Introduction….. David King … page 1-3

La Tene Celtic Artistic Motifs…. Jenn Mclean…page 4-6

The Triskele in Celtic Art….page 4 The Battersea Shield….page 5 A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity…. page 6

Celtic Migrations…. David King….page 8-14

Eastern Europe….page 9-10 Celts in Italy….page 11 The Galatians… page 12-13

Celtic Influence on Roman Society….Kasey Luft…page

15-19 Celts in Gaul…page 16 Celts in Britain….page 17 Celts in Iberia….page 18 Celtic Arthur….Mackenzie Dickeson….page 20-23

The Legend of King Arthur….page 20 Arthur in the Celtic World….page 21 Arthur in Battle….page 22

Celtic Christianity….Nicole Boycott….page 24-28

Churches….page 25 Crosses….page 26 Religious Literature…page 27

A Question of the Celts:

The Issues of the ‘Celtic’ Identity By: David King

The term ‘Celtic’ means something to most people, but the images conjured up are widely varying. For

some, it may mean little more than a basketball or soccer team. To others, it suggests a modern Pan-European

identity and cultural heritage of the modern Irish and those who once, and still do, had a Celtic language. Some,

like the French, whom most would never consider a Celtic nation, are infused with a romanticized sense of their

Celtic or Gallic ancestry. But for most, it suggests ancient heroes charging into battle with more courage than

clothing, or kilted Scots riding over the moors, even robed monks creating dazzling works of religious art in

chilly monasteries. When looking at it all, the term ‘Celtic’ seems to reflect a continuity with the ancient past

that many of us share. But where have these images come from? Why are they so different? What extent do

these images actually reflect reality? Who were the Celts, and when did they actually live?

No one is particularly sure where the term ‘Celtic’ came from. The earliest reference to the Celts came

in the form of an obscure poem by 4th

-century CE poet Rufus Festus Avienus, who quotes an ancient 6th

-century

sailing manual that mentions that beyond the tin-producing Oestrymnides was a land now occupied by the

Keltoi (Cunliffe 1997, 3). With bias, inconsistency, and liberal use of second-hand accounts, classical writers

such as Polybius, Poseidonius, and Diodorus Siculus described and speculated about the Celtae and Galli

(Latin), or the Keltoi and Galatae (Greek) (James 1993, 9-10). In contradiction to modern assumptions, the

term ‘Celt’ was never used in reference to the ancient Irish or British by any classical source, and only labeled

those who lived on the continent as such. The idea that the peoples of Iron Age Britain and Ireland were

‘Celtic’ was only proposed during the 17th

and 18th

centuries, as a result of linguistic analysis (James 1993, 9).

After extensive survey over many years by many scholars, it was concluded that the languages of the ancient

Gauls was related to contemporary Irish, Scots Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton. The term ‘Celtic’ was given, and

now was understood that this term referred to a group of related languages (James 1993, 8).

During the 17th

and 18th

century, this was all decided during a time of great nationalism in Europe. For

Britain and France, a period of ‘Celtomania’ took hold, where each nation scratched for any evidence of a great

and glorious past to set them apart. An image of romantic Celtism arose: free noble barbarians, unwilling for

the yoke of Rome to be placed upon them. Great warriors but profound natural philosophers, these Celts were

the true ancestors of the British and French, providing examples of their innate greatness. These themes have

not entirely disappeared today; the French still look to Vercingetorix as an example of French spirit (Cunliffe

1997, 19). In turn, the linguistic classification was extended to all the people of Britain, Ireland and the

continent who were thought to have spoken Celtic tongues in pre-Roman and later times. This very broad

definition of the Celts as an ethnic group is still largely accepted and popular today, and influences our portrayal

of them in pop culture and literature, further strengthening these images of the romantic Celt.

Fig. 1: A simplified diagram of the traditional Celtic language tree, showing the relationships

between the different dialects.

Our understanding of the Celts today has changed. Through archaeology, analysis of original sources,

and linguistic study, the romantic vision of the noble Celtic savage and his European dominance has begun to

fade. It is highly unlikely that all the ancient peoples who have been labeled as ‘Celts’ referred to themselves

by that name, or even had any idea of some greater Celtic identity. Beyond related speech, the ancient Celts

were probably no more likely to be an ethnic unity than the speakers of the Romance languages, which are

derived from Latin and are closely related. The Celts were not a homogenous family of people who consciously

held a single, ethnic identity. In turn, ideas of a ‘Celtic Empire’, or even a universal and exclusive material

Celtic culture, are impossible and cannot be used in any serious discussion of the Celts. The different Celtic

peoples may have had great similarity in social structure, religion, and material culture, but there was great

variability within that. For example, political structures of the Celts in the last few centuries BCE varied from

small tribal kingdoms in Ireland to small-scale states, such as the Aedui and Arverni (James 1993, 125-127).

Druidism, although possibly the most recognizable feature of the Celtic peoples, was not a general phenomena

in the Celtic world but only occurred in the North and West of the Celtic world (Cunliffe 1997, 190-197). Even

style of warfare varied from region to region.

This is not to say there is no larger Celtic identity whatsoever. There is still a common (but not

exclusive in any way) material culture, a related religious system, evidence for some homogeneity in cultural

practices across the Celtic world (as separated as modern Turkey and Ireland), and a group of peoples speaking

a series of closely related languages. The classical authors did recognize many of the Northern European

peoples we know as Celts as closely related and connected peoples, enough to ascribe diplomatic and kinship

ties between them (Haywood 2001, 54). Therefore, one can say that there is a modern concept of a Celtic

identity, just perhaps not recognized by the ancient Celts themselves. In this magazine, we hope to capture and

describe a few episodes in the long history of the Celtic peoples, ranging from the earliest Celtic migrations to

the Celtic revivals in Ireland in the early medieval period. What is important to remember when reading about

and researching the Celts is it is the sheer diversity of these peoples that makes them so fascinating. They are

unlike any other culture on Earth, changing and adapting over thousands of years but still retaining some aspect

that makes them recognizably Celts.

Fig. 2: A statue of the Gallic resistance leader Vercingtorix

erected by Napoleon III during the 19th

century, which

dominated the plateau at Alesia. Napoleon, faced with the

expansion of Prussian power, organized a series of excavations

and commemorations at Alesia, to remember Gallic spirit in

the face of certain conquest (Haywood 2001, 132).

References:

1. Haywood J., 2001. Atlas of the Celtic World. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London

2. Cunliffe B., 1999. The Ancient Celts. Penguin Publishing, London

3. James S., 1993. The World of the Celts. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London.

Images:

Fig. 1: http://whitefiles.org/b2_h/1_celtic_museum/zcm/cm4/4_lngg.htm “Introduction to Indo-European

Languages”

Fig. 2: http://www.burgundytoday.com/historic-places/archaeological-sites/alesia.htm “Alesia”

Fig. 3: http://www.bellaterreno.com/art/celtic/celtic_tribes.aspx “Celtic Tribes”

Fig. 3: A general map of

the Celtic world. The Celts

spread from Central

Europe, around Southern

Germany, to all corners of

Europe, even up into the

Bosphorus. There were

also extensive raids deep

into Greece, Italy, and

Spain, with a raiding party

of three tribes even

settling in central

Anatolia.

The Triskele in Celtic Art

In the most basic terms, the triskele is the most easily recognizable symbol

associated with Celtic culture. The triskele is a symbol which appears in

many cultures, notably Greek (from which the word triskele originates) but

has long since been integrated into and become synonymous with Celtic

culture. Some scholars believe that it was an ancient sun symbol and that the

triple prongs represented the solar rays, though its exact significance is

unknown.

Regardless, it can be extrapolated by its extreme repetition that it was certainly an important symbol. Though

the triskele retains its Celtic association it predates the La Tene period by a considerable margin, having been

found in carvings at Newgrange, County Meath, Ireland, dated to circa 3200 BCE. That being said, the triskele

did not become a regular feature of Celtic art until the early Iron Age – it is one of the most defining features of

the period, and for some scholars is considered the point at which a more unified Celtic identity began to

emerge. It is discursive to assume that the Celts were a cultural singularity, and it is worth establishing that

there were dozens of Celtic groups throughout mainland Europe, as well as groups which may not have self-

identified as Celtic but were later grouped as such due to Celtic influence in their language or material culture.

What is perhaps more accurate is to say that for the insular Celts, particularly those of Ireland, the influence of

La Tene culture became the catalyst for a recognizable trend and the beginning of a more widely realized ethnic

identity. Whatever its origins or exact meanings, the triskele has long since been completely integrated into

Celtic artwork and visual identity, and some of its conceptual importance can be found in the repetition of

threes, particularly common to Irish mythology. In the famous Irish saga The Tain, which follows the

adventures of the hero Cu Chulainn, there are multiple references to things happening in threes – the guards will

shout three times as a warning, and Cu Chulainn must approach a druidess three times before she will answer

his questions. Whether it is a simple, ancient sun symbol or something far more profound, it is undeniable that

the triskele is deeply ingrained not just in Celtic artwork, but in the cultural heart of its people.

The Battersea Shield

The Battersea Shield is a perfect example of early La Tene artwork at its finest. It is not a functional piece, but

rather an ornate decorative fixture for a wooden shield.

Though it does make as much use of the spiral motif as many later pieces

do, it is interesting to note that it still retains a triplicity theme in the three

decorative roundels. It is possible that because this is such an early piece

(350-50BC) that it predates the integration of the triskele into insular

Celtic art, but the same essence remains in the deliberate geometric

pattern and organic spiral patterns. This piece is actually British in origin

– though scholars often credit La Tene as being the period during which

the insular migration of the Celts occurred, thus marking the inception of

a new kind of Celtic identity which is predominately associated with

Ireland and Scotland, it would be a mistake to leave out Britain and Wales

from the equation. Ireland and Scotland certainly had a different relationship with the Romans than Britain did and it

would be possible to argue that as such their cultural identities were less infringed upon, but Britain has significant Celtic

heritage nonetheless. The Battersea Shield is an exceptional piece of La Tene material culture, named for the site of its

discovery – Battersea Bridge over the River Thames in London, England. It is not unique in this regard; many pieces of

La Tene style pieces were discovered in England, which makes a compelling argument for migration patterns,

intercultural trade and artistry techniques, and a common cultural denominator. It is difficult to say with absolute certainty

what the geographical range of these finds signifies, as they have been found on the islands of Ireland, Scotland and

Britain – it would seem to suggest a single group that migrated from mainland Europe and eventually developed different

nuances of culture which were traded back and forth, but ultimately some commonality of origin was retained, at least

through artistic motifs.

A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity

La Tene artistic motifs are the foundation for what is considered visually Celtic; yet the Celtic aesthetic is

coloured by contact with other cultures as well, such as Greek, Etruscan and Viking. This speaks to a continuum of

identity represented in visual context, merging several variable elements with strong recurrent themes to create something

which is visually striking and distinctive, but which also tells a story about the people who made it. Celtic art in general

and La Tene art in particular makes much use of the triple-whorled triskele symbol; when Ireland became a Christian

nation, the famous religious text the Book of Kells featured hundreds of triskele interspersed in the illuminated pages,

right alongside the apostles. Or there are the crosses of the Irish Christian saint, Brigid; traditionally they are visually very

similar to a triskele, though they generally sport four prongs rather than three – like the triskele, it is considered they are

meant to mimic an ancient solar symbol. Though Saint Brigid is very much a Christian figure, these crosses are talismans

of pagan origin, an echo of a cultural motif which was not extinguished but rather was transmogrified. It becomes a

powerful symbol of identity in Celtic art, one which endures despite the early overpowering influence of Christianity and

persists to this day.

Bibliography

Sources The Triskele in Celtic Art: Boltin, L. (1977) Treasures of Early Irish Art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. 4th ed. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions.

Raftery, J. (1939) Early Iron Age Decoration on the Dolmen at Rathkenny, Co. Meath. Journal of the County Louth

Archaeological Society, 9 (3).

Shee, E. (1981) The Megalithic Art of Western Europe. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Image Credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triskel_type_Amfreville.svg

The Battersea Shield: Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions.

Stevick, R. (2009) The Primary Plan of the Battersea Shield. Antiquaries Journal, 89 p.53. The British Museum (2012) The Battersea Shield. [online] Available at: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/t/the_battersea_shield.aspx [Accessed: November 6, 2012].

Image Credit:

http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/t/the_battersea_shield.aspx

A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity: Boltin, L. (1977) Treasures of Early Irish Art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. 4th ed. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions.

Mason, T. (1945) St. Brigid's Crosses. The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 75 (3). Image Credit: http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1887/

The Celtic Migrations By: David King

Introduction

:

Although their role has been somewhat diminished by recent genetic testing and developments in

archaeology, large-scale migrations are still an extremely important feature of Celtic history. Celtic society was

highly competitive, and migration may have been a way of relieving pressures such as overpopulation, land

shortage, and inter-tribal conflicts over prestige and hierarchy. The first migrations have been documented to

have begun between the 4th

and 5th

centuries BCE (Haywood 2001, 36). Scholars, through an examination of

archaeology and analysis of the extensive documentation by ancient scholars believe that the traditional

homelands of the Celts, Central Europe, were becoming heavily overpopulated (Cunliffe 1997, 74). This

increase in population in a society where the warrior system was so essential would have led to instability,

which may have been lessened by the migrations of certain populations. However, this may not account for all

migrations. The warrior elites of the early La Tene Celts maintained their position by acts of martial prowess

and by displaying their ability to command large retinues (Cunliffe 1997, 75). Both of these could be achieved

through the undertaking of large-scale raids, which, if successful would benefit the leader and his followers with

increases in prestige and material goods.

In short, a growing population could be dealt with in a few ways. In the simplest of situations, a leader

could find a new territory to occupy with his entourage. As a result, distinct enclaves of the elite warrior class

would have been carved out far enough from the homeland who would have kept their distinct identity long

enough to leave archaeologically-visible remains of their presence. At it’s most complicated form, migration

may have been the gathering of larger bands of roaming warriors with no particular territorial affiliation under

one leader. The growing population and strict social constraints would have left these young men with little to

claim for their own (possibly paralleling the hypothesis for the Viking raiding and migrations in the early

medieval period), and it would have taken little for one charismatic leader to take his entourage to the rich

south, east or west (James 1993, 52-54). Others would have followed, swelling the movement to a migration

and inspiring others to follow suit. A rapidly escalating situation such as this could be the reason for the

powerful and surprisingly quick migrations from Central Europe outwards.

Fig. 1: This is a general map of the Celtic migrations. The earliest migrations have been traditionally understood as being around

500-400 BCE into Iberia, Gaul and Britain, followed by the earliest movements southward from Germany to Cisalpine Gaul just

below the Alps (Haywood 2001 36-37). Just around that time, the Celts began an east and southeast movement as well, occupying

Pannonia and the modern day Balkans. Large-scale raids and mercenary action led the Celts deep into Italy and Greece, with three

tribes settling in Central Anatolia after a failed attack on Delphi during the mid 3rd

century BCE (Haywood 2001, 36-41). There was

further movement eastward, with some tribes possibly moving further into Scythia and the Bosphorus, while some Celts found

employment by the Ptolemies as mercenaries in Egypt during the 2nd

century BCE (James 1993, 41).

Section 1: Spain and Eastern Europe

Spain:

The origins and migration dates of the Celtiberians are mysterious and largely hypothetical. Traditional

interpretations of the Celtiberian migrations have followed the largely simplistic invasion model, with scholars

developing a ‘Two-Celtic-waves’ theory. This saw a wave of proto-Celts arriving from the Pyrenees around

1000 BCE, with a second, more complex, migration bringing in new peoples in the sixth century (Cunliffe

1997, 139). However, modern scholars believe this to be over-simple. Invasionist theories are rejected in favor

of a model based on assimilation of selected cultural aspects by the indigenous Iberian elites. This model is

based on the idea that the Iberians and Celts shared some early linguistic and ideological traits common to both

during the Bronze Age, making assimilation easier (Cunliffe 1997, 139). These characteristics include Iberian

personal and place names that are closely related to the earliest Celtic languages, as well as house architecture

that is almost identical to the British Celts (who have been long assumed to have had many early Celtic traits

compared to the continental Celts), burial rites, and natural religious rites in springs, oaks, and rivers. All these

traits are identical to the early Celts, leading scholars to believe that a proto-Celtic culture developed into what

we know as the Celtiberians (Cunliffe 1997, 137-140). This was achieved through migration from the west

bringing specific Celtic traits that were assimilated by the Iberian peoples, who already shared many similarities

with the Celtic newcomers.

Fig. 2: This image is a rough map of

the possible spread of the Celtic

language throughout Iberia. There

are no specific dates for the spread of

the Celtiberians, and scholars can

hypothesize that the Celts entered

Iberia around 500-400 BCE, asthe

Celtiberians had a distinctly Hallstatt

material culture. This has been

assumed to mean that the

Celtiberians migrated before the La

Tene material culture became

dominant.

Eastern Europe:

Celtic migration eastwards is a little less hazy. During the first migrations outward from the Celtic

homelands around 400 BCE, classical scholars largely agree that some part of this exodus moved eastwards

(James 1993, 40-41). Geography seems to dictate that they moved along the Danube corridor into Moravia,

Slovakia and Hungary. By 335 BCE, Celtic raiders are recorded in the Balkans, and one can assume that Celtic

settlers were entrenched in the region (Cunliffe 1997, 79). The fourth century BCE sees the development of

Celtic communities across the entire very large and very diverse territories of Moravia, Lower Austria,

Hungary, and southwest Slovakia. Populations and fighting bands moved comparatively freely over large

territories, intermingling and intermarrying with local peoples, making these Celts fairly different from those we

find in Gaul and the Po Valley. However, they were recognized as Celtic and spoke a Celtic language, so one

can recognize them as Celts (Cunliffe 1997, 172). The Celtic expansion from the Danube was in full force early

in the 3rd

century BCE, with major thrusts to the south and east clearing the Thracian kingdoms out of the way

and Celtic leaders establishing themselves there, such as the Kingdom of Tylis on the black sea. The Celts had

relations with the Macedonians, ranging from diplomatic embassies with Alexander himself in 335 BCE to the

slaughter of a Macedonian army and general in 280 BCE (Cunliffe 1997, 81). The Celts moved further east as

well, into the Ukraine. Their presence is specifically mentioned in a marble inscription in Olbia, dating to the

late third or early second century BCE, where a strong force of raiding Galatians threatened the city and were

repulsed (Cunliffe 1997, 175). Additional evidence is found through extensive La Tene metalwork and place

names, which are suggestive of settlement on a more permanent basis than that of a roving war band.

Fig 3: This is a large overview of

the Celtic spread eastwards,

starting with Pannonia around

400 BCE. A large-scale and

uniform material culture

developed in the east, where it

then began to spread down into

the Balkans, dominating local

Thracian, Illyrian and Dacian

tribes, as well as into southern

Ukraine the Bosphorus. A

distinct Celto-Thracian culture

developed. Celtic migration

eastwards came to a head with

the invasion of Greece by

Brennus.

Section 2: Celts in Italy

Around 400 BCE Celtic tribes, identified by Roman authors as Gauls, crossed the Alpine passes and descended upon the

Etruscan cities of the Po Valley and Tuscany (Haywood 2001, 42). Perhaps attracted by the luxuries they saw coming out of the

south, Celtic tribes began to settle in the area heavily enough to where the area began to be called Gallia Cisalpina, or ‘Gaul this side

of the Alps’ (James 1993, 34). These settlers were not the first Celtic speakers in the area, with the Golaseccan culture (originating

around 1000 BCE) speaking a Celtic language called Lepontic, perhaps indicated a high degree of Celtic contact and trade with

Northern Italy (Haywood 2001, 42). The migrations coincided when Rome, expanding her power northwards, was taking over the

southern Etruscan cities piece by piece. When the Celts demanded land to settle in the Etruscan town of Clusium, Rome flexed her

new power and sent ambassadors to act on behalf of the city. Negotiations broke down and in the ensuing battle a Celtic warlord was

killed. The Romans refused to pay recompense, and the Celts marched on Rome, destroying a Roman army at Allia and sacking the

city of Rome (James 1993, 34-35). This led to an overall movement of Celtic tribes into Northern Italy, with tribes such as the

Insubres, Cenomani, Senones and curiously the Eastern Celtic tribe of the Boii (who are found from Bohemia to Italy, perhaps

indicating the rise of a uniform and united Celtic tribal group) (Haywood 2001, 42-43).

This devastating blow to Roman power and authority may have been the reason for the unrest that gripped Central Italy for

the next century, in which Celtic tribes and warbands making common appearances. These raids can be best understood in the context

of the Celtic social system, which as mentioned in the introduction, employed raids as a way of maintaining and enhancing prestige

(Cunliffe 1997, 76). The tribes in the Po Valley constantly mounted expeditions such as this, but these were more ambitious and

permanent than the traditional Celtic raiding pattern. The presence of Celtic mercenary warriors was another matter. Cities as far

south as Syracuse, on the southern tip of Sicily, hired large contingents of Celtic mercenaries. Dionysus, a tyrant of Syracuse,

established a permanent colony at Ancona in the territories of the Senones to specifically have a deep pool of Celtic warriors (Cunliffe

1997, 77). These mercenaries saw action as far as Sparta and North Africa. However, as Rome began to regain strength and start a

new expansionist period, the Celts of the Po Valley found themselves facing a threat to their very existence. Celtic tribes began to

unites and create alliances with each other (perhaps indicating a recognition of ethnic and cultural unity), raiding more frequently and

more seriously, but Rome was not be deterred (Cunliffe 1997, 75-78). After a series of devastating wars and battles that took almost a

hundred years, the Celtic presence in Italy was snuffed out by 191 BCE (Haywood 2001, 43).

Fig. 4: This map is a general overview of the Celtic presence in Italy. Starting in around 400 BCE, the

Celts moved southward across the Alps into the Po Valley, crushing the Etruscans and coming into

conflict with the Romans in the early fourth century BCE. The Celts thrust as far down as modern day

Ancona, creating permanent settlements and developing a distinct Celtic culture that drew heavily on

Latin, Estruscan and Greek influences.

Fig. 5: An artists rendering of the Battle of Telamon, where a great Celtic confederacy was

crushed in 225 BCE.

Section 3: The Galatians

The Celtic settlement of Anatolia was a result of the famous Celtic invasion of Greece, led by Brennus

and Achichoris in 279 BCE (Haywood 2001, 38). After sacking Delphi, the invading army was hounded out of

Greece and split up, where one element, consisting of the Trocmi, Tolistobogii, and Tectosages and led by

Lenorios and Lutorios, was hired by King Nicomedes of Bithynia who wanted them to fight in his was the

against the Seleucid Empire (Haywood 2001, 40). What is most interesting about this is that half their total

numbers of 20,000 were non-combatants (women, children and aged) (Cunliffe 1997, 83). This suggests that

unlike the warriors who chose to follow Brennus on his raid, the groups who stayed with Lenorios and Lutorios

were migrant populations in search of new land to settle. These Celts were settled first in the disputed land

between Bithynia and the Seleucid Empire, but after being defeated by Antiochus I, Basileus of the Seleucid

Empire, these Celts moved into the highland areas in the center of Anatolia (James 1993, 41-42). For the next

half-century, these Celts, known as Galatians, were a scourge, unbeatable in battle and plundering almost every

city in Western Anatolia (Cunliffe 1997, 84). Antiochus II himself was even killed in battle against the

Galatians in 261 BCE (James 1993, 40). Until Attalus of Pergamum defeated them in 233 BCE at the Springs

of Kaikos, the Galatians were the dominant power in Anatolia (Cunliffe 1997, 84). The Seleucid and Ptolemaic

rulers used the Galatians extensively as mercenaries, although they seemed to be somewhat unruly and

temperamental. These mercenaries were sometimes entire tribes, hired by rulers and settled in certain areas

(Cunliffe 1997, 84). However, these tribes could get out of hand, as in cases where Prusias of Bithynia had to

slaughter an entire Celtic tribe settled in Phrygia as they kept sacking his cities and destroying his armies (James

1993, 41).

The Galatians, while numerous, ruled a substantial pre-existing population, although they seem to have

kept themselves apart. They preserved their culture and identity for generations, and a strong literary record of

their government gives modern scholars insight into how Celtic tribes governed themselves. Each tribe was

divided into four septs, or clans, probably with distinct territories. A chief ruled each sept, and he was assisted

by a martial leader, two deputy martial leaders, and a judge. It is not clear whether these were elected

magistracies like those found in Gaul, but the twelve septs sent a total of 300 ‘senators’ (possibly the five

officials mentioned previously, in addition to twenty others from each sept) to a national assembly held at a

central shrine called Drunemeton (James 1993, 40-41). There was no real central government or national

Fig. 6: This image maps out the movement of the Galatians into Anatolia, after being repulsed by the

Greeks in the Celtic raid on Delphi. Some parts of the invading force moved back into the Balkans,

even as far as Southern Gaul, while others set up kingdoms along the Black Sea. Three tribes, the

Trocmi, Tolistobogii, and the Tectosages, moved into Central Anatolia.

policy, as the tribes were too jealous of their independence and seemed to have often fought among themselves

(Cunliffe 1993, 85). If there was any doubt to whether this was a truly Celtic system, this last part is trait found

in almost every Celtic group in the world. In the formative century following the first incursion of the Celts

into Asia, the Celtic tribes, fed by constant new arrivals from Europe, maintained a distinctive lifestyle in which

the raid and mercenary service remained an essential part of the social system. The maintenance of a Celtic

social structure, and a further sense of ethnic identity implied by the extensive use of the name ‘Galatian’, is a

remarkable reflection of the strength of Celtic culture. Even after Roman conquest and assimilation in the first

century BCE, aspect of Galatian culture survived. An impressive example of this is the persistence of their

language. When Saint Jerome visited Anatolia in the fourth century AD, he remarked that the language used by

the Galatians around Ancyra was similar to that he had heard among the Treveri at Trier (Southern Germany).

Perhaps, although this is from the hindsight of modern scholarship, he was recognizing the Celtic ancestry of

both peoples.

Fig. 6: A general map of the Galatian territories, as well as documented raids, battles and

settlements. The Galatians largely focused their raids into the vulnerable kingdoms of

the West and South, until they were defeated by Attalus of Pergamum in 233 BCE.

References:

1. Haywood J., 2001. Atlas of the Celtic World. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London

2. Cunliffe B., 1999. The Ancient Celts. Penguin Publishing, London

3. James S., 1993. The World of the Celts. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London.

Images:

1. Figure 1: http://mythicmysteriesmiscellany.devhub.com/blog/498735-celtic-migrations/

2. Figure 2: http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html

3. Figure 3: http://baks449.blogspot.ca/2009/09/chapter-53-klingenbach-way-way-back.html

4. Figure 4: http://www.llmap.org/maps/by-country/ita.html

5. Figure 5: https://crux.baker.edu/~cleppa01/Gallico%20Cingeto/resources.html

6. Figure 6: http://balkancelts.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/galatia/

The British Celts:

Recently, a huge archaeological discovery has been uncovered in Britain. A team of archaeologists uncovered a cobbled

road that dates to 100 years before the Romans invaded and civilized Britain (Ellicott, 2011). Tim Malin, the lead

archaeologist, was brought in to uncover what was thought to be a Roman Road. When Mr. Malin dug deeper he found

that a Roman road was actually built on top of an Iron Age road that dates back 100 years before the Romans invaded

Britain. This is the first discovery of a road that has been engineered in several stages and can be conclusively

determined to have been built before the Romans arrived.

The road that was discovered was only 1000 ft. However, the newly discovered road is thought to have been connected

to another road that could have been 40 miles long. This road was created in three different stages; the first stage was

to lay down elder wood as a base, the second stage was to lay silt on top of the elder wood, and the last stage was to lay

river cobbles on top of the silt, which created the highway. Ellicott raises a point where by the Romans may have been

inspired by these Celts, seen as how the Romans actually built on top of the original road. If the Romans were inspired

by this maybe they would have learned from the British Celts and used their techniques to improve their own road

systems.

We can see from another source (Raimund) that Irish roads and British roads may be very similar to one another. This

means that the Celts in Ireland were skilled road builders and from that we could also conclude that the Celts in Britain

were skilled road builders. The Celts may have been a lot more efficient then people give them credit and there is the

possibility that they may have influenced the Romans when building new roads.

The Gaulish Celts:

The Romans, when first encountered the Celts were quite impressed by their appearance (Moulton, 1998, p119).

However, the Celts had very different fashion style from the Romans, the Celts clothing was a lot more practical.

The Romans fashion was based mainly on togas. Fashion started to change within the Roman Empire in the later years.

The Romans adopted the Celtic clothing, as it was more practical. The Celtic clothing consisted of fitted pants, gold

collars around their necks, and a hooded woolen cap. When the Romans adopted Celtic clothing they adopted the fitted

pants, and a cape, women wore a mantle to cover their head (Moulton, 1998, p118). The Romans realized that this is

more practical clothing and adopted this fashion into their own wardrobe.

The Celts were also quite superior in various trades when compared to the Romans (Griffin, 1996). The Celts produced

linen and woolen garments that were of the highest quality and that only the wealthiest Romans could afford. The Celts

also produced very fashionable boots that Romans adored. Recovered fragments of textiles produced by the Celts show

the skill required to create these high quality products. This skill level can only have been maintained from a well-

ordered system of craft apprenticeship.

The Celts, already known for their skill in making crafts and other products, are credited with another important

invention called the ‘four horned saddle’ (Gawronski, 2004). The Celts in Gaul commonly used horses for many different

purposes, so it is entirely possible that they could have invented a more advanced saddle for their riders. The saddle

contained two horns on the front and the back of the saddle, the back horns provide support the rider needs, while the

front two horns stop the rider from somersaulting off (Gawronski, 2004). There is some controversy with this saddle as

there is a possibility it was invented somewhere else, but it does seem like the Romans adopted the saddle after the

Celts and found that this saddle was superior to their own.

When Caesar invaded and captured Gaul into the Roman Empire he saw an opportunity to profit off of the local

agricultural skill he had seen. The Celts had great skill in rearing cattle, growing and harvesting crops. Caesar saw this

skill and used the Celts to produce food for him for eight years when he was at war in Gaul fighting (Filip, 1977). The

Celts were incredibly skilled people who’s influence was much wider then people believe. The Gaulish Celts were

incredibly important for the Roman empire for if it wasn’t for their skill the Romans would never have been able to be as

successful as they were.

The Iberian Celts:

The Celtic migrations have previously been covered in this magazine. We know that there are many different kinds of

Celts and that really the only thing relating the Celts is there language. Each Celtic tribe had essentially a different

society with different material culture.

The Celts that had migrated to Iberia had very different war tactics from say, the Gaulish Celts. Many sources point to

the fact that the Romans actually adopted a type of sword from the Iberian Celts and introduced it into the Roman

infantry as their main weapon.

This weapon may have been referred to as the gladius hispaniensis. There are literary sources that describe the Romans

adopting a shorter sword that allows for greater thrusting and stabbing movements (Roth). Due to the ingenuity of the

Celts in Iberia the Romans were never able to reproduce this sword exactly like the Celtiberians, they were very well

skilled in their metal works and the Romans were never able to match this skill (Roth).

If we are to look at the above figure we can see a theoretical model, created through archaeological evidence, of the

evolution of weapons throughout a half-century. Throughout the half-century it is amazing how many different

weapons were modified and used. We can see from the model that the Romans adopted weapons used by the Celts in

Iberia, or Celtiberia as it says in the figure. It is hard to note which weapon was called the gladius hispaniensis; however,

it may just be a term used in the manufacturing process like toledo steel (Quesada Sanz, 1997). From this figure we can

conclude that there are similarities between the weapons used by the Celtiberians and the Roman Empire. The Roman

Empire adapted the weapon to their precise needs, but they were able to recognize the importance of the

characteristics of this sword and adopt it into their arsenal.

Bibliography: Celtic Influence on the Romans

Cover Page (left to right):

http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/iron-agehttp://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/boudica/map.html

http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/images/reconstruction-ploughing-iron-age

http://downeastblog.blogspot.ca/2007_09_23_archive.html

http://asifbymagiccostumes.com/weaponry/gladius-hispaniensis/

http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html

The British Celts:

Ellicott, Clare. "So what did the Romans do for us? Archaeologists find cobbled road that was built 100 years BEFORE they invaded." Mail Online [London] 16 Mar. 2011: n. pag. Roman road doubt after discovery cobbled built 100 years before invasion | Mail Online. Web. 24 Oct. 2012.

Raimund, Karl. "Chariotry and the Road Systems in the Celtic World." Google Scholar. Google, n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2012. <http://homepage.tinet.ie/~archaeology/roadtonowhere.pdf>.

Ellicot, Claire. Sharpstone Road Construction Stages. 2011. Mail Online, London. Web. 15 Oct 2012.

The Gaulish Celts:

Filip, Jan. "Farming and Land Ownership." Celtic Civilization and Its Heritage. Wellingborough [Eng.: Collet's, 1977. 110-13. Print.

Gawronski, R. S. "Some Remarks on the Origins and Construction of the Roman Military Saddle." Archeologia 55 (2004): 31-40. CEJSH Publication information. Web. 24 Oct. 2012.

Griffin, Nick. "The Celts." National Vanguard Magazine Aug. - Sep. 1996: n. pag. The Celts: Part II.

"Celts." Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia for Students. Ed. Carroll Moulton. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998. 118-119. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct. 2012.

The Iberian Celts:

Quesada Sanz, F. "Gladius Hispaniensis : An Archaeological View from Iberia." Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 8 (1997): 251-70. Print.

Roth, Catherine. "Sword." The Suda. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. The Suda On Line. Web. 3 Nov. 2012. <http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&searchstr=Romans+adopted&field=any&num_per_page=100>.

Quesada Sanz, F. Suggested evolution of Celtiberian and Iberian sword types and the origin of the gladius

hispaniensis. 1997. Gladius Hispaniensis: An Archaeological View from Iberia. Web. 2 Nov 2012.

King Arthur in Celtic Legend

The Legend of King Arthur:

Amid the hundreds of legendary heroes throughout history there is one man who stands out. King Arthur is

one of the most well known legends of all time with countless plays, novels and films portraying his life.

Though he is mentioned in early historical accounts of battles most of the history surrounding the Arthur

legend is fabricated. There is little evidence to show that the characters we know and love from these versions

ever existed. Merlin, Guinevere, Lancelot and Mordred were all added into the story later. One of the earliest

mentions of Arthur is in the

believe that he will rise again giving him the title, The Once and Future King. Though King Arthur’s significance

appears to be based in British history it is thought that he was more of a hero to the Celts. This is where he

first appeared in sources and previous to this he was a feature of many oral histories. The Celts saw him as a

hero before the modern world tangled him up into this polished version that we now see.

Historia Brittonum, written by Nennius around the ninth

century. In this text he is said to have fought in nine

battles against the Saxons. However, there are some

historians who believe that he was involved in twelve

battles as twelve is a mystical number. The image of

Arthur as a wild barbarian figure has changed quite a lot

with retellings of the story. Many now see him as a wise

king sitting on a jewelled throne. His image has become

romanticised and the peoples of Europe revere him for

the heroic deeds he is said to have done. The legend has

developed to include the love story between Arthur’s

best knight Lancelot and his wife, Guinevere. One of his

greatest achievements is thought to be the Round Table,

which caused every knight who sat around it to be made

equal in status. Many of Arthur’s knights are thought to

have ventured on chivalrous quests and adventures.

Arthur himself is supposed to have set off with his knights

in search of the Holy Grail which ultimately resulted in his

disappearance. He is said to now sleep on the isle of

Avalon, the mystical land of the great priestesses, where

he will remain until there is a crisis that requires he wake.

Many people

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inns

bruck_1_262.jpg

Statue of King Arthur, Fifteenth

century

Arthur in the Celtic World:

The King Arthur that we know today still has the bare bones of his history; he is a warrior hero from an age

where we know little. Over time he has grown as an influence of propaganda and wise monarchial rule. But

Arthur’s Celtic origins are undeniable. The Arthur of the late sixth century and onwards is most likely a

combination of a British chief of the same name and the Celtic god, Artaius. Although many Celts before this

time saw him as near godlike. The oldest story featuring Arthur is the Welsh tale of Kilhwch and Olwen. In this

tale Kilhwch is sent off on a quest that will likely kill him. His quest leads him to Arthur’s castle where he asks

for

seven men from three ships returned from the expedition. Perhaps the reasoning behind the awe of King

Arthur was that he was famed as such a great ruler. He was fair and just but he was also courageous in a way

that was liable to lead others into danger. His knights loved him so furiously that they would follow him into

any situation despite its propensity for death. In fact, more often than not they faced situations such as these

to test their allegiance to the king and the kingdom. This kind of loyalty is rare anywhere in history. This

worked well for Arthur as he was often in battle.

assistance. Arthur sends some knights to

help him and Kilhwch marries a fair

maiden, accomplishing many impossible

tasks in the process. This tale is the first

to recognize Arthur’s kingship and his

undeniable chivalry. Another tale of

Arthur that can be tied directly to Celtic

myth is that of Taliesin the Bard. This

man, who is a legend himself, wrote of

how he accompanied the king on a quest

for the Head of Annwfn. This is one of

the earlier mentions of a grail-like chalice

or magical cauldron. Though apparently

the journey ended in disaster as only

Culhwch riding into King Arthur’s court

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Culhwch.jpg

Arthur in Battle:

Arthur’s will to defeat his enemies in battle was legendary. He was rumored to have killed hundreds of Saxons

with his own hand. He commanded great respect for his victories, though some of them may have been

slightly over exaggerated. He had enormous armies at his disposal as other kings would join him in combat. It

is the belief of many historians that Arthur was important to the Celts because, he helped them escape the

tyranny of a transforming world. The battles that he fought against the Saxons ensured that the Celts would

be free to

retreated, Arthur followed them in the hopes that he might attack the reinforcements before they could

regroup. He succeeded in his ploy and proceeded onwards to be crowned as the king. Then he found the Picts

and the Gauls who had fought with the Saxons and pardoned them for their misdeeds. The Celts see Arthur as

a great hero and rightfully so, he saved them all from being overtaken by the Saxon hordes. Though there is

much debate over the accuracies of the Arthurian legends it cannot be denied that there was a man

somewhere who was named Arthur. It is quite possible that he was a Great War hero and that he was a valiant

Christian man. And he very likely was a friend to the Celts and the Britons. We may never know if he existed

and we may only speculate on his history; but he will never be forgotten.

The Battle of Badon Hill

http://koc.wikia.com/wiki/Badon

practice their culture safely. Arthur can be

traced to either nine or twelve battles

depending on the source. One that identifies

with the Celts is a Welsh battle by the name

of Cat Coit Celidon. It is based on a battle

listing poem from the late fifth to early sixth

century. The most recognized of the battles is

the Battle of Mount Badon; which can be

corroborated as an actual event in history

whether a King Arthur fought there or not.

Historians believe that it occurred somewhere

around 500 AD. Arthur and his hundreds of

troops fought against the Saxons at Mount

Badon and vanquished them easily. Some

texts see this battle as the reason behind

Arthur taking the throne so easily. He was

said to have killed 960 Saxons by his own

hand. After the remaining Saxons had

Bibliography for Celtic Arthur Barber, R. King Arthur: Hero & Legend. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004.

Field, P.J.C. "Arthur's Battles." Arthuriana, 2008: 3-32.

Halsall, P. "Nennius: The History of the Britons." Fordham University. April 1996.

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/nennius.asp (accessed November 3, 2012).

Littleton, C.S., and A. C. Thomas. "The Sarmatian Connection: New Light on the Origin of the Arthurian and Holy Grail

Legends." The Journal of American Folklore, 1978: 513-527.

Rolleston, T.W. The Illustrated Guide to Celtic Mythology. London: Studio Editions, 1993.

Russell, J.C. "Arthur and the Romano-Celtic Frontier." Modern Philology, 1951: 145-153.

Simpson, J.R. "King Arthur's Enchanted Sleep: Early Nineteenth Century Legends." Folklore, 1986: 206-209.

Thompson, A. "History of the Kings of Britain." In History of the Kings of Britan, by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Cambridge:

Medieval Latin Studies, 1999.

Williams, M. "King Arthur in History & Legend." Folklore, 1962: 73-88.

Celtic Christianity:

The Celts are an adaptable people. This is probably the reason behind them being among the oldest surviving culture and people. The adaption of their culture that has had the most lasting impact on Celts today was their conversion to Christianity. The Celts had dispersed to several regions; mostly by the 3rd century they had settled on land that became known as the six Celtic nations (Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and the Isle of Mann). As they were not a unified people they converted over an extended period of time. Once Christianized they were official Roman Catholic but soon they developed their own version of the faith, Celtic Christianity.

By the time the Roman Empire hand fallen the Celts had largely converted to Christianity. Ireland had been converted largely in the 3rd century by the famous Saint Patrick. However after the center of Rome had moved to eastern Byzantium, or Constantinople as it was renamed, the Celts were disconnected. This factor caused it to diverge from mainstream Christianity. In a way this divergence longer preserved the older traditions of the faith in addition to Roman Latin.

Celtic Christianity differed from the traditional Christianity in several aspects. One of the defining

differences is the manner in which the Celts calculated Easter. Sadly though, most of the practices that were

distinctive to this version of Christianity were lost. Luckily two books were preserved, the Bobbio and the

Stowe Misslas, which contain The Irish Ordinary of a Daily mass which is in a later Romanized form. The Celts

are an adaptable people and as such they have made Christianity suit them.

This is an image of St. Michaels Church in

Tintern Village Wales. The original church

was dedicated to St. Michael in 765 AD

though the site was believed to have been a

place of worship long before that. The

Church photographed above is a

reconstruction done in 1846 AD

Celtic Churches

A Church built in the Celtic world is unique. They are built to please an aesthetic very different to that of

where the faith originated. After the shift of power in the Roman Empire and then the disconnect of the Celtic

world they began to build a different style of church.

During the period that the early Celtic churches were

built other people were building very opulent buildings.

The Byzantine churches were not always largely decorated

from the outside but reflected the belief of the time that

the exterior is unimportant compared to the interior, thus

the interior was ornate. The Celtic churches however were

completely simple. The builders were not as familiar with

stone work as they were with wood and this is reflected in

the work. The buildings produced were very simple. Many

of the earlier religious sites were built on the same spots

as druid colleges or sacred pagan places. The early

monasteries were individual beehive huts with a round

church thatched in reeds, straw or sods. The later

monasteries were larger as there was more interaction

between the monks. These were made of wattle or planks

of wood, stone was not used until later. When they did

start building in stone they were very simple constructions.

They were rectangular with one open space. Sadly we do not

have complete surviving churches from this period but we do

have fragments and reconstructions. They preserve the

history but have added details such as bell towers. Many of

these reconstructions were built in the 18 hundreds. This is

when the Celtic church remerged after it had been deemed

unorthodox in the 13th century, when missionaries were sent to these nations and found a different version of

their faith. After that the Celts largely converted to Catholicism until their traditions re-emerged and blended

with it.

The Celtic church is very distinctive and ripe with history. The structures they built to house their faith reflect

that in their construction.

Ahenny High crosses

The Cross is the iconic symbol of Christianity; it is the universal symbol of the faith. As such different regions have

their own way of adapting the symbol to their aesthetic. The Irish High Crosses are well known as the Celtic deviations of

this symbol.

The Ahenny High Crosses are among the earliest group of

ringed High Crosses. These two particular crosses belong to the

Ossory group. They are Located in Ahenny, County Tipperary,

near the Kilkenny border one of these crosses face North while

the other faces South (which direction each cross faces designate

what it is called). Fabricated from sandstone these two crosses

are very similar in design. They were both erected approximately

in the 8th to 9th century. The North Facing cross stands 3.65

meters while the South Facing cross stands 3.35 meters.

It is thought that these crosses imitate earlier wooden crosses

which were encased with metal binding; this is thought to be true

as the stone bosses on the cross imitate the metal. Both of these

crosses are skilfully carved with intricate geometric designs that

are characteristic of Celtic design. The iconic Celtic Knot design is

present throughout the cross. This design feature is present

because of the early time frame these crosses with built. Later

High Crosses concentrate on biblical scenes while these crosses

have no such references on the crosses themselves only these

interlacing designs on all surfaces. The bases however do have

some figures carved on them but they are difficult to decipher.

There have been many interpretations of these figures such as,

the northern side north cross base being said to carry scenes of a

procession with a chariot. The southern side of the base is

identified as funeral procession of Cormac Mac Cuilennain who

was the Bishop-King of Munster (south). On the East side of the

same cross is a figural scene of Adam naming the animals.

However this is just one of the interpretations. The west side depicts the scene of the Mission of the Apostles and the

seven Bishops.

Crosses such as these are very informative about the culture they originated from. It shows how the Celts adapted

the Christian Faith to suit their aesthetic and traditions. They represent the Celtic church.

Celtic Religious Literature:

Many of the most precious items to come out of the Middle Ages are religious in nature. Among these items are some

truly spectacular bibles. The Celts have adapted illuminations to suit their aesthetic and their symbolism like they have

done with many items throughout their constant transformations. Arguably among the most terrific examples of these

religious texts is the Lindisfarne Gospels.

This masterpiece was created around 700 AD at a Monastery

in Lindisfarne, close to Northumberland. While there is no

way to come to a definite conclusion it is presumed that this

Gospel was created by Eadfrith, who became Bishop of

Lindisfarne in 698 and died in 721. For certain it has been

deducted that the entirety of this work was created by one

individual (aside from the red marking in the margin that are

from a later date) and as such its creation was a form of

prayer.

This beautiful book is an example of melded art, it has

elements that show the blending of traditions. Throughout

the lettering there is the decorative use of Celtic knots. In

addition to that there are also animal motifs that are

common among the Celts. An example of an animal detail

can be found on this particular page on the right side and

bottom borders, in these borders there are birds. The right

side border also becomes a feline at the bottom. Design

features such as these can be found throughout the book.

The other opening pages of the gospels are similarly designed and the carpet pages are also rich in Celtic motifs. The

four Carpet pages all have a general cross shape, though all different, and are heavily decorated in geometric patterns

often including the iconic Celtic Knot. Such details are not wholly Christian and therefore show that the priest who was

responsible for the books creation was influenced by his cultural history.

Items such as this one are crucial in understanding the culture that created it. This sacred text paints a picture of a

unique blend of cultures that made up the Medieval Celtic world.

This is the Cover Page of the Gospel of

Luke in the Lindisfarne Gospel. It comes

after the portrait of the Apostle and it

gives an opening.

Bibliography for Celtic Christianity

Literary Sources Celtic Christianity: Rolleston, T. W., 1993. The Illustrated Guide to Celtic Mythology. London: Studio Editions Ltd.. Toynbee, A., 1966. Larouse Enclyclopedia of Ancient and Medieval History. 2 ed. Paris: Librairie Larousse. Celtic Churches: Russil, J., 2010. St Michael's Church, Tintern. [Online] Available at: http://www.tintern.org.uk/michael.htm Schaff, P., 2009. History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073.. s.l.:Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Celtic Crosses: Cultural Heritage Ireland, n.d. The Ahenny High Crosses, near Carrick-On-Suir, Co. Tipperary. [Online] Available at: http://www.culturalheritageireland.ie/index.php/heritage-sites-and-centres/95-the-ahenny-high-crosses-near-carrick-on-suir-co-tipperary [Accessed 2012]. Richardson , H. & Scarry, J., 1990. An Introduction to High Crosses. Dublin: Mercier Press. Schorr, K. D. & Schorr, F. J., 2004. [Online] Available at: http://highcrosses.org/ahenny/index.htm [Accessed 2009]. Celtic Literature: British Library, n.d. The Lindisfarne Gospels. [Online] Available at: http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/lindisfarne.html Ward, J., n.d. The Lindisfarne Gospels. [Online] Available at: http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/gospels/

Images: Figure # 1 (Section cover page) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg Celtic scenery and cross

Figure #2 (Celtic Churches) http://www.tintern.org.uk/michael.htm St. Michaels Church at Tintern

Figure #3 (Celtic Crosses) http://www.megalithicireland.com/High%20Cross%20Ahenny.htm High Cross at Ahenny

Figure #4 (Celtic Literature) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lindisfarne_Gospels_folio_139r.jpg Source: British Library Online Exhibit Introductory Page from the Lindisfarne Gospel

Image Source Section Title Copyright

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg

Section cover page

Introduction to Celtic Christianity

Public Domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galician_Celtic_Stele_-_Estela_Galaica_.jpg

Index Galician

Celtic Stele public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg

Back cover

Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovic

public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_Gallia_Tribes_Towns.png

Front Cover flap

Map of Galia Tribes towns

public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celts_in_III_century_BC.jpg Front Cover flap

Map of the Celts in 3

rd

century

public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cesare_prima_Gallia_58_a.C._jpg.jpg

Front Map of Cesare Prima Galia

Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muiredach_s_Cross.jpg Back Cover Flap

High Cross at Muiredach

Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parade_helmet.jpg Back cover flap

Parade Helmet

Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ardagh_chalice.jpg Back cover flap

Ardagh Chalice

Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_sword_and_scabbard_circa_60_BCE.jpg

Photographed at the Metropolitan museum of art

Cover Celtic sword and scabbard circa 60 BCE.

Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg

cover The famous

Celtic shield found at Battersea

Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apparition_saint_graal.jpg

cover Apparition du Saint Graal Cote

Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dying_gaul.jpg cover Dying man Public domain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meister_des_Book_of_Lindisfarne_002.jpg

Source: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. cover Meister des

Book of Lindisfarne

Public domain