsandproposesdifferentwaysofconfrontingtheinequitiesfacedbystudentsinurbanmulticulturalenvironments (Brandes&Kelly,2004).Manyclassroompractitionershavealsobegundesigningandimplementinginstructionthatreflectssocialjusticeinstructionandcriticalteachingthroughstudents’personalstories,useofliterature,criticalliteracyascomprehension(McLaughlin&DeVoogd,2004),“actingforjustice”les-



sons(Christensen,2001),thematicunits(Beale,2004),servicelearning(Lucas, 2005), cooperative learning (Sapon-Shevin, 2004), and otherlearningstrategiesacrossdifferences(Shor&Pari,1999). Inconclusion,programsdevelopingschoolleadersshouldemphasizeanadvocacyforsocialandeducationaljusticeforallstudents,positivebehavior,andeffectivelearningthroughcarefulattentiontotheneedsofitsurbanstudents.Respectingthediversityofstudentvoicesintheclassroomshouldbeahighpriorityforschoolleadersincludingadmin-istratorsandpre-serviceandin-serviceteachers.Educationalleader-ship,educationalfoundation,andteachingmethodscoursesaswellasstaffdevelopmentworkshopsforadministratorsandteachersshouldintegratediversityandhowtomakecaringconnectionswithdiverseurbanstudentsastopicsfordiscussionandimplementation.Thesocialjusticelensesconsistofcriticalpedagogy,fundsofknowledge,resiliency,politics of caring and connectedness, social networking, and criticalinquiryasstanceprovideschoolleaderswithaconceptualframeworkand“skill-set”forenhancingtheirself-awareness,attitudes,behaviors,andperceptionsregardingtheschoolingofdiversestudentsinurbanschools.Theurbanstudents’“voicesofpainandvoicesofhope”needtobeheardinorderforschoolleaderstounderstandthestudentsandcreateacaringenvironmenttopavethepathforacademicexcellenceandeducationaljusticeinschools.

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Social Justice Lenses and Authentic Student Voicesresearch article that critical information could be gleaned from listening to the authentic voices of students by using a social justice