six functions of conducting

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DOI: 10.1177/0027432112458705

2012 99: 43Music Educators JournalAlan J. Gumm

Six Functions of Conducting: A New Foundation for Music Educators

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Copyright © 2012 National Association for Music Education DOI: 10.1177/0027432112458705http://mej.sagepub.com

Alan Gumm is professor of music education at Central Michigan University, where he directs the Women’s Chorus and Vocal Jazz Ensemble and teaches choral and general music methods, choral literature, and graduate research. He can be contacted at [email protected].

As music educators, when we step in front of a group of musicians to con-duct, we draw on a common tradition of

mechanical beat patterns and expressive ges-tures centuries old in its development.1 In this tradition, both functions—mechanical and expressive—are passed down so each new generation of conductors can learn to commu-nicate a full variety of musical features to our musicians.

The art of conducting, however, has pro-gressed beyond this traditional foundation of mechanical and expressive functions. The progress is in how we have learned to con-nect with musicians who make the music more than merely portraying the music to musicians. This intent has certainly been expressed before, but it has remained diffi-cult to articulate within the limited terms of our two traditional functions.2 However, a

Six Functions of Conducting A New Foundation for Music Educators

Abstract: This article poses six functions of conducting as a new foundation for music educa-tors. Two traditional functions focus on music: the mechanical precision function indicates beat, tempo, meter, rhythm, cues, entrances and cutoff releases, and the expressive function indicates dynamics and other expressive characteristics interpreted in a score. Used to a lesser degree, yet representing distinct camps or schools of thought in the field, are functions that focus on musicians. Gestures that draw musicians into an intense mental and visual connec-tion with the conductor serve a motivational function. Gestures that mimic and guide perfor-mance on specific instruments serve a physical technique function. Smaller, circular, or rising motions serve an unrestrained tone function that unites an ensemble in a self-reliant tempo and tone. Sharing the intention of planned gestures, teaching musicians to conduct, and draw-ing gestures from musicians’ familiar experiences serve a psychosocial function. This multi-functional view of conducting draws attention beyond the act of delivering gestures to how an ensemble receives and responds to gestures. It is educationally better rounded, providing a more complete foundation for music educators.

Keywords: band, chorus, conducting, general music, gesture, motivation, orchestra, technique

Conductors are the conduit from music to musicians to audience; here are some ideas on improving communication toward musical and expressive results.

by Alan J. Gumm



Music Educators Journal December 201244

breakthrough beyond traditional func-tions has been made in a recent poll of conducting professors, undergraduate and graduate conducting students, and band, choir, and general music educa-tors.3 Not only did this wide range of conductors distinguish the mechanically precise and expressive musical intent of traditional conducting, but they also rec-ognized four separate functions intent on the motivational, physical technique, unrestrained tone, and psychosocial needs of musicians. These distinctions confirm the extensive progress that has occurred in the conducting field in connecting with musicians, but more importantly, they bring this progress into clearer focus than ever before.

The purpose of this article is to pose this set of six functions of conducting as a new foundation for music educators. Because the added functions address

such specific and varied needs of musicians, this new foundation is cru-cial for music educators in our work with student musicians. Furthermore, this new foundation is advantageous to all conductors in bringing any ensemble to greater heights than attained with tradi-tional mechanics and expression alone. In laying out this foundation, I discuss these six functions in turn.

Mechanical Precision Function

The primary skill we learn in conduct-ing is mechanical precision. This term is used for several reasons:

•• it requires mastery of the mechanics or techniques of precise movement patterns;

•• it needs to become mechanically automatic and second nature so other

functions can be coordinated along with it; and

•• it involves mechanical, metronomic, or time-keeping concepts of music, such as beat, tempo, and meter.

For those new to conducting, these mechanics are the patterns assigned to the right hand as found in any conduct-ing textbook. They include a backward-J pattern for two-beat meters, such as 2/4 and divided 6/8; a triangular down-out-up pattern for three-beat meters, such as 3/4 and divided 9/8; a down-in-out-up pattern for four-beat meters, such as 4/4 and divided 12/8; and various options for other meters. Distinctive downbeats and beat points help make these patterns clear and precise. Well-timed entrance cues and cutoff releases clarify when to start and stop the music as well as indi-vidual lines within the music. Altogether,

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these gestures require a lot of practice, coordination, and confidence to execute precisely and decisively, which partly explains why mechanical precision has remained the primary focus in the con-ducting classroom as well as the profes-sional field.

The mechanical precision function is what allows a conductor to step up to the podium and expect most any ensemble to follow. But this expectation is also a weakness, particularly with musicians who do not know what these gestures are meant to convey, when difficulties and distractions steal musicians’ atten-tion away from the conductor, or when patterns become so commonplace that musicians ignore or stray off from the conductor. Such problems point out the need for additional conducting functions beyond mechanical precision.

Expressive Function

The second primary function we tradi-tionally learn is expressivity, though a growing call in the profession is to bring this function to a higher priority than mechanics.4 Expressive gestures func-tion to shape the general character and emotional intent of the music as well as specific momentary musical events that are implied or marked in a score, such as the shape or peak of a phrase, or an emotive shift in tempo, dynamics, or articulation.

Traditionally, expressive gestures are added in the left hand after mechan-ics are well in place. An example is a dynamic rise and fall of the left hand as the right hand continues a metrical beat pattern. Using the left hand inde-pendently helps an ensemble distin-guish expression more clearly apart from mechanics, though expressive gestures should remain within a close field of view with mechanics to avoid different perceptions and responses in musicians to the left and right of the conductor.5 Alternatively, expressive gestures can be adapted into right-hand patterns by vary-ing the size, speed, weight, and strength of motion at points going into, at, and between each beat. Expressivity also

involves the conductor’s face in reflect-ing the emotion of the music, which in turn stimulates emotional responses in musicians and draws out their deeper expressive performance, consequently affecting the audience more deeply as well.

Although keeping an ensemble together is a function of mechanical precision, musicians may synchronize with the conductor more accurately dur-ing expressive conducting.6 Compared to repetitive mechanics that musicians sometimes come to ignore, expressive conducting is fresh, challenging, and engaging, which promotes even more precise synchronization.

Motivational Function

As just noted, expressive conducting helps an ensemble stay with a conduc-tor because it is fresh, challenging, and engaging. But these same advantages are put into practice in meeting a third func-tion of conducting—a motivational func-tion that helps musicians stay alert and responsive to the conductor at any point in the music.

A motivational function comes into play when conductors vary the size and intensity of gestures for musician-attention purposes rather than for a musi-cal objective.7 These gestures are not at the point of a mechanical or an expressive event, but beforehand, so musicians are locked in and ready to respond. Motiva-tion is the goal when a conductor signals a reminder to keep eye contact, points out when minds wander, gives a wink of recognition, gives a quick alerting side glance, randomly scans the ensemble, or raises the enthusiasm of gestures and facial expressions for no reason but to mentally engage musicians. Motivating gestures can go as far as the conductor leaving the podium to circulate into the ensemble, grabbing musicians’ attention by coming into their space rather than allowing them to mentally drift at the far-ther distance from the conductor.

Motivating gestures generally occur in response to musicians’ immediate level of alertness, concentration, and focus, and

yet may also be anticipated and marked in the music where musicians need to be specially alerted. Drastic, sudden, unexpected, or especially challeng-ing points in a score—such as a subito dynamic or a difficult page turn—are typ-ically marked with an eye-catching color highlight, a star, or a drawing of eye-glasses to prompt the conductor to give a forewarning gesture or glance for the ensemble to be alert before the musical event occurs. Both the marking and the gesture at these points in the music serve a motivational function, not a mechanical or expressive function.

Notice the important role the eyes serve in motivating an intense visual and mental connection between conductor and ensemble. To maintain attention, a conductor’s gaze needs to shift and search thoroughly and unpredictably to leave less room for lax attention. This gives greater reason to study and learn the musical score ahead of rehearsal, not only to determine an expressive inter-pretation but also so that the conductor’s eyes are with the musicians and not in the music.

The visual and mental connection between conductor and musicians goes deeper than simple attention and readi-ness. The deeper goal is to draw musi-cians into an intense connection that is spiritual, emotional, or mystical, keeping musicians “on the same wavelength,” “in flow,” “in a zone,” or “in concert” with the conductor.8 In these terms, the moti-vational function can be seen to play a vital role in conducting any ensem-ble and is as essential to an ensemble’s greater success and unity as are mechan-ics and expression.

Physical Technique Function

There is yet another way to synchronize an ensemble than mechanically, expres-sively, or motivationally: to gesture technically when and how to move. In meeting a physical technique function of conducting, conductors draw from and aim gestures toward musicians’ execu-tion of music and not directly toward the music itself.9 Through this unique




function, we shape the music by help-ing musicians’ shape their physical technique.

Physical technique is the focus when conductors depict energy levels, signal muscle strength, and mimic or guide the size and direction of motions required

of musicians to produce a particular musical sound. It is a more sensible and concrete solution for children or novice musicians before they come to under-stand metrical beat patterns and sim-ply need to be guided in how to make music. It is the rationale behind choral

directors’ practice of mouthing words, gesturing vowel shapes and consonant articulations, or signaling posture or low breath support to the choir.10 It gives credence to instrumental directors’ prac-tice of using bowlike motions for string players, articulation and fingering ges-tures for winds, or striking gestures for percussionists, examples of which are readily obvious in videos of the great Herbert von Karajan’s orchestral con-ducting.11 Such gestures not only match the mechanical timing and expressive nuances of the music but more par-ticularly convey the direction, range, strength, energy, weight, and speed of motion in musicians. This function also explains why conductors should ideally work to maintain a balanced conducting stance—not only for their own health but also to model healthy performance techniques expected of musicians.12

Unrestrained Tone Function

A separate but related issue to the exer-tion of physical energy is the need to counteract tension in musicians’ perfor-mance.13 This is particularly important due to the fact that tension hinders the release of tone. Also addressed in this function are emotional and social ten-sion, such as anxiety and negative feel-ing tones, which can likewise restrain musicians from producing an effortless, beautiful tone.

An unrestrained tone function is met when a conductor uses gestures that lift, rise, float, hover, circulate, draw up, and round out—gestures obvious par-ticularly in videos of Seiji Ozawa’s con-ducting.14 These up-tone and float-tone gestures serve to counteract the restric-tive downward pressure elicited by downbeats, the narrowing constraint of a dictated tempo, the inward closing off of a pinched cutoff, and other restrictive results of traditional gestures. Instead, tone is released upward and forward on the wave of a less mechanically driven, forward-flowing tempo.

An unrestricted tone function can also be carried out by conducting smaller, slighter, and with less force—or

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even by stopping conducting for a short time. By minimizing or stopping ges-tures, musicians are released from the tight control and restraint of the conduc-tor and are freed to develop independent self-control, draw on their own internal tempo, shift their attention to blend-ing and balancing with each other, and thereby unite in an unrestrained tone. As the ensemble takes self-control, con-ductor attention is likewise freed to shift from strict mechanical control over the ensemble to other functions that can potentially lead the ensemble to greater heights.

Psychosocial Function

Another alternative to conductor dependence developed more recently in the field is a psychosocial func-tion. Countering the tradition of mak-ing lone conducting decisions and then expecting the ensemble to follow, this alternative is to foster interdependence and shared interpretive decisions with the ensemble.15 The intention is to help musicians make more sense of a conduc-tor’s chosen gestures or to find gestures that make more sense to musicians. In developing this dynamic psychosocial relationship, the conductor becomes more vulnerable, open, collaborative, and responsive in determining how to conduct. Although the result includes vastly improved musical precision and expression, the significant functional shift is in how the conductor connects with musicians.

A psychosocial function is met when conductors take time to share the intention and interpretation behind chosen gestures, to teach musicians about conducting, or to teach them how to conduct. The process could start with having musicians mirror con-ducting gestures with their hands so they experience them for themselves, and could extend to having ensemble members take the place of the conduc-tor at the podium to reveal how deeply individuals have internalized the music and the gestures.

A psychosocial function is further realized by drawing gestures from musi-cians’ common background experiences. This is the point at which conduct-ing becomes metaphorical—more like mime or theatre acting than traditional conducting—with objects and actions

familiar to the ensemble imaginarily shaped and moved.16 For instance, we can indicate staccato as a pendulum or a typing gesture, legato as a feather on air or a taffy-pull motion, marcato as a bas-ketball bounce or ping-pong paddling, metrical accents as a full-bodied dance

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move, or a forte entrance as a crack of the whip or a Frisbee throw, with each choice depending on the ensemble’s familiarity and response. Instead of seeing such gestures as unseemly or unprofessional, recognition of this psy-chosocial function shows the valid role played by these nontraditional options. Such gestures represent a unique shared experience that connects more imme-diately and with deeper meaning and artistry than is possible with traditional gestures alone.

Viewed from a psychosocial per-spective, even the most lofty intentions and outstanding gestures of the conduc-tor represent “limits” within which an ensemble is to remain. Ideally, then, the deepest interdependent and creative psychosocial goal is to allow musicians to soar beyond the bounds of the con-ductor. To accomplish this goal, con-ductors encourage musicians to explore expressions unique to those determined by the conductor. Conductors then seek out and recognize these unique expres-sions and reflect them in their conduct-ing for the entire ensemble to follow. In this scenario, everybody is leading and everybody is following at the same time, with the conductor serving as a conduit, inspired to greater heights by individual musicians and, in exchange, inspiring the entire ensemble to greater heights.

Putting It All Together

Out of the many issues and options presented in this overview, four key implications emerge. These four impli-cations are intended for all conductors, whether student or instructor, novice or experienced, and regardless of whether in choral, instrumental, or general music.

First, this multifunctional view reflects more fully the varied priorities and practices of present-day conductors and points out the creative and insight-ful inroads the profession has made in the art of conducting. Although guiding the mechanics of music may be the most

prevalent and traditional function of conductors, it shows how gestures shift to address expressive, motivational, technical, tonal, and psychosocial func-tions as well. It also acknowledges the existence of different camps or schools of thought on conducting in the pro-fession. While some conductors give expressive gestures greater priority over all else, others embed mechan-ics and expression into a technique-oriented approach to conducting. And while still others use a minimalist approach to motivate a beautiful tone and deep intra-ensemble connection, there are those who use unique meta-phorical or mimed gestures that a par-ticular ensemble responds to best, ones that do not look like traditional con-ducting at all. Therefore, this set of con-ducting functions is not a mandate for a new unanimity of conducting practice but a recognition of a new standard set of options to equitably be made avail-able to all conductors.

Second, the four newly distinguished functions point out how conductors pay attention beyond the score to address crucial problems across an ensemble. Conductors who limit their attention to traditional patterns and gestures ignore mental, physical, psychological, and social problems that get in the way of an ensemble’s greater achievements. What is more, attention needs to aim beyond the conductor’s own hands—beyond the act of delivering gestures to an ensemble—to address how the ensemble receives and responds to ges-tures. So this expanded set of conduct-ing functions represents more than a set of new gestures to perfect. It represents the expanding perceptions and deepen-ing insights of conductors as we gain in maturity and experience. It also pre-sents a series of targets—a vision for the future—for beginning and novice con-ductors, for conducting instructors in their course work, and for experienced conductors toward their self-guided growth.

Third, though this set of functions may seem to merely add to an already extensive list of traditional patterns and

gestures we are to learn as conductors, in effect it provides a streamlined, organ-ized, and adaptable approach to learn-ing and improving conducting. These six functions can be accomplished either in a chosen sequence or holistically all at once. Following common practice, one sequential option is to start with traditional mechanics and then move on to other functions as coordination and awareness allow. Or the sequence could start with traditional mechanics and expression until attention can go to musicians. An inverse sequential option is to first explore how musicians respond to simple gestures, both motivation-ally and psychosocially, then add musi-cal mechanics and expression within an observant and responsive approach to conducting. Holistically, conduc-tors can face the entire set of functions at once in a natural ensemble environ-ment, shifting from mechanics to expres-sion to other functions back and forth according to changing circumstances. Another holistic option is to work toward a unique conducting style that is altogether synchronized, emotional, mentally and physically engaging, free flowing, spontaneous, and nurturing. Whichever option is taken, notice that in each, the focus turns from the tedium of coordinated patterns to the realization of a small set of purposeful functions. Conductors’ sights are set beyond the gestures themselves to the choice and adaptation of gestures to serve specific functional goals.

Finally, every field has its traditions, but to thrive, every field must continue to grow and respond to new challenges. In this groundbreaking multifunctional view of conducting, both our traditions and our more recent developments are on display more clearly and distinctly than ever before. Consequently, this set of six functions provides a new, more complete foundation for all conduc-tors, yet one that is especially crucial for music educators in our work with student musicians. Most important, this new foundation fosters a deeper mas-tery of conducting than offered by tra-ditional gestures alone, and reveals ever



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more clearly the standard of excellence already in practice in the profession.

Notes

1. José Antonio Bowen, “The Rise of Conducting,” in The Cambridge Companion to Conducting, ed. José Antonio Bowen (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 93–113; and Muriel Gibala-Maharidge, “The Evolution of the Choral Conducting Profession in the Twentieth Century: Conducting Methods as Written Testimonies” (DMA diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 2005).

2. Colin Durrant, “Toward a Model of Effective Communication: A Case for Structured Teaching of Conducting,” British Journal of Music Education 11 (1994): 57–76; and Colin Durrant, “Communicating and Accentuating the Aesthetic and Expressive Dimension in Choral Conducting,” International Journal of Music Education 27 (November 2009): 326–40.

3. Alan J. Gumm, Sharyn L. Battersby, Kathryn L. Simon, and Andrew E. Shankles, “The Identification of Conductor-Distinguished Functions of Conducting,” Research and Issues in Music Education 9 (September 2011), http://www.stthomas.edu/rimeonline/vol9/index.htm (accessed July 27, 2012).

4. Shelly Boardman, “A Survey of the Undergraduate Instrumental Conducting Course in Region Seven of the National Association of Schools of Music” (DMA diss., University of Georgia, Athens, 2000); Harold Farberman, “Beating Time: How Not to Make Music,” Music Educators Journal 88 (November 2000): 39–45; Joel F. Plaag, “An Overview on and Recommendations on Expressivity in Conducting Pedagogy” (DMA diss., University of Houston, Texas, 2006); Gregory Gentry and Matthew Harden, “Context-Specific Somatic Vocabulary: Conducting Gestures with Musical Outcomes,” Choral Journal 48 (April 2008): 21–26; and Andrew Mathers, “The Use of Gestural Modes to Enhance Expressive Conducting at All Levels of Entering Behavior through

the Use of Illustrators, Affect Displays and Regulators,” International Journal of Music Education 27 (May 2009): 143–53.

5. Clemens Wöllner and Wolfgang Auhagen, “Perceiving Conductors’ Expressive Gestures from Different Visual Perspectives: An Exploratory Continuous Response Study,” Music Perception 26 (December 2008): 129–43.

6. Geoff Luck, “An Investigation of Conductors’ Temporal Gestures and Conductor-Musician Synchronization, and a First Experiment,” Psychology of Music 36 (January 2008): 81–98.

7. Alan J. Gumm, “The Development of a Model and Assessment Instrument of Choral Music Teaching Styles,” Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (Fall 1993): 181–99; and Cornelia Yarbrough, “Effect of Magnitude of Conductor Behavior on Students in Selected Mixed Choruses,” Journal of Research in Music Education 23 (Summer 1975): 134–46.

8. David L. Sharlow, “Building Common Ground: An Investigation of Choral Conductors’ Definition of Community within a Choral Ensemble” (PhD diss., University of Missouri–Kansas City, 2006).

9. Richard Chagnon, “A Comparison of Five Choral Directors’ Use of Movement to Facilitate Learning in Rehearsals” (DMA diss., University of Arizona, Tucson, 2001).

10. Gibala-Maharidge, “The Evolution,” 120; Alan McClung, “Using Video Self-Assessment to Enhance Nonverbal Conducting Gesture,” Choral Journal 45 (April 2005): 27–35.

11. “Herbert Von Karajan - Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven) - Ode an die Freude” [Video], 2011, http://www .youtube.com/watch?v=0417pQz7iIk (accessed July 27, 2012); and “Herbert von Karajan Dvorak Simphony n. 9 ‘Aus der Neuen Welt’ Allegro con fuoco” [Video], 2008, http://www .youtube.com/watch?v=CQmsesSde-o (accessed July 27, 2012).

12. McClung, “Using Video Self-Assessment.”

13. Chagnon, “A Comparison,” 97; Rhonda J. Vieth Fuelberth, “The Effect of Various Left Hand Conducting Gestures on Perceptions of Anticipated Vocal Tension in Singers,” International Journal of Research in Choral Singing 2 (2004): 27–38; and Jeremy N. Manternach, “The Effect of Conductor Head and Shoulder Movement and Preparatory Gesture Direction on Upper Body Movement of Individual Singers” (master’s thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence, 2009).

14. “Johann Strauss II, Carnevals-Botschafter Walzer, Seiji Ozawa” [Video], 2008, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0W8WGxFmxA8 (accessed December 12, 2010); and “Tchaikovsky’s Serenade for Strings - Seiji Ozawa - Berlin Phil” [Video], 2011, http://www.youtube .com/watch?v=IZgQh96hML0 (accessed July 27, 2012).

15. Chagnon, “A Comparison,” 97; R. Shayne Cofer, “Effects of Conducting-Gesture Instruction on Seventh-Grade Band Students’ Performance Response to Conducting Emblems,” Journal of Research in Music Education 46 (Fall 1998): 360–73; John P. Graulty, “Don’t Watch Me! Avoiding Podium-Centered Rehearsals,” Music Educators Journal 96 (June 2010): 53–56; and Hubert Toney, “Expressive Ensemble Conducting and Performance: A Qualitative Case Study of One Conductor’s Practice” (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 2000).

16. Christopher Carl Chapman, “An Investigation of Current Instructional Practices for the Undergraduate Instrumental Conducting Student Concerning Left Hand Technique and Facial Gestures” (DMA diss., University of Washington, Seattle, 2008); G. MacKay, “Mimes and Conductors: Silent Artists, Music Educators Journal 94 (May 2008): 22–28; Donald Jay Running, “Conductor as Actor: A Collaborative Method for Training Conductors through Dynamic Muscularity” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis and St. Paul, 2008); and Ramona M. Wis, “Physical Metaphor in the Choral Rehearsal: A Gesture-Based Approach to Developing Vocal Skill and Musical Understanding,” Choral Journal 40 (October 1999): 25–33.



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