Social Cognition Chapter Four. Social Cognition To what extent do we behave like we are superstitious, simpleminded, and/or uneducated?To what extent

Social CognitionSocial Cognition

Chapter FourChapter Four


• To what extent do we behave To what extent do we behave like we are superstitious, like we are superstitious, simpleminded, and/or simpleminded, and/or uneducated?uneducated?

• How might our fictions guide How might our fictions guide our behavior and actions?our behavior and actions?


• We are forever trying to We are forever trying to make sense of our social make sense of our social worldworld

–How we do it makes a How we do it makes a difference…difference…

How Do We Make Sense of the World?How Do We Make Sense of the World?

• We humans have powerful and efficient We humans have powerful and efficient brains.brains.

• As wonderful as they are, they are far from As wonderful as they are, they are far from perfect.perfect.– One consequence of this imperfection is that most One consequence of this imperfection is that most

of us end up “knowing” a lot of things that simply of us end up “knowing” a lot of things that simply are not true.are not true.

• Example: Infertile couples, adoption, & later conception Example: Infertile couples, adoption, & later conception (Gilovich)(Gilovich)

– We believe it is true because we want it to be and because we We believe it is true because we want it to be and because we focus our attention on instances that support our belief.focus our attention on instances that support our belief.


• Are we rational animals?Are we rational animals?– 1818thth century philosopher Bentham thought so… century philosopher Bentham thought so…

• He argued we engage in a He argued we engage in a felicific calculusfelicific calculus – a – a happiness calculation – to determine what is happiness calculation – to determine what is good and what is bad.good and what is bad.

• The goal = “the greatest happiness for the The goal = “the greatest happiness for the greatest number”greatest number”

– Became a fundamental assumption Became a fundamental assumption underlying modern capitalismunderlying modern capitalism


• More recently, Kelley argued that people think like More recently, Kelley argued that people think like naïve scientists.naïve scientists.– We look for three pieces of information:We look for three pieces of information:

• ConsistencyConsistency• ConsensusConsensus• Distinctiveness Distinctiveness

– The way we use this information to make The way we use this information to make attributions can underlie important decisions.attributions can underlie important decisions.• A systematic weighing of these factors can be A systematic weighing of these factors can be

highly valuable and extraordinarily important.highly valuable and extraordinarily important.


• There is little argument that we are capable of rational There is little argument that we are capable of rational thought and behavior.thought and behavior.– Example: Benjamin Franklin’s felicific calculationsExample: Benjamin Franklin’s felicific calculations

• However, rational thought requires at least two However, rational thought requires at least two conditions which almost never hold in every day life:conditions which almost never hold in every day life:– Access to accurate, useful informationAccess to accurate, useful information– Mental resources needed to process life’s dataMental resources needed to process life’s data


• We do not possess a “God’s-eye” view of We do not possess a “God’s-eye” view of the world and, as such, we try to use the world and, as such, we try to use shortcuts whenever we can.shortcuts whenever we can.

• According to Fiske & Taylor, we human According to Fiske & Taylor, we human beings are cognitive misers.beings are cognitive misers.

– We are forever trying to conserve our We are forever trying to conserve our cognitive energy.cognitive energy.


• Fiske & Taylor argue that, given our limited capacity Fiske & Taylor argue that, given our limited capacity to process information, we attempt to adopt strategies to process information, we attempt to adopt strategies that simplify complex problems.that simplify complex problems.– We ignore some information.We ignore some information.

– We “overuse” other information.We “overuse” other information.

– We accept a less-than-perfect alternative.We accept a less-than-perfect alternative.

• Our strategies are efficient but can lead to serious Our strategies are efficient but can lead to serious errors and biases.errors and biases.– Unless we recognize our cognitive limitations we will be Unless we recognize our cognitive limitations we will be

enslaved by them.enslaved by them.

The Effects of Context on Social JudgmentThe Effects of Context on Social Judgment

• How does social context – the way things are How does social context – the way things are presented and described – affect our judgments about presented and described – affect our judgments about people, including ourselves?people, including ourselves?– Four different aspects are key:Four different aspects are key:

• The comparison of alternativesThe comparison of alternatives• The thoughts primed by a situationThe thoughts primed by a situation• How a decision is framed or posedHow a decision is framed or posed• The way information is presentedThe way information is presented

• All judgment is relative – how we think about a person All judgment is relative – how we think about a person or thing is dependent on its surrounding context.or thing is dependent on its surrounding context.

The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: Reference Points & Contrast Effects Reference Points & Contrast Effects

• An object can appear to be better or worse than it is, An object can appear to be better or worse than it is, depending on what it is compared to.depending on what it is compared to.– Example: Use of a decoyExample: Use of a decoy

• An alternative that is clearly inferior to other An alternative that is clearly inferior to other possible selections – but serves the purpose of possible selections – but serves the purpose of making one of the others, the one it is most making one of the others, the one it is most similar to – look better by comparisonsimilar to – look better by comparison

• Example: Tasti-burger decoy study (Pratkanis, et Example: Tasti-burger decoy study (Pratkanis, et al.)al.)

– The addition of the decoy created a contrast The addition of the decoy created a contrast effect…effect…


• When any object is contrasted with something When any object is contrasted with something similar but not as good, that particular object is similar but not as good, that particular object is judged to be better than would normally be the judged to be better than would normally be the case.case.

– This is the contrast effect.This is the contrast effect.

• Example: Charlie’s Angels/Blind date Example: Charlie’s Angels/Blind date (Kenrick & Gutierres)(Kenrick & Gutierres)


• Contrast effects can occur subtly and have Contrast effects can occur subtly and have powerful effects.powerful effects.

– Depending on the context, objects and Depending on the context, objects and alternatives can be made to look better alternatives can be made to look better or worse.or worse.

• Examples: politicians, cars, houses, Examples: politicians, cars, houses, etc.etc.


• Important judgments we make about Important judgments we make about ourselves can also be powerfully ourselves can also be powerfully influenced by contrast effects.influenced by contrast effects.– Example: HS valedictorian at an elite Example: HS valedictorian at an elite

collegecollege– Example: Comparison of own Example: Comparison of own

attractiveness relative to beautiful vs. attractiveness relative to beautiful vs. average peopleaverage people

The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: Priming & Construct Accessibility Priming & Construct Accessibility

• How we interpret social events How we interpret social events usually depends on what we are usually depends on what we are currently thinking about, as well as currently thinking about, as well as what beliefs and categories we what beliefs and categories we typically use to make sense of things.typically use to make sense of things.

–Categories vary with the individual.Categories vary with the individual.


• Interpretation also can depend on what happens to be Interpretation also can depend on what happens to be prominent in the situation, which can be induced prominent in the situation, which can be induced through priming.through priming.– A procedure based on the notion that ideas that have A procedure based on the notion that ideas that have

been recently encountered or frequently activated been recently encountered or frequently activated are more likely to come to mind and thus will be are more likely to come to mind and thus will be used in interpreting social eventsused in interpreting social events• Example: Higgins, Rholes, & Jones study of Example: Higgins, Rholes, & Jones study of

impression formationimpression formation• Example: Bargh, et al. studyExample: Bargh, et al. study


• Priming can and does have a major Priming can and does have a major impact on the attitudes and behavior impact on the attitudes and behavior of many people – even of seasoned of many people – even of seasoned professionals in life-and-death professionals in life-and-death situations in the real world.situations in the real world.

–Example: Physician study on HIV Example: Physician study on HIV risk (Heath, et al.)risk (Heath, et al.)


• Several studies have shown that there is a link between Several studies have shown that there is a link between which stories the media cover and what viewers which stories the media cover and what viewers consider to be the most important issues of the day.consider to be the most important issues of the day.– In other words, the mass media make certain issues In other words, the mass media make certain issues

and concepts readily accessible and thereby set the and concepts readily accessible and thereby set the public’s political and social agendas.public’s political and social agendas.• Example: NC Election study (McCombs & Example: NC Election study (McCombs &

Shaw)Shaw)• Example: Iyengar, Peters, & Kinder studyExample: Iyengar, Peters, & Kinder study

The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: Framing the Decision Framing the Decision

• Another factor influencing how we Another factor influencing how we construct our social world is decision construct our social world is decision framing – whether a problem or decision framing – whether a problem or decision is presented in such a way that it appears is presented in such a way that it appears to represent the potential for a loss or for a to represent the potential for a loss or for a gain.gain.– Example: Gain/Loss study (Kahneman Example: Gain/Loss study (Kahneman

& Tversky)& Tversky)

The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: Framing the Decision Framing the Decision

• People dislike losses and seek to avoid them.People dislike losses and seek to avoid them.– It is more painful to give up $20 than it is It is more painful to give up $20 than it is

pleasurable to gain $20.pleasurable to gain $20.– How a question is framed is of enormous How a question is framed is of enormous

importance.importance.• Example: Energy conservation study (Aronson, Example: Energy conservation study (Aronson,

Gonzales, & Costanzo)Gonzales, & Costanzo)• Example: Breast cancer self-examination Example: Breast cancer self-examination

(Meyerowitz & Chaiken)(Meyerowitz & Chaiken)

The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Ordering of Information The Ordering of Information

• Another factor influencing the way we Another factor influencing the way we organize and interpret the social world is organize and interpret the social world is the manner in which information is the manner in which information is arranged and distributed.arranged and distributed.– Two especially important Two especially important

characteristics:characteristics:• What comes firstWhat comes first• The amount of information givenThe amount of information given


• The Primacy Effect and Information FormationThe Primacy Effect and Information Formation

– Things we learn first about a person have a Things we learn first about a person have a decisive impact on our judgment of that decisive impact on our judgment of that people.people.

• Example: Asch study of personality Example: Asch study of personality assessmentassessment

• Example: Perception of intelligence Example: Perception of intelligence (Jones, et al.)(Jones, et al.)


• In many situations we are not simply sitting In many situations we are not simply sitting back observing those we are judging.back observing those we are judging.

– We are interacting and actively influencing.We are interacting and actively influencing.

– We have specific goals that shape our We have specific goals that shape our interpretations of the people we interact with.interpretations of the people we interact with.

• Example: Teachers judging intelligence of Example: Teachers judging intelligence of studentsstudents


• An interesting exception to the primacy effect An interesting exception to the primacy effect was discovered by Aronson & Jones.was discovered by Aronson & Jones.

– Study of tutors and anagram solversStudy of tutors and anagram solvers

– Suggests that if teachers are invested in the Suggests that if teachers are invested in the long-term development of their students they long-term development of their students they are prone to resist making a snap judgment are prone to resist making a snap judgment based on a first impressionbased on a first impression


• Why does the primacy effect in impression formation occur?Why does the primacy effect in impression formation occur?

– Evidence for two explanations:Evidence for two explanations:

• Attention decrementAttention decrement

– Later items in a list receive less attention and, thus, Later items in a list receive less attention and, thus, have less impact on judgment.have less impact on judgment.

• Interpretive setInterpretive set

– First items create an initial impression that is used to First items create an initial impression that is used to interpret subsequent information, either through the interpret subsequent information, either through the discounting of incongruent facts or by subtle changes discounting of incongruent facts or by subtle changes in the meaning of the items seen later.in the meaning of the items seen later.


• Regardless of the explanation, the primacy Regardless of the explanation, the primacy effect has an important impact on social effect has an important impact on social judgment.judgment.

• Moreover, we usually have little control over Moreover, we usually have little control over the order in which we receive information.the order in which we receive information.

• Therefore, it is important to realize the Therefore, it is important to realize the existence of these effects so that we can try to existence of these effects so that we can try to correct for them.correct for them.

The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Amount of Information The Amount of Information

• We often believe we want more information when We often believe we want more information when making a decision.making a decision.

• Although it can be helpful, it also can change how an Although it can be helpful, it also can change how an object is perceived and evaluated through what is object is perceived and evaluated through what is called “the dilution effect.”called “the dilution effect.”– The tendency for neutral and irrelevant information The tendency for neutral and irrelevant information

to weaken a judgment or impressionto weaken a judgment or impression• Example: Zukier studyExample: Zukier study

The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Effects of Context on Social Judgment: The Amount of Information The Amount of Information

• The dilution effect has obvious practical value The dilution effect has obvious practical value for persons interested in managing impression, for persons interested in managing impression, such as those in sales or politics.such as those in sales or politics.

• Why does it occur?Why does it occur?

– One answer is that irrelevant information One answer is that irrelevant information about a person makes a person seem more about a person makes a person seem more similar to others, and thus more average and similar to others, and thus more average and like everyone else.like everyone else.

Judgmental HeuristicsJudgmental Heuristics

• One way that we make sense of the array of information that One way that we make sense of the array of information that comes our way is through the use of judgmental heuristics.comes our way is through the use of judgmental heuristics.

– These are mental shortcuts – a simple, often approximate, These are mental shortcuts – a simple, often approximate, rule or strategy for solving a problem.rule or strategy for solving a problem.

– Heuristics require very little thought.Heuristics require very little thought.

– The three most common:The three most common:

• Representative heuristicRepresentative heuristic

• Availability heuristicAvailability heuristic

• Attitude heuristicAttitude heuristic


• According to Kahneman & Tversky, when we According to Kahneman & Tversky, when we use the representative heuristic, we focus on use the representative heuristic, we focus on the similarity of one object to another to infer the similarity of one object to another to infer that the first object acts like the second.that the first object acts like the second.– Example: High-quality products are expensive, Example: High-quality products are expensive,

therefore, if something is expensive, it is high-therefore, if something is expensive, it is high-quality.quality.

– Example: Lucky Charms vs. 100% NaturalExample: Lucky Charms vs. 100% Natural– Example: Disease cure should resemble cause.Example: Disease cure should resemble cause.


• The representative heuristic is often used to The representative heuristic is often used to form impressions and to make judgments form impressions and to make judgments about other persons.about other persons.

– The first information we usually pick up The first information we usually pick up about a person is usually associated with about a person is usually associated with simple rules that guide thought and simple rules that guide thought and behavior.behavior.

• Example: Gender and ethnic stereotypesExample: Gender and ethnic stereotypes


• The availability heuristic refers to judgments based The availability heuristic refers to judgments based on how easy it is for us to bring specific examples to on how easy it is for us to bring specific examples to mind.mind.– There are many situations in which this short cut will prove There are many situations in which this short cut will prove

accurate and useful.accurate and useful.

• The main problem with employing this heuristic is The main problem with employing this heuristic is that sometimes what is easiest to bring to mind is not that sometimes what is easiest to bring to mind is not typical of the overall picture.typical of the overall picture.– This will lead us to faulty conclusions.This will lead us to faulty conclusions.

• Example: Death from drowning or fire? (Plous)Example: Death from drowning or fire? (Plous)


• An attitude is a special type of belief that An attitude is a special type of belief that includes emotional and evaluative includes emotional and evaluative components.components.– In a sense, an attitude is a stored evaluation.In a sense, an attitude is a stored evaluation.

• According to Pratkanis & Greenwald, people According to Pratkanis & Greenwald, people tend to use the attitude heuristic as a way of tend to use the attitude heuristic as a way of making decisions and solving problems.making decisions and solving problems.– Example: Reagan college grades (Pratkanis)Example: Reagan college grades (Pratkanis)


• The use of an attitude heuristic The use of an attitude heuristic can influence our logic and ability can influence our logic and ability to reason.to reason.–Example: Thistlewaite study of Example: Thistlewaite study of

syllogismssyllogisms


• Another dimension of the attitude Another dimension of the attitude heuristic is the halo effect.heuristic is the halo effect.– A general bias in which a favorable or A general bias in which a favorable or

unfavorable general impression of a unfavorable general impression of a person affects our inferences and future person affects our inferences and future expectations about that personexpectations about that person

– Example: College students halo for Example: College students halo for women’s diet (Stein & Nemeroff)women’s diet (Stein & Nemeroff)


• Still another dimension of the attitude heuristic Still another dimension of the attitude heuristic is the false-consensus effect.is the false-consensus effect.– An overestimation of the percentage of An overestimation of the percentage of

people who agree with us on any given issuepeople who agree with us on any given issue– If I believe something, I leap to the If I believe something, I leap to the

conclusion that most other people feel the conclusion that most other people feel the same way.same way.• Example: “Eat at Joe’s” study (Ross, et Example: “Eat at Joe’s” study (Ross, et

al.)al.)


• When do we use heuristics? What conditions are most When do we use heuristics? What conditions are most likely to lead to heuristic employment rather than likely to lead to heuristic employment rather than rational decision making?rational decision making?– Multiple conditions:Multiple conditions:

• Lack of time to think Lack of time to think • Information overloadInformation overload• Unimportant issueUnimportant issue• Little solid informationLittle solid information

Categorization & Social StereotypesCategorization & Social Stereotypes

• One of the most important consequences of One of the most important consequences of categorization is that it can invoke specific categorization is that it can invoke specific data or stereotypes that then guide our data or stereotypes that then guide our expectations.expectations.– Example: “Hannah” study (Darley & Gross)Example: “Hannah” study (Darley & Gross)

• Most people seem to have some understanding of Most people seem to have some understanding of stereotypes.stereotypes.

– They seem reluctant to apply them in the absence of solid data.They seem reluctant to apply them in the absence of solid data.

• Despite this understanding, stereotypes still influence Despite this understanding, stereotypes still influence our perception and judgments.our perception and judgments.


• Often in real face-to-face interactions, the process Often in real face-to-face interactions, the process observed by Darley & Gross does not stop with mere observed by Darley & Gross does not stop with mere judgments.judgments.– Example: Stereotypes, schoolteachers, & student Example: Stereotypes, schoolteachers, & student

performance (Rosenthal & Jacobson)performance (Rosenthal & Jacobson)• Results demonstrated that expectations and Results demonstrated that expectations and

stereotypes lead people to treat others in a way stereotypes lead people to treat others in a way that makes them confirm their expectations.that makes them confirm their expectations.

– This is called a self-fulfilling prophecy.This is called a self-fulfilling prophecy.


• Still another effect of categorization is Still another effect of categorization is that we frequently perceive a relationship that we frequently perceive a relationship between two entities that we think should between two entities that we think should be related – but, in fact, they are not.be related – but, in fact, they are not.

– Social psychologists have dubbed this Social psychologists have dubbed this “the illusory correlation.”“the illusory correlation.”

– Example: Hamilton, et al., studyExample: Hamilton, et al., study


• This illusory correlation shows up quite often in social This illusory correlation shows up quite often in social judgments.judgments.– Example: Likelihood of lesbians contracting AIDSExample: Likelihood of lesbians contracting AIDS– Example: Psychiatric diagnostic categoriesExample: Psychiatric diagnostic categories

• Regardless of the setting, the illusory correlation does Regardless of the setting, the illusory correlation does much to confirm our original stereotypes.much to confirm our original stereotypes.– Our stereotype leads us to see a relationship that Our stereotype leads us to see a relationship that

then seems to provide evidence that the original then seems to provide evidence that the original stereotype is true.stereotype is true.


• One of the most common ways of categorizing One of the most common ways of categorizing people is to divide them into two groups: those people is to divide them into two groups: those in “my” group and those in the “out” group.in “my” group and those in the “out” group.

• When we divide the world into two such When we divide the world into two such realities, two important consequences occur:realities, two important consequences occur:

– The homogeneity effectThe homogeneity effect

– In-group favoritismIn-group favoritism


• The homogeneity effect refers to the fact that The homogeneity effect refers to the fact that we tend to see members of out-groups as more we tend to see members of out-groups as more similar to each other than the members of our similar to each other than the members of our own group – the in-group.own group – the in-group.– It is not uncommon for us to imagine that It is not uncommon for us to imagine that

members of the out-group all look alike, members of the out-group all look alike, think alike, and act alike.think alike, and act alike.• Example: Sorority study (Park & Example: Sorority study (Park &

Rothbart)Rothbart)


• In-group favoritism refers to the tendency In-group favoritism refers to the tendency to see one’s own group as better on any to see one’s own group as better on any number of dimensions and to allocate number of dimensions and to allocate rewards to one’s own group.rewards to one’s own group.

• In-group favoritism has been extensively In-group favoritism has been extensively studied using what has come to be known studied using what has come to be known as the minimum group paradigm…as the minimum group paradigm…


• In the minimum group paradigm, originated by In the minimum group paradigm, originated by Tajfel, complete strangers are divided into Tajfel, complete strangers are divided into groups using the most trivial criteria groups using the most trivial criteria imaginable.imaginable.

– Group members behave as if those who Group members behave as if those who share their meaningless label are their good share their meaningless label are their good friends or close kin and allocate more money friends or close kin and allocate more money and rewards to those who share their label.and rewards to those who share their label.

Constructive Predictions & Constructive Predictions & Re-constructive MemoryRe-constructive Memory

• Two thinking processes play an important role Two thinking processes play an important role in social cognition:in social cognition:– Predicting our reactions to future eventsPredicting our reactions to future events– Remembering past eventsRemembering past events

• Both are subject to considerable error.Both are subject to considerable error.– Considerable research demonstrates that we Considerable research demonstrates that we

overestimate the emotional impact of events and overestimate the emotional impact of events and durability to these events, whether good or bad.durability to these events, whether good or bad.

• Example: Assistant professors (not) receiving tenureExample: Assistant professors (not) receiving tenure


• Why do we mispredict? Why do we mispredict? – One reason is that we adjust to both happy and sad One reason is that we adjust to both happy and sad

events in our lives, but frequently fail to recognize events in our lives, but frequently fail to recognize our powers of adjustment when we mentally our powers of adjustment when we mentally construct what our futures will look and feel like.construct what our futures will look and feel like.

– Another reason is that when we imagine the future, Another reason is that when we imagine the future, we tend to focus only upon the event in question to we tend to focus only upon the event in question to the exclusion of all other things that will the exclusion of all other things that will undoubtedly occur at the same time.undoubtedly occur at the same time.


• Like imaging the future, recalling the past Like imaging the future, recalling the past plays an important role in our social plays an important role in our social interactions, and is also subject to bias.interactions, and is also subject to bias.

• Remembering is a re-constructive process.Remembering is a re-constructive process.– We recreate our memories from bits and We recreate our memories from bits and

pieces of actual events filtered through and pieces of actual events filtered through and modified by our notions of what might have modified by our notions of what might have been, and what should have been, and what been, and what should have been, and what we would like it to have been.we would like it to have been.


• Our memories also are profoundly Our memories also are profoundly influenced by what people have told us influenced by what people have told us about specific events – long after they about specific events – long after they occurred.occurred.– Example: Work of Elizabeth LoftusExample: Work of Elizabeth Loftus

• Leading questions influence the Leading questions influence the judgment of facts and can affect the judgment of facts and can affect the memory of what has happened.memory of what has happened.

Autobiographical MemoryAutobiographical Memory

• It is clear that memory can be reconstructive when it involves It is clear that memory can be reconstructive when it involves quick, snapshot-like events.quick, snapshot-like events.

• We also have a strong tendency to organize our personal We also have a strong tendency to organize our personal history in terms of what Markus calls “self-schemas.”history in terms of what Markus calls “self-schemas.”

– Coherent memories, feelings, and beliefs about ourselves Coherent memories, feelings, and beliefs about ourselves that hang together and form an integrated wholethat hang together and form an integrated whole

– Our memories get distorted in such a way that they fit the Our memories get distorted in such a way that they fit the general picture we have of ourselves.general picture we have of ourselves.

• Example: Ross, McFarland, & Fletcher study of Example: Ross, McFarland, & Fletcher study of toothbrushingtoothbrushing


• Loftus has continued this line of research Loftus has continued this line of research further and shown how easy it is to plant false further and shown how easy it is to plant false memories of childhood experiences in the memories of childhood experiences in the minds of young adults.minds of young adults.– Most people, when presented a story of their Most people, when presented a story of their

childhood as fact, will incorporate and plant that childhood as fact, will incorporate and plant that memory into their own history and will have memory into their own history and will have embroidered it with details.embroidered it with details.

– This has been called the false memory syndrome.This has been called the false memory syndrome.


• Loftus’s research on the planting of Loftus’s research on the planting of false childhood memories has led her false childhood memories has led her and other cognitive psychologists to and other cognitive psychologists to take a close and skeptical look at a take a close and skeptical look at a recent societal phenomenon:recent societal phenomenon:

–the recovered memory phenomenonthe recovered memory phenomenon


• According to scientists who have done systematic According to scientists who have done systematic research on the nature of memory, repeated instances research on the nature of memory, repeated instances of traumatic events occurring over a long stretch of of traumatic events occurring over a long stretch of time are not usually forgotten.time are not usually forgotten.– Rather, “recovered” memories of abuse could have Rather, “recovered” memories of abuse could have

been unintentionally planted by therapists.been unintentionally planted by therapists.– Accordingly, memory researchers have criticized Accordingly, memory researchers have criticized

some self-help books on the grounds that they some self-help books on the grounds that they grossly underestimate the power of suggestion and grossly underestimate the power of suggestion and unwittingly lead people to recover false memories.unwittingly lead people to recover false memories.


• False memory has been a highly controversial False memory has been a highly controversial issue in contemporary psychology.issue in contemporary psychology.– Some professional psychologists have been Some professional psychologists have been

willing to take accounts at face value.willing to take accounts at face value.– Most cognitive scientists, based on their Most cognitive scientists, based on their

memory research, believe that, in the memory research, believe that, in the absence of any corroborating evidence to absence of any corroborating evidence to suggest abuse, it would be wrong to accuse suggest abuse, it would be wrong to accuse the suspected family memory of a crime.the suspected family memory of a crime.

How Conservative is Human How Conservative is Human Cognition?Cognition?

• Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek confirmation of initial impressions or confirmation of initial impressions or beliefs.beliefs.– It is a common tendency in human It is a common tendency in human

thought.thought.– Example: Snyder & Swann study – Example: Snyder & Swann study –

students chose to ask questions to students chose to ask questions to confirm their pre-existing belief about an confirm their pre-existing belief about an interviewee.interviewee.


• Not only do we tend to confirm our Not only do we tend to confirm our hypotheses, but we often are quite confident hypotheses, but we often are quite confident that they are true.that they are true.

– Fischhoff termed this the “hindsight bias” or Fischhoff termed this the “hindsight bias” or the “I-knew-it-all-along” effect.the “I-knew-it-all-along” effect.

• Once we know the outcome of an event, Once we know the outcome of an event, we have a strong tendency to believe that we have a strong tendency to believe that we could have predicted it in advance.we could have predicted it in advance.


• The confirmation and hindsight biases The confirmation and hindsight biases provide support for the proposition that provide support for the proposition that human cognition tends to be conservative.human cognition tends to be conservative.

– We try to preserve that which is already We try to preserve that which is already established, to maintain our preexisting established, to maintain our preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes.stereotypes.


• Greenwald has argued that cognitive Greenwald has argued that cognitive conservatism has at least one benefit:conservatism has at least one benefit:– It allows us to perceive the social world It allows us to perceive the social world

as a coherent and stable place.as a coherent and stable place.– To keep our minds operating and To keep our minds operating and

coherent, it makes sense to practice coherent, it makes sense to practice cognitive conservatism and to modify cognitive conservatism and to modify only slightly our cognitive categories.only slightly our cognitive categories.


• Cognitive conservatism also has its costs:Cognitive conservatism also has its costs:– The misuse of categories may cause a person The misuse of categories may cause a person

to distort events or to miss important to distort events or to miss important information.information.

– The misapplication of a heuristic can lead to The misapplication of a heuristic can lead to poor decision-making.poor decision-making.

– The consequences are not just mental:The consequences are not just mental:• Such thinking can lead to racism, sexism, Such thinking can lead to racism, sexism,

prejudice, and just plain stupid thinking.prejudice, and just plain stupid thinking.


• What can we do to avoid the negative What can we do to avoid the negative consequences of cognitive conservatism?consequences of cognitive conservatism?– Be wary of those who attempt to create your Be wary of those who attempt to create your

categories and definitions of situations.categories and definitions of situations.– Try to use more than one way to categorize and Try to use more than one way to categorize and

describe a person or event.describe a person or event.– Try to think of persons and important events as Try to think of persons and important events as

unique.unique.– When forming an impression, consider the When forming an impression, consider the

possibility that you might be mistaken.possibility that you might be mistaken.

How Do Attitudes and Beliefs Guide How Do Attitudes and Beliefs Guide Behavior?Behavior?

• What is the relationship between our What is the relationship between our attitudes and our behavior? attitudes and our behavior?

• Can we use our attitudes to predict Can we use our attitudes to predict how we will behave?how we will behave?

–A long history of research suggests A long history of research suggests that we cannot!that we cannot!


• One of the class studies of the attitude-behavior One of the class studies of the attitude-behavior relationship was conducted in the early 1930s relationship was conducted in the early 1930s by LaPiere.by LaPiere.– He contacted hotel and restaurant proprietors and He contacted hotel and restaurant proprietors and

assessed their attitude toward Chinese patrons.assessed their attitude toward Chinese patrons.• Strongly negativeStrongly negative

– Later assessed behavior of the same proprietors Later assessed behavior of the same proprietors • Only one of 128 establishments refused service.Only one of 128 establishments refused service.

• Attitudes Attitudes did notdid not predict behavior. predict behavior.


• In 1969, Wicker reviewed over 40 In 1969, Wicker reviewed over 40 studies that had explored the attitude-studies that had explored the attitude-behavior relationship.behavior relationship.

–His conclusion? It is considerably His conclusion? It is considerably more likely that attitudes will be more likely that attitudes will be unrelated to overt behaviors.unrelated to overt behaviors.


• How can we reconcile this body of How can we reconcile this body of research with our intuition that a research with our intuition that a person’s attitudes are strongly related person’s attitudes are strongly related to his or her behavior?to his or her behavior?

–One way is to conclude that there is One way is to conclude that there is no consistent relationship between no consistent relationship between attitudes and behavior.attitudes and behavior.


• The perception of a relationship may persist because of the The perception of a relationship may persist because of the common tendency to attribute the cause of an individual’s common tendency to attribute the cause of an individual’s behavior to characteristics of the individual, rather than to the behavior to characteristics of the individual, rather than to the power of the situation itself.power of the situation itself.

– Jones, et al. call this tendency a correspondent inference:Jones, et al. call this tendency a correspondent inference:

• The behavior of the person is explained in terms of an The behavior of the person is explained in terms of an attribute or trait that is just like the behavior.attribute or trait that is just like the behavior.

– Example: Sam spilled wine because he is clumsy.Example: Sam spilled wine because he is clumsy.

– Example: Fidel Castro study (Jones & Harris)Example: Fidel Castro study (Jones & Harris)


• Just because attitudes don’t always predict beliefs Just because attitudes don’t always predict beliefs does not mean that attitudes never predict behavior.does not mean that attitudes never predict behavior.– Fazio has identified one major factor that increases Fazio has identified one major factor that increases

the likelihood that we will act on our attitude – the likelihood that we will act on our attitude – AccessibilityAccessibility• Attitude accessibility refers to the strength of the Attitude accessibility refers to the strength of the

association between an object and your association between an object and your evaluation of it.evaluation of it.

• Not all attitudes and beliefs are highly Not all attitudes and beliefs are highly accessible.accessible.


• According to Fazio, attitudes are used to According to Fazio, attitudes are used to interpret and perceive an object selectively and interpret and perceive an object selectively and to make sense of a complex situation.to make sense of a complex situation.

• There is considerable evidence to support the There is considerable evidence to support the proposition that highly accessible attitudes proposition that highly accessible attitudes guide behavior.guide behavior.

– Example: Fazio & Williams study of Example: Fazio & Williams study of Reagan/Mondale voting patternsReagan/Mondale voting patterns


• There is another way that attitudes and beliefs can There is another way that attitudes and beliefs can influence behavior:influence behavior:– The belief can come to create the social world in The belief can come to create the social world in

which we live.which we live.• Example: Hostility word game (Herr)Example: Hostility word game (Herr)

– In sum, a relatively subtle context had In sum, a relatively subtle context had influenced attitudes and expectations that, in influenced attitudes and expectations that, in turn, affected behavior and subsequently turn, affected behavior and subsequently affected the next round of perceptions.affected the next round of perceptions.


• Dweck and colleagues have demonstrated the Dweck and colleagues have demonstrated the behavioral consequences of people’s more behavioral consequences of people’s more enduring beliefs.enduring beliefs.

• According to Dweck, children develop implicit According to Dweck, children develop implicit theories about the permanence of people’s theories about the permanence of people’s defining traits.defining traits.– These theories exert a considerable influence upon These theories exert a considerable influence upon

a child’s judgments and behavior.a child’s judgments and behavior.• Example: People who see intelligence as a fixed trait are Example: People who see intelligence as a fixed trait are

more apprehensive about failure.more apprehensive about failure.

Three Possible Biases in Social Three Possible Biases in Social ExplanationExplanation

• In studying how we interpret our social In studying how we interpret our social world, social psychologists have world, social psychologists have identified three general biases that often identified three general biases that often affect our attributions and explanations:affect our attributions and explanations:

– The fundamental attribution errorThe fundamental attribution error

– The actor-observer biasThe actor-observer bias

– Self-biasesSelf-biases


• The term fundamental attribution error The term fundamental attribution error refers to a general human tendency to refers to a general human tendency to overestimate the importance of overestimate the importance of personality or dispositional factors personality or dispositional factors relative to situational or environmental relative to situational or environmental influences when describing and influences when describing and explaining the causes of social behavior.explaining the causes of social behavior.– Example: Correspondent inferenceExample: Correspondent inference


• Another example of the fundamental Another example of the fundamental attribution error is provided by an experiment attribution error is provided by an experiment conducted by Bierbrauer.conducted by Bierbrauer.– Participants witnessed a reenactment of Participants witnessed a reenactment of

Milgram’s obedience study; assumed that Milgram’s obedience study; assumed that obedience was an aberration.obedience was an aberration.

– Results indicated that participants failed to Results indicated that participants failed to attribute the witnessed obedience to the attribute the witnessed obedience to the power of the situation.power of the situation.


• As observers, we frequently lose sight of the As observers, we frequently lose sight of the fact that each individual plays many social fact that each individual plays many social roles and that we might be observing only one roles and that we might be observing only one of them.of them.

• Thus, important social roles can be easily Thus, important social roles can be easily overlooked in explaining a person’s behavior.overlooked in explaining a person’s behavior.– Example: Dr. MenschExample: Dr. Mensch– Example: Quiz show study (Ross, Amabile, Example: Quiz show study (Ross, Amabile,

& Steinmetz)& Steinmetz)


• The implications of the fundamental The implications of the fundamental application error are far-reaching.application error are far-reaching.– Example: Common reactions to person using Example: Common reactions to person using

food stamps at the grocery store, convicted food stamps at the grocery store, convicted burglarburglar

– Perceiving poverty and crime (as only two Perceiving poverty and crime (as only two examples) as related to dispositional rather examples) as related to dispositional rather than situational factors will impact policy, than situational factors will impact policy, spending, program development, etc.spending, program development, etc.


• At the very least, our knowledge of the At the very least, our knowledge of the fundamental attribution error should alert fundamental attribution error should alert us to the possibility that our attributions us to the possibility that our attributions may not always be correct and that we may not always be correct and that we should take seriously the motto of the should take seriously the motto of the novelist Samuel Butler:novelist Samuel Butler:– ““There, but for the grace of God, go I.”There, but for the grace of God, go I.”


• Another common bias in social judgment is Another common bias in social judgment is known as the actor-observer bias.known as the actor-observer bias.– This is the tendency for actors to attribute their own This is the tendency for actors to attribute their own

actions to situational factors, whereas observers actions to situational factors, whereas observers tend to attribute the same actions to stable tend to attribute the same actions to stable personality dispositions of the actors. personality dispositions of the actors.

• I give myself the benefit of the doubt – I use situational I give myself the benefit of the doubt – I use situational causes to explain causes to explain myself.myself.

• I don’t give you the same benefit – when I try to explain I don’t give you the same benefit – when I try to explain your behavior, I make the fundamental attribution error.your behavior, I make the fundamental attribution error.


• There is considerable evidence that the actor-There is considerable evidence that the actor-observer bias is pervasive.observer bias is pervasive.– Example: Explaining intelligence test scoresExample: Explaining intelligence test scores– Example: Attributing research participationExample: Attributing research participation– Example: Drawing conclusions about peer behaviorExample: Drawing conclusions about peer behavior– Example: Explaining choice of girlfriend and Example: Explaining choice of girlfriend and

college majorcollege major– Example: Ascription of personality traitsExample: Ascription of personality traits


• What causes the actor-observer bias?What causes the actor-observer bias?– Storms’ research indicates that it is a function of where a Storms’ research indicates that it is a function of where a

person’s attention is focused.person’s attention is focused.• Actor’s attention is usually focused on the environment Actor’s attention is usually focused on the environment

and past history.and past history.• Observer’s attention is almost always focused on the Observer’s attention is almost always focused on the

actor.actor.– Storms’ research also suggests that actors who saw Storms’ research also suggests that actors who saw

themselves on videotape from the observer’s point of view themselves on videotape from the observer’s point of view were more likely to explain their own behavior in terms of were more likely to explain their own behavior in terms of dispositionaldispositional factors, whereas observers who saw the world factors, whereas observers who saw the world from the point of view of the actors were more likely to from the point of view of the actors were more likely to explain behavior in explain behavior in situationalsituational terms. terms.


• Often the actor-observer bias can lead to Often the actor-observer bias can lead to misunderstanding and conflict.misunderstanding and conflict.

• The Storms experiment points to one method The Storms experiment points to one method for nipping this potential conflict in the bud:for nipping this potential conflict in the bud:

– Change the actor’s and observer’s perspectiveChange the actor’s and observer’s perspective

– One tactic for doing this is to promote One tactic for doing this is to promote empathy by role-playing the other’s point of empathy by role-playing the other’s point of view.view.


• As a primary source of motivation, the As a primary source of motivation, the way in which we conceive of the self way in which we conceive of the self greatly influences all of our social greatly influences all of our social cognitions.cognitions.

• There are two general ways that the self There are two general ways that the self influences social cognition:influences social cognition:– Egocentric thoughtEgocentric thought– Self-serving biasSelf-serving bias


• Most people have a tendency to perceive themselves as Most people have a tendency to perceive themselves as more central to events than is actually the case.more central to events than is actually the case.– We call this egocentric thought.We call this egocentric thought.

• People engaging in egocentric thought remember People engaging in egocentric thought remember past events as if they were a leading player, past events as if they were a leading player, influencing the course of events and the behavior influencing the course of events and the behavior of others.of others.

• Example: Jervis research on world leadersExample: Jervis research on world leaders• Example: Langer research on the “illusion of Example: Langer research on the “illusion of

control”control”


• Another interesting manifestation of egocentric thought Another interesting manifestation of egocentric thought is the assumption in social situations that others are is the assumption in social situations that others are paying more attention to us than they are.paying more attention to us than they are.– Example: Teenager with a pimpleExample: Teenager with a pimple– Example: College student in uncool t-shirt Example: College student in uncool t-shirt

(Gilovich, et al.)(Gilovich, et al.)• Because we always see the world through our own Because we always see the world through our own

eyes, it is very difficult for us to see ourselves through eyes, it is very difficult for us to see ourselves through the eyes of others.the eyes of others.– We imagine they see us the way we see ourselves.We imagine they see us the way we see ourselves.


• The belief that one’s self is the center of the universe helps explain a The belief that one’s self is the center of the universe helps explain a paradox that occurs everyday in US newspapers.paradox that occurs everyday in US newspapers.– Despite pride in our country’s technological achievements, fewer Despite pride in our country’s technological achievements, fewer

than 10 percent of daily newspapers carry a regular column on than 10 percent of daily newspapers carry a regular column on science.science.

– In contrast, over 90% carry a daily feature on astrology.In contrast, over 90% carry a daily feature on astrology.• The stock-in trade of the horoscope is the Barnum statement – The stock-in trade of the horoscope is the Barnum statement –

a personality description vague enough to be true of almost a personality description vague enough to be true of almost everyone.everyone.

• Because of our tendency to think egocentrically, most of us Because of our tendency to think egocentrically, most of us will feel that the Barnum statement is a bull’s-eye description will feel that the Barnum statement is a bull’s-eye description of us.of us.

– Example: Petty & Brock study of personality test resultsExample: Petty & Brock study of personality test results


• The tendency toward egocentric thought occurs in The tendency toward egocentric thought occurs in subtle ways that frequently include our memory for subtle ways that frequently include our memory for past events and information.past events and information.

• One very common finding is that people have superior One very common finding is that people have superior memory for information descriptive of the self.memory for information descriptive of the self.

• The role of egocentric thought in memory does have The role of egocentric thought in memory does have practical implications for the student:practical implications for the student:– One of the best ways to recall material from classes One of the best ways to recall material from classes

is to relate it to your personal experiences – to think is to relate it to your personal experiences – to think how it applies to you.how it applies to you.


• The self-serving bias refers to a tendency for The self-serving bias refers to a tendency for individuals to make dispositional attributions for their individuals to make dispositional attributions for their success and situational attributions for their failures:success and situational attributions for their failures:– Example: Automobile drivingExample: Automobile driving

– Example: Student performance on examsExample: Student performance on exams

– Example: Gambler perception of successExample: Gambler perception of success

– Example: Married persons’ estimate of houseworkExample: Married persons’ estimate of housework

– Example: General personal ratingsExample: General personal ratings

– Example: Two-person team performancesExample: Two-person team performances

– Example: Explanations of peer dislikeExample: Explanations of peer dislike


• As Greenwald & Breckler note:As Greenwald & Breckler note:– ““The presented self is (usually) too good to be true; The presented self is (usually) too good to be true;

the (too) good self is often genuinely believed.the (too) good self is often genuinely believed.• But, why do people engage in the self-serving bias?But, why do people engage in the self-serving bias?

– One explanation that accounts for some of the data One explanation that accounts for some of the data is purely cognitive.is purely cognitive.• Individuals are aware of different information as Individuals are aware of different information as

actors than as observers.actors than as observers.


• But a purely cognitive-informational But a purely cognitive-informational explanation cannot account for all of the explanation cannot account for all of the examples of self-serving bias.examples of self-serving bias.

– Another explanation is that we are Another explanation is that we are motivatedmotivated to engage in such attributions to protect and to engage in such attributions to protect and maintain our self-concepts and self-esteem.maintain our self-concepts and self-esteem.

• This is called ego-defensive behavior.This is called ego-defensive behavior.

• Example: Weary, et al.Example: Weary, et al.


• Of what value are self-biases?Of what value are self-biases?– Self-biases can serve important purposes:Self-biases can serve important purposes:

• The individual who believes that he or she is the cause of The individual who believes that he or she is the cause of good things will try harder and persist longer to achieve good things will try harder and persist longer to achieve difficult goals.difficult goals.

• Example: Winning basketball teams (Grove, et al.)Example: Winning basketball teams (Grove, et al.)– There may also be more important temporary benefits to self-There may also be more important temporary benefits to self-

biases as well:biases as well:• Example: People who had faced tragic or near-tragic Example: People who had faced tragic or near-tragic

events (Taylor)events (Taylor)• Example: Benefits of optimistic style of thinking Example: Benefits of optimistic style of thinking

(Seligman)(Seligman)


• In brief, engaging in egocentric thought and In brief, engaging in egocentric thought and self-serving attributions has an array of benefits.self-serving attributions has an array of benefits.

• At the same time, it is important to bear in mind At the same time, it is important to bear in mind that these positive consequences are not without that these positive consequences are not without their price:their price:

– The major price is a somewhat distorted The major price is a somewhat distorted picture of the self and the world in general.picture of the self and the world in general.


• Ironically, this distorted picture of the world is Ironically, this distorted picture of the world is frequently caused by a motive to justify frequently caused by a motive to justify ourselves and our behavior.ourselves and our behavior.

• One of the most fascinating aspects of the social One of the most fascinating aspects of the social animal is our touching need to see ourselves as animal is our touching need to see ourselves as good and sensible people – and how this need good and sensible people – and how this need frequently leads us to perform actions that are frequently leads us to perform actions that are neither good nor sensible.neither good nor sensible.

By March 20thBy March 20th

You should have read chapter four by this time. Now You should have read chapter four by this time. Now that you have completed these power points, please that you have completed these power points, please go to the Social Animal website.go to the Social Animal website.

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Log in and take the quiz for chapter four, submit Log in and take the quiz for chapter four, submit answers to my email.answers to my email.

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