• Significant Figures – start at the left and proceed to the right

1. If the number does not have a decimal point count until there are no more non zero numbers

2. If the number has a decimal point start counting at the first non-zero number and continue counting until you run out of decimal places

• Vocabulary1. Observation2. Hypothesis3. Experiment4. Theory5. Law 6. Chemistry7. Matter8. Energy9. Chemical Properties 10.Physical Properties11.Extensive Properties12.Intensive Properties13.Scientific (natural) law14.Anion15.Cation16.Molecular Geometry

17.Law of Conservation of Mass18.Law of Conservation of Energy19.Exact numbers20.Accuracy 21.Precision22.compounds23.molecules24.chemical formula25.empirical formula26.molecular formula27.structural formula28.bond line formula29.ball and stick model30.space filling model31.mole32.Electronic Geometry

33.percent weight34.percent error35.percent composition36.percent yield37.%RSD38.limiting reactant39.Stoichiometry40.Stoichiometric Coefficient41.Electron Affinity42.Electronegativity43.Covalent Bond44.Ionic Bond45.Dipole46.London Dispersion Forces47.Resonance48.Hybrid orbital49.area of high electron density

Monovalent Divalent TrivalentHydronium H3O+ Magnesium Mg2+ Aluminium Al3+

(or hydrogen) H+ Calcium Ca2+ Antimony III Sb3+

Lithium Li+ Strontium Sr2+ Bismuth III Bi3+

Sodium Na+ Beryllium Be2+

Potassium K+ Manganese II Mn2+

Rubidium Rb+ Barium Ba2+

Cesium Cs+ Zinc Zn2+

Francium Fr+ Cadmium Cd2+

Silver Ag+ Nickel II Ni2+

Ammonium NH4+ Palladium II Pd2+

Thalium Tl+ Platinum II Pt2+

Copper I Cu+ Copper II Cu2+

Mercury II Hg2+

Mercury I Hg22+

Iron II Fe2+ Iron III Fe3+

Cobalt II Co2+ Cobalt III Co3+

Chromium II Cr2+ Chromium III Cr3+

Lead II Pb2+

Tin II Sn2+

Table of Common IonsCommon Positive Ions

(Cations)

Monovalent Divalent TrivalentHydride H- Oxide O2- Nitride N3-

Fluoride Fl- Peroxide O22-

Chloride Cl- Sulfide S2-

Bromide Br- Selenide Se2-

Iodide I- Oxalate C2O42-

Hydroxide OH- Chromate CrO42-

Permangante MnO4- Dichromate Cr2O7

2

-

Cyanide CN- Tungstate WO42-

Thiocynate SCN- Molybdate MoO42-

Acetate C2H3O2

-tetrathionate S4O6

2-

Nitrate NO3- Thiosulfate S2O3

2-

Bisulfite HSO3- Sulfite SO3

2-

Bisulfate HSO4- Sulfate SO4

2-

Bicarbonate HCO3- Carbonate CO3

2-

Dihydrogen phosphate

H2PO4- Hydrogen

phosphateHPO4

2

-Phosphate PO4

3-

Nitrite NO2-

Amide NH2-

Hypochlorite ClO-

Chlorite ClO2-

Chlorate ClO3-

Perchlorate ClO4-

Table of Common Ions Common Negative Ions (Anions)

mass of molecule

Molar Massgiven or calculated from

periodic table

Mass of element,

or reactantor product

Number of atoms,

or molecules of reactantor product

Avogadro's Number

Number of molecules

Molar Ratio

moles of element, or

other reactant or product

moles ofmolecule

Avogadro's Number

Calculate from molecular

formula or balanced equation

Molar Massgiven or calculated from

periodic table

Given or determined

from balanced stoichiometricequation

Vol solution

density

Concentration solution

molarity, ppm, molality, normality,

etc.

These concepts lead to solvingproblems determining limiting reactantand percent yield.

The principal quantum number has the symbol ~ n which defines the energy of the shell

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...... “shells”The angular momentum quantum number has the symbol ~ which defines the

subshells. = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .......(n-1) = s, p, d, f, g, h, .......(n-1)

The symbol for the magnetic quantum number is m which defines the orbital.m = - , (- + 1), (- +2), .....0, ......., ( -2), ( -1),

The last quantum number is the spin quantum number which has the symbol ms which characterizes the single electron. The spin quantum number only has two possible values. ms = +½ or -½ one spin up ↑ and one spin down↓

Quantum Numbers n and define the energy of the electron

The Nucleus:Build by adding the required number of protons (the atomic number) and neutrons (the mass of the atom)

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle states that pairedelectrons in an orbital will have opposite spins.

Electrons:Hund’s Rule states that each orbital will be filled singlybefore pairing begins. The singly filled orbitals will have a parallel spin.

Fill the electrons in starting with the lowest energy level adhering to Hund’s and Pauli’s rules.

Ionic Polar Covalent CovalentDetermine Inductive effect

Count the number of electrons the element should haveDetermine how equally electrons are shared (EN) >1.7 consider it ionic

Oxidation number Formal chargeNever Have a Full Octet Always Have a Full Octet

Sometimes Have a Full Octet

Sometimes Exceed a Full Octet

To calculate a formal charge1. draw the Lewis dot structure2. draw circles around each atom and the

electrons associated with it. Remember that formal charges are associated with covalent bonds and that all electrons are shared equally.

3. compare to the group number for that atom. If the number is larger the formal charge is negative, smaller the formal charge is positive.

To calculate an oxidation number1. list all the elements follow with an equal sign2. follow with the number of atoms of that type in the molecule1. follow with a multiplication sign2. If the element is O follow with a -23. If the element is H follow with a +14. any other element enter a ?5. follow with an = sign, do the math6. draw a total line, then enter the charge on the molecule7. Do the algebra backwards to solve for ?

Summary of Electronic & Molecular Geometries

Regions of High Electron Density

Electronic Geometry Hybridization

2 Linear sp3 Trigonal planar sp2

4 Tetrahedral sp3

5 Trigonal bipyramidal

sp3d

6 Octahedral sp3d2

VSEPR TheoryLone pair to lone pair is the strongest repulsion.2 Lone pair to bonding pair is intermediate repulsion.3 Bonding pair to bonding pair is weakest repulsion.

• Mnemonic for repulsion strengths lp/lp > lp/bp > bp/bp

• Lone pair to lone pair repulsion is why bond angles in water are less than 109.5o.Electronic geometryElectronic geometry is determined by the locations of regions of high electron

density around the central atom(s). Electron pairs are not used in the molecular geometry determination just the positions of the atoms in the molecule are used.

Molecular geometryMolecular geometry determined by the arrangement of atoms around the central atom(s).

Isomersstructural isomersconstitutional isomersstereo isomersracemic mixtureentantiomersgeometric isomerspositional isomerschiral moleculeschiral centersoptical isomerscismertransfachydration isomersionization isomerscoordination isomerslinkage isomers

hydrocarbonsunsaturated hydrocarbonssaturated hydrocarbonsalkanesalkenesalkynesaromatic compoundsalkylsphenylsphenolsalcoholsestersetherscarbonyl groupsaldehydesketonescarboxylic acidsacyl chloridesorganic halidesaminesamidesresonanceArrhenius acids/basesBrönsted/Lowery acids/basesLewis acids/basesElectrolytesNon electrolytes

sugars fatspolymers solutionsolvent soluteconcentration molarityppm ppbwt% vol%molecular equationsionic equationsnet ionic equationsspectator ionmetathesis reactioncombination reactiondecomposition reactiondisplacement reactionredox reactionaddition polymerizationcondensation polymerizationligand donor atomunidentatepolydentatechelatecoordination numbercoordination sphere

titrationtitrantprimary standardsecondary standardend pointequivalence pointpHoxidation numbers

Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons1. Choose the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms which gives the basic name or stem.2 Number each carbon atom in the basic chain, starting at the end that gives the lowest number to the first group attached to the main chain (substituent).3 For each substituent on the chain, we indicate the position in the chain (by an Arabic numeric prefix) and the kind of substituent (by its name). The position of a substituent on the chain is indicated by the lowest number possible. The number precedes the name of the substituent.4 When there are two or more substituents of a given kind, use prefixes to indicate the number of substituents. di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4, penta = 5, hexa = 6, hepta = 7, octa = 8, and so on.5 The combined substituent numbers and names serve as a prefix for the basic hydrocarbon name.6 Separate numbers from numbers by commas and numbers from words by hyphens. Words are "run together".

Alcohols and Phenols• The stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix is the systematic name for an alcohol. • A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms. • Common names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus alcohol.Ethers• Common names are used for most ethers.Aldehydes and Ketones• Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid with the same number of C

atoms. • IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by replacing -e with -al.• The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix

-one.• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.Amines• Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by

organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both). • There are three classes of amines.Carboxylic Acids• IUPAC names for a carboxylic acid are derived from the name of the parent hydrocarbon.

– The final -e is dropped from the name of the parent hydrocarbon– The suffix -oic is added followed by the word acid.

• Many organic acids are called by their common (trivial) names which are derived from Greek or Latin.

Priority Functional group Formula Prefix Suffix

1 Cations   e.g. Ammonium

 –NH4

+-onio-ammonio-

-onium-ammonium

2 Carboxylic acids –COOH carboxy- -oic acid*

3

Carboxylic acid derivatives   Esters   Acyl chlorides   Amides

 –COOR–COCl–CONH2

 R-oxycarbonyl-chloroformyl-carbamoyl-

  -oyl chloride*-amide*

4 Nitrites   Isocyanides

–CN–NC

cyano-isocyano-

-nitrile*isocyanide

5 Aldehydes   Thioaldehydes

–CHO–CHS

formyl-thioformyl-

-al*-thial*

6 Ketones   Thioketones

>CO>CS

oxo-thiono-

-one-thione

7 Alcohols   Thiols

–OH–SH

hydroxy-sulfanyl-

-ol-thiol

8 Amines –NH2 amino- -amine

9 Ethers   Thioethers

–O––S–

-oxy--thio-  

When compounds contain more than one functional group, the order of precedence determines which groups are named with prefix or suffix forms. The highest precedence group takes the suffix, with all others taking the prefix form. However, double and triple bonds only take suffix form (-en and -yn) and are used with other suffixes.

Carbon Atom Hybridization C uses C forms Example

sp3 tetrahedral 4 sp3 hybrids 4 bonds CH4

sp2 trigonal planar 3 sp2 hybrids & 1p orbital 3 bonds 1 bond C2H4

sp linear 2 sp hybrids & 2 p orbitals 2 bonds 2 bonds C2H2

NomenclatureRules for Naming Complex Species

1. Cations (+ ions) are named before anions (- ions).2. Coordinated ligands are named in alphabetical order.

– Prefixes that specify the number of each kind of ligand (di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4, penta = 5, hexa = 6, etc.) are not used in alphabetizing

– Prefixes that are part of the name of the ligand, such as in diethylamine, are used to alphabetize the ligands.

3. For complicated ligands, especially those that have a prefix such as di or tri as part of the ligand name, these prefixes are used to specify the number of those ligands that are attached to the central atom.

– bis = 2 tris = 3 tetrakis = 4 pentakis = 5 hexakis = 64. The names of most anionic ligands end in the suffix -o.

– Examples of ligands ending in –o are: • Cl- chloro S2- sulfido O2- oxo

5. The names of most neutral ligands are unchanged when used in naming the complex. – There are several important exceptions to this rule including:

• NH3 ammine H2O aqua6. The oxidation number of a metal that exhibits variable oxidation states is designated by a

Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the complex ion or molecule.7. If a complex is an anion, the suffix "ate" ends the name.

No suffix is used in the case of a neutral or cationic complex. Usually, the English stem is used for a metal, but if this would make the name awkward,

the Latin stem is substituted. ferrate instead of ironate plumbate instead of leadate

Ion/Molecule Name Name as a Ligand

NH3 ammonia ammine

CO carbon monoxide carbonyl

Cl- chloride Chloro

CN- cyanide cyano

F- fluoride fluoro

OH- hydroxide hydroxo

NO nitrogen monoxide nitrosyl

NO2- nitrite nitro

PH3 phosphine phosphine

System Acid (HCl) Base (NaOH)Arrheniu

sBrönsted-LowryLewis

∆H = Hfinal - Hinitial

• The stoichiometric coefficients in thermochemical equations must be interpreted as numbers of moles. 1 mol of C5H12 reacts with 8 mol of O2 to produce 5 mol of CO2, 6 mol of H2O, and releasing 3523 kJ is referred to as one mole of reactions.

mole 1 moles 6 moles 5 moles 8 mole 1

kJ 3523 OH 6 CO 5O 8 HC )(22(g)2(g))12(5

∆∆HHoorxnrxn = = ∆H ∆Hff

oo (prod) - (prod) - ∆H ∆Hff

oo (react)(react)

Specific heat capacity (J/(g∙K) =heat lost or gained by system (Joules)mass(grams) T (Kelvins)

mTf –Ti)q

cP =

Variable

System 1

System 2

Cp

Tf

Ti

m

q

heat transfer outheat transfer out(exothermic), -q(exothermic), -q

heat transfer inheat transfer in(endothermic), +q(endothermic), +q

SYSTEMSYSTEM

∆E = q + w

w transfer inw transfer in(+w)(+w)

w transfer outw transfer out(-w)(-w)

HeatEnergyInternal energyKinetic EnergyPotential EnergyEndothermicExothermicThermodynamicsThermal EquilibriumSystemSurroundingsLaw of Conservation of EnergyHeat CapacitySpecific Heat CapacityFirst Law of ThermodynamicsMeltingFreezingDepositionSublimationEvaporationCondensation

State FunctionStandard state temperatureStandard state pressureStandard states matterEnthalpyHess’s LawThermochemical EquationEnthalpy of FormationIntramolecular forcesIntermolecular forcesHydrogen BondingPolarizationPolarizability

Vapor PressureEquilibriumHeat of VaporizationPhase DiagramSolidLiquidGasTriple PointCritical PointSuper Critical Fluid

Standard P 1.00000 atm or 101.3 kPaStandard T 273.15 K or 0.00oC

K = 273 + oC1 mm Hg = 1 torr 760 torr = 1 atm

The standard molar volume is 22.4 L at STP

PV = nRT

R = 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K-1

Ptotal = PA + PB + PC + .....

At low temperatures and high pressures real gases do not behave ideally.

The reasons for the deviations from ideality are:1. The molecules are very close to one another, thus their volume

is important.2. The molecular interactions also become important.

P + n aV

V nb nRT2

2

Variable Cond. 1

Cond. 2

P (atm)

V (L)

N (moles)

R (L atm mol-1 K-1) 0.08206 0.08206

T (K)

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory• The basic assumptions of kinetic-molecular theory are:• Postulate 1

– Gases consist of discrete molecules that are relatively far apart.– Gases have few intermolecular attractions.– The volume of individual molecules is very small compared to the gas’s volume.

• Proof - Gases are easily compressible.

• Postulate 2– Gas molecules are in constant, random, straight line motion with varying

velocities.• Proof - Brownian motion displays molecular motion.

• Postulate 3– Gas molecules have elastic collisions with themselves and the container.– Total energy is conserved during a collision.

• Proof - A sealed, confined gas exhibits no pressure drop over time.

• Postulate 4– The kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature.– The average kinetic energies of molecules of different gases are equal at a given

temperature.• Proof - Brownian motion increases as temperature increases.