53 Technical Articles

The world of nuclear power is constantly evolving, and in this regard it is hard to ignore the big new trend in the world centering on small modular reactors (SMRs). While China is certainly not yet the leader in this field, there are many notable developments regarding SMRs in China. Just like in other parts of the world, SMRs in China represent an exciting new sector for nuclear power.

History of SMR Development in China

China has been working on small reactor designs since it tested and launched its nuclear submarines in the 1970s. China has developed several small-scale reactors including Qinshan Phase I, the CNP-300, which was China’s first commercial PWR and falls into the small reactor category (i.e., less than 300 MWe in capacity). Although China has focused mostly on large-scale PWRs as its technology of choice, China also began developing SMRs for different applications back in the 1980s. China developed, built, and operated a Nuclear Heating Reactor (NHR) with a power capacity of 5 MWe, NHR-5 for district heating supply and seawater desalination. A High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTR) with a power capacity of 10 MWe, the HTR-10, was later built in Beijing. A team led by Tsinghua University and Huaneng Group is now expanding the HTR-10 design to a modular design with a power capacity of 200 MWe. Construction works for this HTR-PM demonstration project at Shidaowan, Shangdong Province, started in December 2012.

Recently, CNNC also announced its own small modular design, called the ACP-100. This is a 100- 150 MWe PWR designed for electricity, heat, and/or desalination. A plant utilizing this design will have a flexible configuration, scalable from one to eight modules. CNNC already signed an agreement in 2011 with the Zhangzhou municipal government in Fujian Province, which is planning to host the first ACP-100 demonstration plant.

Meanwhile, China has also become a calling point for many international designers and developers of SMRs and advanced reactor designs. Companies that have been reportedly in

negotiations with the Chinese nuclear industry include Babcock & Wilcox (B&W) – designer of the mPower reactor, as well as NuScale Power, and Hyperion (now 4Gen).

Key Drivers for China’s SMR Development

Although China has worked on small reactors for several decades, until very recently the country has had no strategic plan to develop and deploy these technologies. Therefore, China’s small reactor design program has been limited to small scale R&D without major advances.

In the 1990s, China obtained pebble-bed HTR technologies from Germany through Chinese engineers sent there to study nuclear engineering. After their studies, these engineers came back and became a major working force at Tsinghua’s Institute of Nuclear Energy Technology (INET) to conduct the HTR-10 project. Since China’s policy shift to strongly promote nuclear energy in the mid-2000s, the nuclear industry gradually became more interested in SMR designs partially due to the global emphasis on SMRs, which remains strong even after Fukushima.

China’s nuclear industry now also has financial support from the government and sufficient investment from power companies to develop demonstration units for SMR technologies. In addition, China has realized that there is a huge gap with other major nuclear power countries in terms of technology innovation, and it is working hard to close this gap. In the near future, China aims to transform from a technology importer to an exporter.

Although Chinese nuclear officials have often mentioned that small reactor applications could be a solution to help remote areas without grid infrastructure and coastal areas lacking fresh water, domestic applications are unlikely to be a major driving force. Instead, technology innovation and goals to export serve as the primary drivers for SMR development in China.

Organizations Involved

Several organizations are involved in SMR work in China,

SMRs in China: An Exciting New Sector

By Yun Zhou and Jonathan Hinze, The Ux Consulting Company, LLC

54 Technical Articles

including academic organizations, technology companies, nuclear utilities, and other investors.

Since Chinese small reactor programs are still at the R&D stage, there have been only two major institutes involved: INET at Tsinghua University and the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) under CNNC. INET, as a pure academic institute, is China’s pioneer in working on small reactor R&D programs. Its engineers and researchers designed NHR-5, NHR-200, HTR-10, and HTR-PM for different applications. In addition, it also works on supercritical light water reactor technologies for submarines. NPIC has provided engineering design work for the ACP-100 reactor.

As the first power company that invested in small reactor concepts, China Huaneng Group formed a joint investment, Huaneng Shandong Shidaowan Nuclear Power Company (HSSNPC) along with China Nuclear Engineering Group Corporation and Tsinghua Holdings Group to construct the first HTR-PM demonstration plant in the Shandong province (China Huaneng Group has 47.5% share; CNECC has a 32.5% stake; and Tsinghua University’s INET 20%).

In addition, China Guodian Group formed a joint investment, Zhangzhou Energy Company, with CNNC to develop the first ACP-100 demonstration plant in Zhangzhou, Fujian (CNNC has 80% share; China Guodian has 20% share).

China Power Investment Corporation (CPIC), which is one of the three power companies that can own and operate nuclear power plants in China, is also interested in small reactor designs and is currently conducting research on small reactor project siting and already signed a collaborative agreement with Zhuzhou municipal government in Hunan Province.

China Guangdong Nuclear Power Corporation (CGNPC) seems to be behind on the small reactor design and development competition; however, CGNPC is making some progress in this area. China Nuclear Power Technology Research Institute (CNPRI), the R&D branch of CGNPC, formed a team which is responsible for small reactor R&D in 2012 and hosted a small reactor forum in Xi’An in September 2012. In addition, CGNPC also has held talks with NuScale from the U.S.

SNPTC, the state-owned enterprise that is in charge of AP1000 technology transfer is also aware of the competition. It has held talks with B&W in the U.S. to seek potential opportunities on small reactor technology transfer.

Current and Future Projects

Currently, the HTR-PM and ACP-100 are the two most promising designs to move forward to the demonstration stage.

After several years of development and small-scale testing of a prototype in Beijing, a demonstration 210 MWe high-temperature, gas-cooled pebble-bed reactor called the HTR-PM was approved by the Chinese government in November 2005 for construction at Shidaowan, near Rongcheng in Weihai City, Shandong Province. The Shidaowan demonstration plant is slated to pave the way for an 18-unit (3,780 MWe) power plant. However, the first step in the HTR-PM project consists of construction of two commercial-scale 210 MWe units, although it is considered a demonstration plant. Although the project obtained a construction permit in 2009, it only began construction in December 2012 due to differing views within China’s nuclear industry that questioned the safety performance of pebble-bed core designs amid China’s post-Fukushima reviews. At the end of 2012, the project finally obtained the permit to proceed and poured first concrete.

It has been estimated that construction time for the first demonstration project will be approximately 50 months after first concrete. Currently, the project has pre-ordered 90% (in costs) of its components, and many of these are in the midst of manufacturing. Large key components, such as the reactor pressure vessel (RPV), steam generators, and turbine-generator systems have been ordered. Except for the RPV and steam generators (SGs), all components can be derived from standard nuclear-grade manufacturing. It appears that Shanghai Electric Co. will produce the RPV, Harbin will be in charge of the SGs, and Fangda Carbon New Material Technology Co. will be in charge of the reactor vessel internals. Therefore, there is little concern that China will be able to produce the necessary major components for the HTR-PM. Meanwhile, the main Helium ventilator and control rod drive mechanism (CRDM) are still in R&D. Instrumentation and control (I&C) systems and electrical equipment remain weak points, where foreign suppliers may be enlisted to complete the supply chain.

HTR-PM Source: Tsinghua INET

55 Technical Articles

The HTR-PM team has already completed comprehensive testing of key technologies for fuel kernel production. A fuel production line is under construction with capacity of producing 300,000 fuel elements per year at Northern Fuel Fabrication Plant in Inner Mongolia. China also has a contract with SGL Group in Germany for supply of the initial 500,000 machined graphite spheres for the HTR-PM demonstration project. However, validation of large scale fabrication of the pebble fuel with high quality has yet to be proven. This may still be a challenge for the HTR-PM team.

Besides its technical challenges, the economics of HTR-PM are still questionable compared to large-scale PWRs. Strategies are proposed to lower its cost, including simplified reactor auxiliary, I&C, and electrical systems as well as modular construction.

ACP-100

With the international trend moving forward on SMR studies, CNNC’s NPIC started focusing on developing a small integrated modular PWR with passive safety features in 2010. CNNC views ACP-100 as a multi-purpose energy resource. It can be applied for both electricity and process-heat generation as well as water desalination, and it could be easily adaptable to remote areas that have limited energy options or industrial infrastructure.

News reports claim that ACP-100’s engineering design work was to be completed by the end of 2012, when the preliminary safety assessment report was delivered. CNNC has plans to obtain the construction permit by the end of 2013.

A plant utilizing this design will have a flexible configuration, with between one and eight modules. The first demonstration project in Zhangzhou is slated to start construction at the end of 2013 with an aggressive construction schedule. It is set to provide the city with electricity, heat, and water desalination.

The design uses passive safety features already included in Generation III designs and has an underground siting option. The ACP-100 design has an output power level of 100 MWe. According to CNNC, the ACP-100 estimated construction time is 30 months and a design life of 60 years. The fuel cycle length for this PWR is expected to be 24 months.

Economics is definitely a challenge for small reactor designs due to the economies of scale rule. China has also acknowledged this issue. According to CNNC, it estimated that the first demonstration project will cost approximately RMB 25,000/kWe (~$4,000/kWe). With the multiple-module option, the cost might

be reduced to RMB 20,000/kWe (~$3,200/kWe) in the future.

Conclusions

It seems quite clear that China’s nuclear industry is quickly following the recent international trend to develop small reactor technologies. Each nuclear power company in China is developing its own strategic plan. The HTR-PM and ACP-100 will be the first batch of Chinese SMRs to be built and demonstrated. Other SMR designs might eventually be developed and deployed in the future. However, the domestic market is still uncertain for small reactors due to the large scale deployment and feasible economics of larger 1,000 MWe nuclear power plants in China. As a result, China may be targeting the international market rather than domestic applications for its small reactors in the next decades. Nonetheless, the domestic market remains important in connection with efforts aimed at demonstrating the safety and economics of these technologies. Thus, the new SMR sector in China is certainly one to watch going forward.

Ux Consulting issued a new special report on the global SMR Market Outlook in early 2013.

For more information, go to www.uxc.com or contact Jonathan Hinze at

Ux Consulting issued a new special report on the global SMR Market Outlook in early 2013. For more information, go to www.uxc.com or contact Jonathan Hinze at jonathan.hinze@uxc.com

99 科技文章

中国小型模块化 反 应 堆 - 一

个令人激动的新领域作者： Yun Zhou and Jonathan Hinze, Ux 咨询

有限公司

世界核能是不断变化发展的。鉴于这一点，忽略以小型模块化核反应堆

为核心的核能发展趋势是很困难的。在小型模块化核反应堆领域中国尚且称

不上的领头军，但是中国在该领域也取得了很多显著业绩。像世界其他地方

一样，中国出现小型模块化核反应堆是核能行业一个令人激动的新型领域。

小型模块化核反应堆在中国的发展历程

20 世纪 70 年代，中国测试并发射了核潜艇，之后就开始从事小型模块

化核反应堆的设计。中国已经研发了几个小型反应堆，包括秦山核电一期的

CNP300 压水堆。CNP300 是中国第一个用于商业运行的压水堆，它属于小型

反应堆的范畴（发电量少于 300 兆瓦）。 尽管中国选择集中精力研发大型

反应堆，但是中国早在 80 年代就着手开发小型反应堆以适应不同的应用。

中国开发、建造并运行了功率为 5 兆瓦的供热反应堆，用于区域供暖和海水

脱盐。之后，北京建造了 10 兆瓦的高温气冷堆 HTR-10。日前，清华大学和

华能集团组联合团队正将 10 兆瓦的高温气冷堆扩大为 200 兆瓦的模块化设

计。高温气冷堆示范工程已于 2012 年 12 月在山东石岛湾开始施工。

最近，中核集团 公布了ACP100小型反应堆的设计。ACP100应用在电力、

供热或者脱盐方面，功率在 100-150 兆瓦。应用 ACP100 的核电站将可以配

备数量灵活的模型配置，数量从 1 到 8 不等。2011 年，中核集团和福建省漳

州市政府签订了一份在漳州市主办 ACP100 示范装置的协议。

与此同时，在小型反应堆和先进反应堆设计方面，中国也成为国际设计

者和研发者追逐的焦点。据报道，很多公司和中核集团洽谈合作，包括 B&W

公司（mPower 反应堆的设计者），NuScale Power 公司和 Hyperion 公司（现

在是四代技术）。

中国小型模块化反应堆发展的关键驱动力

尽管中国从事小型反应堆研发数十年，但是截止目前，中国在发展和部

署这些技术没有一个战略性计划，因此小型反应堆的设计仅限于利用之前的

技术进行小规模研究和开发。

上世纪 90 年代中国工程师被派往德国学习核电工程，由此获得球床高

温气冷堆技术。回国后这些工程师成为清华大学核能与新能源技术研究院指

导10兆瓦高温气冷堆的主力军。2000年开始，中国政府要求加强核能发展，

核能行业才逐渐关注小型模块反应堆的设计，部分原因还要归于全球对小型

模块反应堆的重视。尽管日本发生了福岛事件，这种发展趋势依然强劲。

目前，中国核工业集团得到政府和一些电力公司的金融支持，有足够的

资金为小型模块反应堆技术研发示范装置。此外，中方意识到在技术创新方

面与其他专业化核电国家有很大的差距，但中方正努力缩小这种差距。中国

致力于在不久的将来从技术进口国发展成为技术出口国。

尽管中国核电官方人员宣称小型反应堆可以解决偏远地区没有电网基础

设施和沿海缺少淡水的情况，但是在国内应用很难 成为小型堆发展主要驱

动力。相反，技术创新和出口技术成为发展小型模块反应堆的主动力。

积极参与小型堆研发的组织机构

包括学术性组织机构、技术公司、核电公用事业单位和其他投资者在内

的等许多机构都参与了中国小型模块化反应堆的工作。

虽然中国小型反应堆项目还处于研发阶段，但是已经有两家重要的机构

参与其中，分别是清华大学核能与新能源技术研究院和核动力研究院。清华

大学核能与新能源技术研究院是单纯性的学术研究，是研究和开发小型反应

堆项目的先锋。该院的工程师和研发人员为不同的应用需求设计了 NHR-5、

NHR-200、 HTR-10、 和 HTR-PM。同时，该院还从事于核潜艇的超临界轻水

反应堆的技术研究。核动力研究院提供了 ACP100 反应堆的工程设计。

作为第一个对小型反应堆理念进行投资的电力公司，华能集团联合中国

核工业建设集团公司和清华大学共同成立了华能石岛湾核电公司，该公司在

山东省建立高温气冷堆示范工程（华能拥有 47.5% 的市场份额，中国核工业

建设集团公司有 32.5% 的所有权，清华占有 20%）

另外，中国国电集团也成立了联合投资公司，由漳州能源公司和中核集

团组成。中核在福建漳州市开发了第一个 ACP100 反应堆示范工程（中核股

份为 80%，中国国电股份为 20%）

中国电力投资公司是中国拥有和运作核电厂的三大电力公司之一，它

同样对小型反应堆的设计感兴趣。当前，该公司正在现场指导研发小型反应

堆项目，并且和湖南省株洲市签订了合作协议。

中广核看似在小型反应堆设计方面失去竞争力， 然而，近期中广核在

这个领域取得了一些进步。中广核的旗下研究院，即中国核电技术研究院，

于 2012 年成立了专门负责小型反应堆研究与开发的团队，2012 年 9 月在西

安举行了小型反应堆研讨会。 并且，中广核与美国NuScale公司进行了会谈。

负责 AP1000 技术转移的国营企业—国家核电也意识到了竞争。国核与

B&W 公司在美国进行会谈，寻求小型反应堆技术转移的潜在可能性。

目前与将来的项目

目前，高温气冷堆示范电站和 ACP100 是两个最有希望推进到示范阶段

的设计项目。

100 科技文章

经过多年对北京原型模型的研发及小规模测试， 2005 年 11 月中国政

府批准了 210 兆瓦的高温气冷球形堆，这个标准示范工程在山东省威海市荣

成石岛湾开建。石岛湾示范工程为建设一个配备 18 机组（3780 兆瓦）的电

站项目创造了良好条件。尽管石岛湾被认为是示范核电站，然而在高温气冷

堆项目建设的开工之初，就包含了两个相当于 210 兆瓦商用机组。尽管这个

项目在 2009 年就获得开工权，但是 2012 年才正式开工建设，原因在于，受

日本福岛事件的影响，核能行业质疑球床堆的核心设计所具有的安全性能。

因此，2012 年底，这个项目最终获得开工权，正式浇筑第一注混凝土。

预估，第一个示范项目的施工时间大概在浇筑第一注混凝土后的 50 个

月。目前，这个项目已经预定了占总费用 90% 的部件，大多已在制造阶段。

像反应堆压力容器，蒸汽发生器，汽轮发电机系统等大型关键部件已经预定。

除了压力容器和蒸汽发生器，所有的部件都可以从核级制造商那里买到。据

悉，上海电气将制造压力容器，哈尔滨电气制造蒸汽发生器，方大碳素新材

料科技公司负责压力容器的内部构件。因此，中国本身可以为高温气冷堆示

范工程生产出必要的主要元件，这点无需担心。 同时，氦通风扇和控制驱

动机构依然还在研究开发中，仪器控制系统和电力设备依然是国内弱项，可

能要依赖国外供应商，才能彻底完成这个项目的供应链。

示范项目小组已经完成了对燃料芯核的关键技术的综合试验。位于中国

内蒙古的燃料生产线正在建设中，这个北方燃料工厂每年可以生产 300000

个燃料组件，中国还与德国 SGL 集团签订了初期为高温气冷堆示范工程提供

500000 个加工石墨球的合同。然而，尚未证实大规模制造高品质球状燃料的

确切消息。对于高温气冷堆示范项目小组来说，这仍是一个挑战。

与大规模压水堆相比，除了技术问题，经济条件也是大问题。解决的办

法就是降低花费，包括简化反应堆辅助设备，仪器仪表和控制系统及部件结

构等。

ACP-100

随着小型模块反应堆的研究日趋国际化，2010 年中核集团下的核动力

研究院将目光转向发展具有非能动安全特性的小型集成模块化压水反应堆。

中核将 ACP100 作为动力资源的多功能途径。ACP100 同时适用于电力、工业

用热、脱盐处理。并且适用于缺乏能源的偏远地区和工业基础设施 。

据报道，初期安全预估报告递交时预估 ACP100 的工程设计在 2012 年底

完成。中核计划在 2013 年年底获得开工权。

应用 ACP100 的核电站将可以配备数量灵活的模型配置，数量从 1 到 8

不等。预计 2013年底在漳州开工的第一个示范工程有施工周期将十分紧凑，

它旨在为漳州市提供电力，热能和淡水。

这项设计的非能动安全性能在第三地反应堆设计中有所应用，该项目已

秘密着手进行选址工作。ACP100 的输出功率是 100 兆瓦。中核称 ACP100 的

施工期为 30 个月，设计寿命为 60 年。压水反应堆的燃料循环周期预期为 24

个月。

由于经济规模的限制，设计小型反应堆依然面临巨大挑战。中国已经

意识到这个问题。中核称第一个示范项目预计花费将近 RMB 25,000/kWe

（~$4,000/kWe）。随着多模块选项的研发，将来的花费可能减少到 RMB

20,000/kWe (~$3,200/kWe)。

结论

很明显，在发展小型反应堆技术上，中国核工业紧跟现代国际发展的趋

势。每个中国核电公司都有自己的战略发展计划。高温气冷堆项目和 ACP100

将成为中国首批建造和示范的小型模块反应堆。其它小型模块反应堆设计最

终可能在将来进行部署。 然而，百万千瓦级核电的大规模建设及其带来的

经济利润使得国内发展小型堆的市场前景渺茫。也许在未来的几十年里，中

国可能将目标转向国际市场而不是国内。 尽管如此，由于需要在国内展示

这些技术的安全性和经济性，因此国内市场同样重要。因此，新型小型模块

反应堆在中国的发展前景还是被看好的。

高温气冷堆项目

来源：清华大学核能与新能源技术研究院

Ux 咨 询 公 司 于 2013 年 早 期 在 全 球 SMR

Market Outlook 上发表了一篇专题报道，了解详

细信息请登录 www.uxc.com 或联系 Jonathan

Hinze 邮箱：jonathan.hinze@uxc.com