Social Cognitive Theories of Career Development

• Albert Bandura

• John Krumboltz

• Lent, Brown, & Hackett

Social Learning Theory

• social learning theory addresses how specific aspects of our work personalities are acquired – Especially Preferences and Interests

• social learning theory also addresses why we choose what we do, and

• describes the factors that determine what we choose

Background: Early Learning Theories

• Classical Conditioning – US - UR

– US/CS - UR

– CS - CR

• Operant Conditioning / Instrumental Learning – S - R (Behavior a function of consequences)

Problems with Behavior Theory

• Too much learned in too short a time

• Apparent spontaneous occurrence of behavior (learning vs performance issue)

• Improvement in performance without apparent practice

• Behavior control without direct experience with the consequences (problems with vicarious reinforcement idea)

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

• Learn by observing

• Learn without changing behavior

• Consequences affect learning

• Cognition plays a role – AKA Modeling, Observational learning

Social Cognitive Theory

• Paradigm

• model -----Observer watches and forms image ----produces behavior

Types of modeling

• Inhibition/disinhibition – old behavior that is generally forbidden

– inhibition - everybody is refraining from it so you do too

– disinhibition - somebody breaks the taboo and everyone else does too

• Modeling effect or observational learning – new behavior that is acceptable

– model performs the behavior; learner imitates

• Eliciting effect – response facilitation: old behavior that's ok, but not being performed at this time

occurs because

– someone else does it (example - looking up)

– arousal: emotion that spreads to others (excitement at hockey game; crying at weddin

Four components of observational learning

• Attention: The learner must identify the key parts of the model to copy.  

• Retention: The learner must create a memorable model of the behavior and store it efficiently in long term memory.

• Production: The learner must be able to reproduce the model's behavior.

• Motivation: The learner must expect and receive reinforcement for successful matching or approximations.

Four components of observational learning

• Attention: The learner must identify the key parts of the model to copy.

• Retention: The learner must create a memorable model of the behavior and store it efficiently in long term memory.

• Production: The learner must be able to reproduce the model's behavior.

• Motivation: The learner must expect and receive reinforcement for successful matching or approximations.

Reinforcement

• serves an information role to tell the learner he "got it right."

Processes that underlie learning from models.

• Attention

• Retention

• Production

• Motivation

Attention (Observing the model):

• Characteristics of the behavior being modeled

• Characteristics of the learner

• Characteristics of the person modeling the behavior

Characteristics of the behavior being modeled

• size and exaggeration of movement

• simple, not too many steps at once

• narration - describe the behavior while performing so that eventually learner can use that self-talk to guide production of behavior

• salience - How important to the learner and obvious

• gender-appropriate

• successfulness of the behavior

Characteristics of the learner

• prior knowledge of the skill makes learning easier

• motivational set

• ability to remember and concentrate

Characteristics of the person modeling the behavior

• attractive and eyecatching

• is successful at the behavior (competent) (mastery vs coping models)

• is similar to the learner

• warm

• powerful

Retention (remembering the model):

• Symbolic coding

• Cognitive organization

• Meaningfulness and familiarity

• Cognitive rehearsal

Symbolic coding (mnemonics) or images

• the use of vivid images ("be quiet like a mouse")

• mnemonics (like "stop,drop and roll")

Cognitive Organization

• give the mental image an organizational structure

Cognitive rehearsal

• the learner can improve a physical skill (or any skill) by mentally rehearsing the steps

Production (performing the response):

• things that actually help the learner make the response that is being learned

• Physical Capacity

• Observable Behavior

• Corrective feedback

Physical capacity

• The learner must have the physical capacity to perform the response.

Observable behavior

• Improvement is increased when the learner can see what he is actually doing.

• This can also be the case with mental skills, like problem solving. It's what we do when we tell students to "show their work" so we can see what they did mentally to solve a problem.

Corrective feedback

• Learning will proceed faster when the learner gets feedback about what is right and wrong with the attempt.

Motivation (inclined to perform the response):

• things that make the learner want to try the behavior

• include: – Vicarious reinforcement

– Anticipation of reinforcement

– Reinforcement by Teacher or Model

– Reinforcement by Environment

– Progress Observed

Vicarious reinforcement

• If the learner sees someone else get reinforced, her or his behavior is also strengthened.

Anticipation of reinforcement

• If the learner sees someone get reinforced, he or she expects to be reinforced if he performs the response.

Reinforcement by teacher or model

• If the teacher praises him when he performs, he will want to perform.

Reinforcement by the environment

• If the response is done correctly, the natural consequences of the environment will reinforce the response with success.

Progress observed

• It is also reinforcing to see yourself making progress.

John Krumboltz

• Through heredity, environmental conditions, and learning experiences we acquire

• Self-Observational Generalizations (Preferences - or beliefs about other attributes)

• Task Approach Skills (i.e., Decision Making Skills)

• Actions (Entry Behaviors)

John Krumboltz

• concentrated mostly on describing how learning experiences influence Self-Observational Generalizations, Task Approach Skills and Actions.

• His theory basically ignores the relative influences of heredity and environmental conditions

Self-Observational Generalizations: 3 positive

influences • we will prefer occupations in which we

have engaged in occupationally relevant behaviors and been reinforced for them

• we will prefer occupations in which we have seen a model being reinforced

• we will prefer occupations which have positive words and images associated with them

Self-Observational Generalizations: 3 negative

influences • we will avoid occupations when we have

engaged in occupationally relevant behaviors and been punished for them

• we will avoid occupations when we have seen models being punished in occupationally relevant behaviors

• we will avoid occupations that have negative words or images associated with them

Task Approach Skills: 3 positive influences

• we will develop and foster decision making task approach skills that have been reinforced

• we will develop and foster decision making task approach skills that we have seen models being reinforced for

• we will develop decision making task approach skills if we are exposed to models and opportunities

Task Approach Skills: 3 negative influences

• we will not develop and foster task approach skills if we have been punished for using them

• we will not develop and foster task approach skills if we have seen models punished for using them

• we will not develop and foster task approach skills if we have not had the opportunity to practice and seen models using them

Entry Behaviors: 3 positive influences

• we will try and get into a job we prefer

• we will try and get into a job where training is available and job opportunities are prevalent

• we will try to match our abilities to the required abilities of the occupation

Entry Behaviors: 3 negative influences

• we will avoid occupations that require too much effort

• we will avoid occupations when training or jobs are not available

• we will avoid jobs when the ability requirements do not match our own abilities

DECIDES approach to career counseling

• Define the problem

• Establish an Action Plan

• Clarify Values

• Identify Alternatives

• Discover Probable Outcomes

• Eliminate Alternatives Systematically

• Start Action

Define the problem

• Problem must be clear to both client and counselor and

• mutually agreeable

• Emphasis on making the problem observable

Establish an Action Plan

• Describing the DECIDES process to the client

• Allow for cycling back through different steps

Clarify Values

• Can be accomplished through analysis of previous work experience or through homework activities

• Examples include interviewing others, keeping records of time and money spent, reading

• May require testing of unrealistic assumptions or inaccurate conclusions

Identify Alternatives

• Begins with evaluating Self-Observation Generalizations about interests and capacities

• then compare self-observation generalizations to worldview generalizations

• this stage is very time-consuming

Problems from Dysfunctional or Inaccurate world-view and self-

observation generalizations

• Persons may fail to recognize that a remedial problem exists

• Persons may fail to exert the effort needed to make a decision or solve a problem

• Persons may eliminate a potentially satisfying alternative for inappropriate reasons Person for choose poor alternatives for inappropriate reasons

• Persons may suffer anguish and anxiety over perceived inabilities to achieve goals

Discover Probable Outcomes

• the evaluation of educational and career alternatives

• fantasy exercises may facilitate the client’s imagination

Eliminate Alternatives Systematically

• After learning about possible alternatives and outcomes, group alternatives that are most consistent with self-observational generalizations

Start Action

• Once the plan is begun, it is possible that new information will result in returning to previous steps

Hackett and Betz’s Theory (1981)

• First applied self-efficacy beliefs to career research

• Stronger self-efficacy beliefs in occupation ----->

• more likely you will initiate activity

• more interested in occupation

• had preference for occupation

• choose occupation

• more effort invested in occupation

• more persistent when faced with obstacles

Hackett and Betz (81)

• Self-efficacy beliefs were positively related to strength of interest in occupation and to perceived options

• Sex differences: males had higher efficacy ratings for all occupations; females had high efficacy ratings only for stereotypic female occupations; females saw fewer options available to them

Lent, Larkin, Brown (89)

• Studying Realistic and Investigative Types, they found a positive relationship between efficacy and interests

Lent, Brown, Larkin (84)

• studied people with high academic abilities with question - do their self-efficacy beliefs contribute to persistence and performance – of the persons with high self-efficacy beliefs,

all had higher GPA

– and all came back to school the next year

– of the persons with low self-efficacy beliefs, only 50% came back to school