1

Sickness and Death on Male and Female Convict Voyages to

Australia

Note: a much extended version of the arguments in this paper is available in Peter Baskerville

and Kris Inwood (eds) Lives In Transition: Longitudinal Research from Historical Sources (McGill

University Press, 2014).

Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, University of Tasmania

Rebecca Kippen, University of Melbourne

ThepassagetakenbyconvictvesselsenroutetoAustraliawasoneofthelongest

thatanyunfreemigrantshavebeensubjectedto—anaverageoffourmonthsat

sea.OnlyFrenchprisonersshippedtoNewCaledonia(1864‐97)andRussian

convictssentfromOdessatoSakhalin(1879‐1905)weremovedgreater

distances.1Despitethelengthofthevoyage,monthlymortalityonAustralian

boundconvictvesselswasnotexcessive.

Between1788and1868atotalof825convictvesselssailedfromBritish

andIrishportstotheAustraliancolonies.Inthefirsthalfofthenineteenth

centurythethoughtofspendingfourormoremonthsatseawasadaunting

prospectformostlandlubbers.Evenfreemigrantswerewarnedthatthe

distanceofVanDiemen’sLandandNewSouthWalesfromBritishandIrishports

renderedthevoyagea“terribleundertaking”.2Itisthuscommonlyassumedthat

the141,000maleand26,000femaleconvictsshippedtoBritain’sAustralian

penalcoloniessufferedgreathardshipsatsea.

2

Perhapssurprisingly,however,deathratesontheFirstFleet,whichsailed

inMay1787,wereremarkablylowgiventhescaleoftheoperation.Inall,the

schemeinvolvedshipping736maleandfemaleprisonersadistanceofsome

14,000miles.Althoughthevoyagelasted252days,themonthlydeathrateof

undersevenconvictsper1000embarkedwasbenignbylate‐eighteenthcentury

standards.

Tobesure,thedeathrateontheSecondFleet,whichleftBritain’sshores

forAustraliainJanuary1790,wasmuchhigherthanthatofitspredecessor(49

perthousandpermonth).Moreover,arrivalinNewSouthWalesbroughtlittle

relief.Thesurvivorswerelandedinaveryweakenedconditionandafurther16

percentdiedshortlyafterdisembarkation.AstheRev.Johnsonmemorablyputit

theyarrived:“wretched,naked,filthy,dirty,lousy,andmanyofthemutterly

unabletostand,tocreep,oreventostirhandorfoot“.3

Reportsofinadequateprovisionsandthecrowdedconditionsonboard

SecondFleettransportspromptedgreatergovernmentregulation.Intheyears

1792‐5anavaltrainedsurgeonwasappointedto‘superintend’everytransport

vessel.Afurtherriseindeathratesfollowingthediscontinuationofthis

experimentledtoeventighterregulation.From1800bonuspaymentswere

madetomastersforlandingconvictsingoodhealth.Surgeonswerereinstated

and,after1805,placedonthesamerankingasarmymedicalofficers.Asinthe

slavetrade,ships’mastersoftenpulledrankonsurgeonscountermandingtheir

orders.4Inordertosolvethisproblem,surgeonsweregivenauthorityoverall

disciplinaryandmedicalmattersin1815,includingtheventilationandcleaning

ofthevessel.5

3

Followingtheintroductionofthetightened‘surgeonsuperintendent

system’monthlydeathratesfelldecisively,averagingjust2.4perthousandin

theperiod1815‐1868.6Toputthisachievementintoperspective,theequivalent

rateformalesagedbetween15and44onemigrantshipssailingfromEuropeto

theUnitedStatesbetween1836and1853was4.4per1,000.Thediscrepancyis

especiallynoteworthywhenoneconsidersthat,aswellasbeingfree,thetrans‐

Atlanticmigrantswereembarkedonavoyagethattookanaverageof45days

comparedto116toAustralia.7

TheprobabilitythataconvictwoulddieduringthevoyagetoAustralia

mightbeinfluencedbymanyfactors.Ahistoryofpoorpre‐voyagenutrition

(perhapsexacerbatedbyalifeofdebauchery)mightfatallyweakenapassenger

longbeforetheywereembarked.Experiencesinprisoncouldexacerbatethese

effectsifpunitive,butinstitutionaldiets,clothingandheatingmightalso

amelioratetheworsteffectsofpre‐existingpoverty.Theuseofappropriately

trainedmedicalprofessionalsmightimprovethecapacityforeffectivepre‐

voyagescreening,aswellasfacilitatethemanagementofdiseaseandhygiene

regimes.Theremightbelittle,however,thatasurgeoncoulddotomitigatethe

impactofpoorrations(lackofvitaminCspringstomindhere),orcontaminated

water—otherthanpersuadingtheship’smastertostopoffinordertoresupply.

Onafullyloadedvesselthesurgeonmightwellbeoverwhelmedbythenumber

ofpatients,orfindhimselfpowerlesstostopinfectionspreadingthrough

crowdedquarters.Poorlymaintainedvesselscouldalsoposeathreat.Poor

ventilationandship‐boardspacescontaminatedbyyearsofaccumulateddirt

mightencouragethespreadofinfection.Failuretomakegoodspeedcouldput

pressureontheavailablesupplies(includingdrugsandotherprophylactics)

4

whileweathercouldplayhavocwiththebestlaidmedicalplans.Tropicalheat

mightexacerbatesomedisorderswhilepitchingseasandwavesoakeddecks

wouldcutdownexercisetimeandmakeitimpossibletokeepbeddingand

clothingdry.Finally,thebehaviouroftheconvictsthemselvescouldaffect

voyageoutcomes.Therewasaworldofdifferencebetweentreatingcompliant,

asopposedtounruly,patients.

Inordertoexploretheseissuesinmoredetailweassembleddatafor289

convictvesselsthatsailedfromsouthernEnglishorIrishportstotheBritish

penalcolonyofVanDiemen’sLandintheperiod1818‐1853(39voyagesfor

whichsurgeons’journalscouldnotbelocatedwereomitted).Togetherthe

vesselsinourstudycarriedatotalof48,215maleand12,396femaleconvicts.As

wellasinformationonthetonnage,insuranceratingandageofeachvesselwe

calculatedthenumberofdaysspentatseaandtheamountoftimethatelapsed

betweenthestartoftheembarkationprocessandthepointatwhicheachvessel

actuallysailed.Weusedthelistofcasestreatedrecordedineachsurgeon

superintendent’sjournaltodeterminethedayeachpatiententeredtheship’s

hospital,thedaythattheyweredischarged,thediagnosisandtheoutcome.8

Whilethesurgeons’journalsarearichsourceofinformationtheyvary

greatlyintermsofthenumberofcasescovered.CharlesHenryFulleronthe

Blenheim,forexample,recorded356separatemorbidityepisodeswhileby

contrastWilliamHendersonontheBussorahMerchantrecordedjustsix.9We

foundthatthemoreexperiencedthesurgeon(measuredintermsofthenumber

oftimestheyhadpreviouslysailedtoAustraliaonaconvictvessel),thefewer

thenumberofcasestheywerelikelytorecord.Therearetwoplausible

explanationsforthis.First,itispossiblethatoldhandswerebetteratpreventing

5

andtreatingdiseasethangreenhorns.Ifthiswasthecaseitmightprovide

powerfulevidencethatmedicalexpertisecouldmakeadramaticdifferenceat

sea.Second,surgeonswhohadpreviouslymadethevoyagetoAustraliafeltthat

theyknewtheropesandasaresultweremoreblaséaboutkeepingdetailed

paperwork,onlynotingthemostseriouscases.Aswecouldfindnorelationship

betweenthenumberofrecordedcasesofsicknessandthenumberofdeaths,we

suspectthatsecondexplanationisclosertothemark.Inotherwordstherewas

nothingtosuggestthatexperiencedsurgeonsweremoresuccessfulatkeeping

theirconvictchargesalive.

Wealsofoundanotherunderlyingtrendinthedata.Thenumberofcases

enteredontothesicklistincreasedovertime.Apreviousstudyofmorbidityon

femaleconvictvesselssailingtoNewSouthWalesuncoveredasimilartrend.R.

V.Jacksonattributedthistothetendencyforlargernumbersoffemaleconvicts

tobeshippedonlatersailingvessels.10Thus,hereasonedthatmorecrowded

conditionsatsealedtoincreasedlevelsofsickness.Weagreethattherewasa

riseinreportedmorbidityovertime,butnotethatthiswasnotmatchedbya

similarriseinmortality.Oncemorewesuspectthattheincreaseincasesreflects

recordkeepingtrendsratherthandeterioratingonboardconditions.

Thesefindingsraiseuncomfortablequestions.Wasitpossiblethatour

datamighttellussomethingaboutshiftsinrecordkeepingpracticebut

otherwiseshedlittlelightonthefactorsthatimpacteduponlifeanddeathat

sea?Reassuringly,however,wedidfindarelationshipbetweentheamountof

sicknessonboard(measuredintermsofthetotalnumberofdaysconvictswere

recordedasbeingsufficientlyunwelltorequiretreatment)anddeaths.

Intriguinglywealsofoundanevenstrongerrelationshipbetweensicknessatsea

6

andpost‐voyagemortality.Convictswhoarrivedonsicklyshipswerelesslikely

tosurvivetheirfirstyearundersentenceinVanDiemen’sLand.

The death rate in profile

Convictmonthlymortalityratesfortheperiodbetweenembarkationandsailing,

thevoyageandthefirst12monthsofcolonialservitudeareprovidedinFig.1.

Thesehavebeenseparatedbysex.Inall,128surgeon’sjournalsrecordedboth

thedatewhenconvictswerebroughtonboardandthedateofsailing.The

embarkationprocesswasslightlylongerforfemalevessels,17dayscomparedto

16formale.ThelengthofthevoyagetoAustraliarangedfromthe80‐dayvoyage

oftheRodneyin1853tothe190‐daypassageoftheJanein1831.Meansailing

timeforbothmaleandfemalevoyageswasjustlessthanfourmonths(116days

formale,118forfemale).Inordertoexaminethetimingofdeathacrossthe

entirecohort,wespliteachvoyageintoquartiles.

Severaltrendsarediscernable,ofwhichperhapsthemostnotableisthe

increaseinmortalityoverthecourseofthevoyage.Thisisinsharpcontrastto

theprofileofdeathsonfreemigrantvoyagessailingtoSouthAustraliainthe

secondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Migrants,particularlyinfants,diedintheir

greatestnumbersathirdofthewayintothepassage.11Analysisofthetimingof

deathsintheAtlanticslavetradehasalsosuggestedthatpeakmortalityoccurred

mid‐voyage,althoughtherewasmuchvariation.12Itispossiblethatthelarger

vesselsandfastersailingroutestoAustraliaintroducedmid‐centuryweremore

successfulincombatingmortalityamongstfreemigrantsinthesecondhalfofthe

voyage,asopposedtothefirst.Thelargenumberofinfantsonboardmigrant

7

vesselsmayalsohaveincreasedtheriskofmortalityfromdiarrhoealdiseasesin

thetropics(theequatorwascrossedathirdofthewayintothevoyage).13Yet,

thedifferenceinthetimingofdeathsonconvictandmigrantvesselsisstriking

andremainslargelyunexplained.

Otherhistorianshavearguedthatmortalityonmalevesselswaslikelyto

behigherthanthatforfemaleshipsastheyweremorecrowded.Wecanfindno

evidencetosupportthis.14Despitethegreaternumbersonboardmalevessels

andtheneedforstricterlevelsofsecuritythatlimitedopportunitiesforexercise,

femalemortalitywashigherinportandremainedhighforthedurationofthe

voyage.Whilethespikeinthefemaledeathrateforthelastquartilewas

accentuatedbythepeculiarexperienceoftheEastLondon(avesselthathada

particularlytraumaticpassage),thedeathrateremainedsignificantlyhigher

thanthatformaleconvictsevenwhendataforthisvoyagewasexcluded.15

Second,mortalityratesformaleconvictsremainedhighintheperiod

immediatelyfollowingdisembarkation.Third,thefemalemortalityrecordpost‐

voyagefelltobelowthatofmenandremainedconsistentlylowerforthetwelve

monthsafterdisembarkation.Whilethefemaledeathrateinthefirsttwo

monthsafterlandingwaselevated,thetrendwasfarlessaccentuatedthanitwas

formales.Finally,femaleconvictsalsospentsignificantlylongerinsickbay

duringthevoyage.

Wefoundnoevidencethatthesizeofthevesselandthenumberof

passengersonboardimpacteduponmortalityrates.Inallwewereabletolocate

populationdatafor228(79percent)ofthevoyagesinoursample.Weestimate

thatjustover10,000seamanwereemployedtomanthevesselsthatbroughtthe

60,611convictsinthisstudytoAustralia.Whilemilitarydetachmentswerenot

8

employedonfemalevessels,aguardwaspresentonallmalevoyages.We

estimatethatjustover7,400soldiersalsomadethevoyagebringingwiththem

1,300wivesandjustunder1,800children.Asmallnumberoffreepassengers

werealsopresent,mostofwhomarrivedonboardfemalevessels(consideredto

provideasaferpassage).Manyofthesewerethewivesanddependentsofmale

convictswhohadalreadybeentransportedandwereconsideredhavebehaved

wellenoughforthestatetoassistwithfamilyreunification.16Theyalsoincluded

smallnumbersofcabinclasspassengers,generallythewivesandfamilyof

officialstravellingtoAustralia.Togethertheseamountedto700adultsand

around750children.Finally,the12,396femaleprisonerswereaccompanied

intoexileby1,900oftheirownchildren(afurther81birthsoccurredonthe

voyagetoAustralia).Thus,intotalweestimatethatinadditiontoconvicts,the

vesselsinoursamplecarriedafurther23,800otherpassengers.

Ouranalysisrevealsthatmaleshipsweremoretightlypackedthan

female.Theycarried0.62passengerspertonwhilefemaleconvictvessels

carried0.54.Wefailedfindevidenceofarelationshipbetweenloadingand

mortalityandthisremainedtrueevenwhenmaleandfemaleshipswere

examinedseparately.Ourresultsmirrorfindingsfortheslavetradeandfree

migrantvoyages.Contrarytoexpectations,thedensitywithwhichvesselswere

packeddoesnotappeartohavesignificantlyaffectedmortalitylevels.17

Comparativeanalysiswithothervoyagesservestoillustratethepoint.Although

convictvesselsweremorecrowdedthanthoseemployedtocarryfree

passengersacrosstheAtlantic,theirrecordofagespecificmortalitywas

noticeablybetter.

9

Thereislittleevidencethatthevesselsusedtoshipfemaleconvictsto

Australiawereinotherwaysdeficient.Theshipsemployedinthemaletrade

wereonaverage13yearsold,whilethoseusedtotransportfemaleconvictshad

spentanaverageofjust11yearsatsea.Asthiswouldimply,thelatterwere

morelikelytohavebetterinsuranceratings.

Neitherwasthereasignificantdifferenceinvoyagelength.Femalevessels

tookanaverageof118daystoreachtheirdestinationcomparedto116fortheir

malecounterparts.Incontrasttotheslavetradewherethemonthlydeathrate

washigheronlongervoyages,wecouldfindnosuchrelationship.18Thisis

because,unliketheirtrans‐Atlanticcounterpart,convicttransportsoftenputin

toportenrouteinordertoresupply.Whilevesselsthatstoppedgenerallytook

longertoreachAustralia,stoppingreducedmortalityrates.Thus,whileputting

intoportcarriedtheriskofexposingthoseonboardtonewsourcesofinfection,

thesedangersappeartohavebeenoutweighedbyreductionsindeficiency

diseasesresultingfromtheopportunitytopurchasefreshrations.19

Wecouldalsofindnodifferenceintheagestructureofmaleandfemale

convictsexceptthatfewerfemaleconvictsweretransportedintheirearlyteens.

Themeanageofmaleandfemalepatientsrecordedonadmissiontohospitalon

thepassagetoAustraliawasnearlyidentical(26.25formencomparedto26.92

forwomen).Althoughwedidfindthatsurgeonsonfemaleconvictvesselswere

lesslikelytohavesailedasasurgeonsuperintendenttoAustraliabefore(they

madeonaverage0.83priorvoyagescomparedto1.63forthoseonmaleships),

asnotedearlierwefoundnoevidencethatpriorexperiencewasassociatedwith

areductionineithermorbidityormortality.

10

Thatconvictwomenwereatgreaterriskofmortalityatseacomparedto

menisinitselfnotsurprising.Cohen’sstudyoftrans‐Atlanticfreemigrants

foundasimilardiscrepancyinmortalityoutcomesformenandwomen.20A

furtherstudybyStaniforthofassistedmigrantvoyagessailingtoAustraliainthe

years1837‐9alsosuggestedthatwomendiedatgreaterratesthanmen—a

discrepancyheattributedtothecomparativelypoorpre‐voyagenutritionof

womenanddeathsinchildbirthatsea.21Thisisplausible.

Ifdifferencesbetweenthevesselsusedtoshipmaleandfemaleconvicts

toAustralia,thenumberofpassengersplacedonboard,andtherelative

experienceofsurgeonsuperintendentscannotexplainvariationsinshipboard

mortalityandmorbidity,itispossiblethatdifferingpre‐voyageexperiences

might.Severalsurgeonsonfemalevesselswereconcernedthattheconvictsthey

receivedwerepre‐disposedtosickness,especiallydeficiencydiseases.Sincethe

wayinwhichmaleandfemaleconvictswereprocessedpriortoembarkation

differed,thisisadistinctpossibility.Aftertheyhadbeensentencedto

transportationmostmaleconvictswereremovedtohulks.Thesewere

dismastedvesselsanchoredinportsandusedasmobilelabourdepots.The

averageamountoftimethatlapsedbetweensentencingandembarkationfor

Australiawassevenmonths.22Thiswasnearlytwiceaslongasthevoyageitself.

Bycontrastfemaleconvictswereforwardedtothetransportvesselfrom

regionalprisons.Asthesetwotypesofinstitutionwerecharacterisedby

differentworkanddietaryregimesitispossiblethatthisimpacteduponmale

andfemaleconvictexperienceatsea.

11

MarkStanifortharguedthatfemaleassisted‐migrantsweremoreatrisk

thantheirmalecounterpartsbecauseoftheircomparativelypoorpre‐voyage

recordofnutrition.Thereareagrowingnumberofstudiesthatsuggestthat

intra‐householddistributionofcaloriesfavouredmenattheexpenseofwomen

asworkingclassfamiliesattemptedtoprotectthewageearningpotentialof

malebreadwinners.Thereisevidence,forexample,thatfemaleprisonersgained

weightingaolincontrasttomen.23Thus,whilewomenreceivedsignificantly

fewercalorieswhileinprisonawaitingtransportation,itispossiblethatthis

representedanimprovementinrecentnutritionalcircumstances.Institutional

workregimesthatsubjectedmentogreaterphysicallabourmayhavealso

servedtoeffectivelyclosethegap.Whileitisdifficulttoassesstheimpactthat

institutionaldietshadonvoyagemorbidityandmortalityrateswefoundno

evidenceofelevatedmortalityonmaleandfemaleconvictvesselsdeparting

IrelandaftertheoutbreakoftheIrishpotatofamine,asharpcontrasttotherate

of“shipfever”,probablytyphus,recordedonpost‐faminemigrantvoyagestothe

UnitedStates.24Thissuggeststhat,whileinstitutionalpre‐voyagedietsmayhave

beenmeagrebymodernstandards,theyweresufficientlyhightomitigatethe

effectsofchronicundernutrition.

Severalsurgeonscommentedonthefatiguedstateoftheirfemale

charges.WhilethoseembarkedfromprisonsinthegreaterLondonarea

appearedhealthy,otherswhohadtravelledfromcountygaolswerenotasfit.

DavidThomson,onboardtheEliza,expressedconcernforthewellbeingof

ElizabethFieldingwhofellseriouslyillthedayaftershewasembarked.He

discoveredfromacompanionthatshehadsufferedfromdysenteryinStafford

gaolandhadsubsequentlybeenmovedtoLondonontheoutsideofacoach

12

“exposedtotheweather”.25JosephStreetontheEdwardremarkedthat“the

prisonerscomeonboardinsmallnumbers—atdifferenttimes,andassome

comefromconsiderabledistances(Yorkforexample)theyareoftenmuch

fatiguedandnotinfrequentlyhavecatarrhs.”Neverthelessheaddedthatthese

wererarelysevere.26Whendiarrhoeaaccompaniedbyfeverbrokeoutamongst

thewomenonboardtheWilliamBryanthesurgeon,ThomasRobertson,

reportedthatitappeared“chieflyamongstthecountrywomen”.27MorganPrice

ontheHectorreportedthattheconsiderablenumberofwomenforwardedfrom

Scotland“hadsufferedseverelyfromaverytediousvoyage…inasmallsloop

andwereconsequentlyverycrowdedandtheirhealthhadsufferedgreatly.”28

Wefoundthattherewasarelationshipbetweenthedistancetravelled

priortoembarkationandfemaleconvictmorbidityratesatsea.Womenwho

travelledfromprisonslocatedinNorthernEngland,WesternWalesandDevon

andCornwallspentlongerinhospitalthanwomenwhohadbeentransferred

fromtheMidlands.ThoseconvictedinLondonandtheSouth‐Easthadaneven

lowermorbidityrecord.WomenconvictedinScotlandwereattheleastrisk,

suggestingthatavoyageonamailpacketwaslessdemandingthanbeing

transferredoverland,orthatinstitutionaldietsinScotlandweresuperior,or

possiblythatScottishwomenwereinbettershapepriortoconvictionthantheir

EnglishandWelshcounterparts.Neverthelesstheoveralldifferencesweresmall.

ThemortalityriskforawomanconvictedinnorthernEnglandwasonly1.14

timesgreaterthanthatofawomanconvictedinLondon.

Ifthedistancetravelledtotheconvictvesselimpacteduponmorbidity

andmortalityatseaonewouldexpectthistobeparticularlysoduringthewinter

monthswhentemperatureswerecolderandtravelbyroadmoredifficult.Like

13

JacksonwefoundthatfemaleconvictvesselsdepartingEnglandandIrelandin

December,JanuaryandFebruaryhadlongersickliststhanthosethatdepartedin

othermonths.29Thisdifferencewasnotstatisticallysignificant,however,nordid

itresultinagreaternumberofdeaths.

Thedistancetravelledtothevesselmayhaveimpacteduponvoyage

morbidityandmortalityinotherwayshowever.Femaleconvictswerenearly

four‐timesmorelikelytodieinportthantheirmalecounter‐parts.Inpartthis

reflectsthedifferingembarkationprocedures.Becausetheirchargeswere

loadedindivisionsfromhulkslocatedneartothetransportvessel,surgeonson

maleshipswereabletoconductpre‐voyagescreeningchecks,ataskinwhich

theywereassistedbythehulksurgeon.Therelativelylowrateofdeathonmale

transportspriortoembarkationsuggeststhatthesemeasureswereatleast

partiallysuccessful.30Itwasmoredifficultforasurgeononafemaletransportto

rejectawomanwhohadbeentransferredfromagaoloutsideofLondon,since

returningherfromwhenceshehadcomewaslogisticallymorecomplicated.This

wasespeciallythecaseifthewomanwasaccompaniedbyoneormorechildren.

Indeedthepresenceofchildrenalmostcertainlyrestrictedtheabilityofthe

surgeontopreventtheintroductionofperniciousdisorderssinceitwas

logisticallyimpossibletorejectasickchildwithoutalsorejectingthemother,

regardlessofthelatter’sstateofhealth.Undersuchcircumstancesitseemslikely

thatsurgeonswerepressuredintoembarkingpassengersonfemalevesselsthat

theywouldhaveotherwiserejected.

Morbidity and Mortality at Sea

14

Whiledifferencesinpre‐voyageexperiencescanexplainsomeoftheelevated

riskthatfemaleconvictswereexposedtoonthevoyagetoAustralia,itis

noticeablethattheriskofdeathincreasedasthevesselneareditsdestination.A

featureofbothmaleandfemalevoyageswasthatsomeconditionsweremore

likelytobediagnosedinthefirsthalfofthevoyageandothersinthesecond.

Disordersthattendedtodeclineoverthecourseofthevoyageincludeddiseases

ofthedigestivesystem(largelyconstipation),feversandheadaches.Thosethat

roseincludedscurvy,accidents,diarrhoeaanddysentery,anddiseasesofthe

respiratoryandmusculoskeletalsystems.Althoughdeathsrelatedtopregnancy,

childbirthandthepuerperiumaccountedforlessthan2percentofallfemale

mortality,otherdisordersappeartohaveposedasignificantrisk.Thiswas

particularlytrueofdiarrhoeaanddysentery,listedasacausein47.6percentof

femaledeathsbutjust27.1male.

Thisdiscrepancysuggeststhatfemaleconvictvesselswerelesshygienic

thanmale.Thisposessomethingofapuzzlesincesimilarhygieneregimeswere

imposedonallvessels.Surgeonswereabletoensurethattheirchargeswere

regularlywashed(usuallytwiceaweek),asweretheirclothes,whilebedding

wasairedanddecksdryscrubbed.31Indeedothershaveassumedthatdeath

ratesonfemalevesselswouldbelowerthanthoseformen,notjustbecauseof

theadditionalspaceallocatedtoeachprisoner,butbecausetheratioofsurgeon

toconvictpatientwaslowerthusleadingtoabetterorderedvoyage.32Ifthe

introductionoftrainedsurgeonsmadeanimpactitisnaturaltoassumethatthis

wouldbeparticularlynoticeableonvoyageswheretherewerefewerpotential

patients.Itwasalsothecasethatfemaleconvictsspentlongerondecksincethey

15

wereconsideredtopresentlessofasecurityriskandthatthereforetherewas

littleneedtoexercisethembydivisionaswascommonpracticeonmaleships.33

Itispossiblethatthewaterplacedonboardthevesselatthestartofthe

voyagewasasourceofcontamination.Thameswaterwasnotoriouslyoffensive.

Waterborneinfectiousagentswerenotisolateduntilthesecondhalfofthe

nineteenthcentury—DrJohnSnowpublishedhisfamousmapshowingthe

relationshipbetweenLondonwatersourcesandcholeraratesin1854,theyear

afterthelastvesselinourstudysailed.34Despitethis,thecommonassumption

that“allsmellisdisease”undoubtedlyprovidedsomeprotectiontoconvicts.

Riverwaterwasfiltered(presumablybypassingitthroughbedsofsandor

gravel)beforeitwasplacedincasks.35Fromthe1820sonallconvictvessels

werealsofittedwithcharcoalwaterfilters.

Contaminationislikelytohavebeenafarworseproblemduringsummer

althoughwecouldfindnoevidencethatsummerdeparturespresented

additionaldangersforthoseonboard.Neithercouldwefindanythingtosuggest

thatfemaleconvictvesselsweremorelikelytodepartataparticularseason

comparedtomale,oranyreasonthatthewatersupplyonfemalevesselswould

beanyworsethanthatprovidedformaleconvicts.

Whiletheevidencethatseasonofdeparturecouldimpactonvoyage

outcomeswasweak,thesamecouldnotbesaidforseasonofarrival.Convict

vesselsthatreachedtheirdestinationduringtheAntipodeanwinterhadahigher

rateofon‐boardmorbidityandpost‐voyagemortality.TheSouthernOceanwasa

wildplace.Indeed,itisnoticeablethatafterconvictvesselsmovedintotheSouth

Atlantic,theaccidentrateincreasedaswindspeedandwaveheightpickedup.

Sailingvesselsintheselatitudesmaderapidprogress,buttheydidsoatadded

16

risktothewell‐beingoftheirpassengers.Theimpactonconditionsonboardis

vividlyillustratedthroughtheriseinaccidents.Convicts,crewandpassengers

werehurledacrossdecksanddowncompanionways.Astheaccidentrate

increasedsodidtheriskofinfectiononfemaleconvictships.

Badweatherputexcessivestrainontheuseofwaterclosets.Menwere

encouragedtorelievethemselvesondeckusingtheheadsthatwerealsousedto

servicetheneedsofthecrewandmilitarydetachment.Tubswereprovidedfor

femaleconvicts.Onallconvictvessels,prisonswerealsofittedwithwater

closets.Itwasnotjustthatheavyseasputgreaterstrainonthesefacilities.

Pitchingdecksandpoorlightimpededcleaning,aproblemwhichsurgeons

thoughtwasparticularlythecaseonfemalevessels.36Onereasonforthiswas

thenumberofchildrenwhoaccompaniedtheirconvictedmothersonthe

journeytoAustralia.

Whilethemilitarydetachmentsplacedonboardmalevesselswere

accompaniedbysignificantnumbersofwivesandchildren,thesewere

quarteredinaseparatesectionsofthevesselawayfromtheareassetasidefor

prisoners.Thus,thereisnoreasonwhymaleprisonerswouldhavecomeinto

contactwithyoungchildren.Bycontrast,childrenwerepresentoneveryfemale

convictvesselandwerehousedintheprisonwheretheirpresencealmost

certainlyincreasedtheriskoffaecaloraltransmission,particularlywhenrough

seascompromisedroutinesanitationandmessingarrangements.

Post-voyage experience

17

Despitetheirgreaterrecordofmortalityatsea,femaledeathrates

declinedmorequicklythanmalefollowingdisembarkationinVanDiemen’s

Land.Post‐voyagemortalitywasundoubtedlyinfluencedbytheexperienceof

beingatseafornearlyfourmonths.Thenumberofdeathsthatoccurredduring

thepassageandtheaveragenumberofdaysspentperconvictinsickbaywere

bothcorrelatedwithpostvoyagemortality.Thecomparativelyquickadjustment

madebywomentocolonialconditionscomparedtomen,however,suggeststhat

factorsotherthanvoyageknock‐oneffectswerealsoatplay.

UpondisembarkationwomenweresenttotheCascadesFemaleFactory

whilemenweremarchedtothePenitentiaryinCampbellStreet.Theprincipal

usetowhichfemaleconvictswereputwasasdomesticservants,demandfor

theirservicesoftenoutstrippingsupply.37Afterlanding,motherswereseparated

fromchildrenwhohadbeenweanedand,whilethechildrenwere

institutionalised,thewomenwereassignedtocolonialsettlerhouseholds.Many

ofthesehouseholdswerelocatedinHobartandthereforethedistributionof

womentotheirplacesofcolonialemploymentdidnottakelongtoorganise.38By

contrastmaleconvictswereeitheremployedinroadgangsorassignedtofarms

intheinterior.Thelogisticsofallocatingmaleconvictlabourwasthusmore

complicatedanddelaysweretheinevitableconsequence.Asaresultitislikely

thatfemaleconvictsspentlesstimeininstitutionsinthemonthsimmediately

followingdisembarkationthantheirmalecounterpartsandthushada

comparativelylowerexposuretoinfection.

Coloniallabourextractionprocessesalsoappeartohavetakentheirtoll.

Thelabourthatmaleconvictsundersentenceperformedwasdangerous.While

thestandardpunishmentreservedforfemaleconvicts,workingatthewashtubs,

18

mayhavebeenphysicallydemanding(anddemeaning),itcarriedlessriskof

deaththanquarryingorstonebreaking.Whilemedicalcausesofdeathwereonly

sporadicallyrecordedintherecordsmaintainedbytheconvictdepartment,

accidentswerealwaysreported.Maleconvictswererunoverbyloadedcarts,

killedinquarryexplosionsandlandslidesandevenasphyxiatedbycarbonicgas.

Manywereemployedintimberfellingandsignificantnumberswerekilledby

fallingtrees.Othersweredrowned,ofteninriverswhileattemptingtocooloffin

thesummermonths.Therewerealsoaconsiderablenumberofviolentdeaths

connectedwithotheraspectsoftheconvictsystem.Severalmaleprisonerswere

shotattemptingtoabscond.Theexecutionratewasalsofarhigherthanin

EnglandandWales—abloodycodewascertainlyinoperationinthepenal

colonies.Inallnearlynineteenpercentofmaleconvictdeathscanbeattributed

toviolentcauses.Thiswas6.7timesmorethanthatfortheirfemale

counterparts.

Conclusion

TherewasasignificantreductioninmortalityonAustralianboundconvict

vesselsaftertheintroductionofthesurgeonsuperintendentsystem.Thereis

littleevidencethatthestateofmedicalknowledgepriortothesecondhalfofthe

nineteenthcenturywassufficienttoaffectachangeinmorbidityandmortality

outcomes.Beforethepost‐CrimeanWarNightingalereforms,forexamples,

hospitalsaregenerallyconsideredtohavedonemoreharmthangood.39.

Shipboardexperience,however,suggeststhatthiswasnotnecessarilythecase.

19

Themajorityofsurgeonsuperintendentswereanti‐contagionistswho

attributeddiseasetoacombinationof‘pre‐existing’and‘exciting’causes.In

theirviewthechiefamongstthelatterwasexposureto‘miasmas’(emissions

emanatingfromdampenvironmentsanddecayingandfetidmatter).Whiletheir

patientsmayhavebroughtmany‘pre‐existing’causesonboard—theeffectsof

livinglifeatthesharpendoftheindustrialrevolution—surgeonsuperintendents

hadoneadvantagenotsharedbytheirshore‐basedmedicalcolleagues.Astheir

chargeswereunfreetheycouldimposetheirauthority,punishingthosewho

refusedtoobeymedicalinstructions.Formuchofthenineteenthcenturyrespect

forprivacywasseenasanEnglishvirtueandthismeantthatstateattemptsto

regulatedomesticenvironmentsremainedunpopular.40Bycontrastallspaceon

aconvictvessel(apartfromtheofficers’quarters)waspublicspace.

Althoughmiasmatheorywasbasedonapoorunderstandingofdisease

transmissionprocesses,theauthorityvestedinsurgeonsuperintendentsmeant

thatthemeasurestheyputinplacewerelargelyeffective.41Suchprocesses

includeddeckscrubbingandscrapingandregularwashingofbothconvictsand

theirclothingandbedding.While,likeslavers,surgeonsuperintendentswere

quicktoblamedeathsatseaonpre‐existingcausesoutsideoftheircontrol,

longitudinalanalysissuggeststhatthepowerthattheyexercisedoverboththeir

chargesandshipboardspacewaseffective.

Wecouldfindnoevidencethatthedensitywithwhichvesselswere

packedaffectedmoralityoutcomes.Whilemorepassengerswereembarkedper

tononsomevoyagesthanothers,thisdidnotjeopardisethewelfareofconvicts.

Heavilyloadedvesselswouldhavekeptthesurgeonbusy,yet,higherpatientto

medicalpractitionerratioswereunlikelytomakeanydifferenceas—once

20

patientsfellsick—medicalinterventiondidlittletoaffecttheoutcome(with

notableexceptionofscurvywhereaneffectiveremedywasavailable).Ifmedical

interventionhadmadeadifferencewewouldhaveexpectedtofinda

relationshipbetweenthepriorexperienceofthesurgeonandreductionsin

shipboardmortality.Wedidnot.

Theotherprincipalbenefitofemployingmedicallytrainedofficialswas

thattheywereabletoconductpre‐voyagehealthchecks.Asonfreepassenger

voyages,theywerelesseffective,however,atreducingdeathratesamongst

women.Longitudinalanalysissuggeststhatsomeofthedifferenceinthese

outcomescanbeattributedtothewaysinwhichmaleandfemaleconvictswere

processedpriortoembarkation.Womenweresuppliedwithlesscaloriesthan

theirinstitutionalisedmalecounter‐partsandsomeweremovedlongdistances

inthedaysimmediatelyproceedingembarkation.

Itisalsopossiblethatthelivesledbyconvictwomenpriortoarrestwere

characterisedbyextremedisadvantage,puttingthematgreaterlong‐termrisk

thantheirmalecounterparts.Whileworking‐classnineteenthcenturywomen

mayhavebeennutritionallydisadvantagedasaresultofintra‐householdfood

distributionstrategies,thereislittleevidencethatthisputthematriskduring

thevoyagetoAustralia.Ifthishadbeenthecasewewouldhaveexpectedtosee

risingmorbidityandmortalityamongstpost‐famineconvictsshippedfrom

Ireland.Thatwedidnotsuggeststousthatprisonandhulkdietsweresufficient

tooffsetthemostperniciouseffectsofpre‐arrestmalnutrition.

Analysisofthediagnosesprovidedforfemaleconvictsenrouteto

Australiaindicatesthattheywereatgreaterriskofdiarrhoealdisorders.The

mostlikelyreasonforthiswasthepresenceofinfantchildrenintheprison

21

wherefemaleconvictswerequartered.Highseasinsouthernlatitudes,

particularlyinwinter,appeartohavefurthercompromisedshipboardhygiene.

Thepresenceofchildrenalsoimpactedontheabilityofthesurgeontoconduct

effectivepre‐boardscreening.

Inmarkedcontrasttoshipboardexperience,femaleconvictswereatless

riskofdeathinthefirstyearinthecolony.Post‐disembarkationdeathratesfor

bothsexeswereelevatedasaresultoftheknock‐oneffectsofalongvoyageat

sea.Women,however,wereabletomakeaswiftertransitiontolowermortality

ratesbecausetheirexperienceofpost‐voyageinstitutionalisationwasbenign

comparedtomenand,perhapsironically,becausethecoercivepracticesofthe

stateseparatedthemfromtheirchildren.

Themannerinwhichthecolonialstatepolicedtheprivatelivesofconvict

womenalsoresultedinlowerfertility,therebyreducingtheriskofdeathin

childbirth.Bycontrast,theworkundertakenbymaleconvictscarried

significantlyhigherriskofaccidentaldeathandthiswasespeciallytrueofthose

undergoingpunishmentlabour.Thus,exploitivelabourpracticeshad

diametricallyopposedimpactsonmaleandfemaledeathrates.Ingeneral,

however,statesurveillance(andtheincreasedregulationthatcamewithit)

loweredratherthanraisedmortalityrates.Whiletransportationmayhave

conferredphysicalbenefitsthisdoesnotmean,however,thatitwas

psychologicallybeneficial.Indeed,itwaspreciselybecausetheprisonersshipped

toAustraliawereplacedinasituationwheretheywererelativelypowerlessthat

thestatewasabletoimprovemorbidityandmortalityoutcomes.

22

1 Alice Bullard, Exile to Paradise: Savagery and Civilization in Paris and the South Pacific (Stanford,

Stanford University Press, 2000) and Vlas Doroshevich, Russia’s Penal Colony in the Far East

(London, Anthem Press, 2011). 2 William Cobbett, The Emigrant’s Guide; in Ten Letters Addressed to the Tax-payers of England

(London, 1826), 40. 3 Emma Christopher, “‘The Slave Trade is Merciful Compared to [This]’: Slave Traders, Convict

Transportation and the Abolitionists,” in Emma Christopher, Marcus Rediker (eds) Many Middle

Passages: Forced Migration and the Making of the Modern World (Berkeley, University of California

Press, 2007), 107-28. 4 Robin Haines and Ralph Shlomowitz, “Explaining the Mortality Decline in the Eighteenth-Century

British Slave Trade, “Economic History Review, 53, no. 2 (2000): 273. 5 Charles Bateson, The Convict Ships (Sydney, Library of Australian History, 2004), 38-49. 6 John McDonald and Ralph Shlomowitz, “Mortality on Convict Voyages to Australia, 1788-1868,”

Social Science History, 13, no. 3 (1989): 291. 7 Raymond L. Cohen, “The Determinants of Individual Immigrant Mortality on Sailing Ships, 1836–

1853,” Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987): 378. Note that 94 per cent of male convicts landed

in Australia were aged between 15 and 44, Tasmanian Archives and Heritage Office (henceforth

TAHO), Con 23/1 and 2. 8 The National Archive, Great Britain (henceforth TNA), ADM 101 series. 9 TNA, ADM101/12/7 & ADM101/14/5. 10 R. V. Jackson, “Sickness and Health on Australia’s Female Convict Ships, 1821–1840,”

International Journal of Maritime History, 18, no. 2 (2006): 72, 76–7. 11 Robin Haines & Ralph Shlomowitz, “Causes of Death of British Emigrants on Voyages to South

Australia, 1848-1885,” Social History of Medicine, 16, no.2 (2003): 201-207 12 Haines, McDonald and Shlomowitz, “Mortality and Voyage Length in the Middle Passage,”: 503-33. 13 Haines & Shlomowitz, “Causes of Death”, 207 14 Jackson, “Sickness and health on Australia’s female convict ships”, 80 and Mark Staniforth, “Diet,

Disease and Death at Sea on the Voyage to Australia, 1837-1839,” International Journal of Maritime

History, 8, no. 2 (1996), 122. 15 The East London left Dublin for Van Diemen’s Land in April 1844 with 133 female convicts and 50

of their children on board. Of these 19 women and 12 children perished at sea. With the exception of

shipwrecks this was by far the highest mortality rate encountered on any voyage to Van Diemen’s

Land. TNA, ADM 101/22/1. 16 Perry McIntyre, Free Passage: The Reunion of Irish Convicts and their Families in Australia 1788-

1852 (Dublin, Irish Academic Press, 2011) and Ian Brand and Mark Staniforth, “Care and Control:

Female Convict Transportation Voyages to Van Diemen’s Land", Great Circle, 16, no. 1 (1994): 34 17 James Rawley and Stephen D. Behrendt, The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History (Lincoln,

University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 258-9. 18 Haines and Shlomowitz, “Explaining the Mortality Decline,” 259.

23

19 McDonald and Shlomowitz, “Mortality on Convict Voyages to Australia,” 290. 20 Raymond L. Cohen, “Mortality on Immigrant Voyages to New York, 1836–1853,” Journal of

Economic History, 44 no. 2 (1984): 289-300. 21 Staniforth, “Diet, Disease and Death at Sea”, 127. 22 Calculated using data from TAHO, Con 31 series and TNA, ADM 101 and HO 8 series. 23 Sara Horrell, David Meredith and Deborah Oxley, “Measuring Misery: Body Mass, Ageing and

Gender Equality in Victorian London,” Explorations in Economic History, 46 (2009): 93-119. 24 “Diet, Disease and Death at Sea,” 132. 25 ADM101/23/6. Fielding did not survive the voyage. She died 21 days after the ship had put to sea.

TAHO, Con 40/3 p.39. 26 ADM101/22/8 27 ADM 101/74/06 28 ADM 101/32/9 29 Jackson, “Sickness and Health,” 77. 30 Stephen Nicholas, “Unshackling the Past”, in S. Nicholas (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting

Australia’s Past (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988), 9. 31 Kim Humphery, “A New Era of Existence: Convict Transportation and the Authority of the Surgeon

in Colonial Australia,” Labour History, 59 (1990): 59–72; Katherine Foxhall, “From Convicts to

Colonists: The Health of Prisoners and the Voyage to Australia, 1823-53,” The Journal of Imperial and

Commonwealth History, 39, no. 1 (2011): 1-19. 32 Brand and Staniforth, “Care and Control”, 24. 33 Jackson, “Sickness and Health,” 84. 34 Steven Johnson, The Ghost Map (London, Penguin, 2006) and P. D. Curtin, Death by Migration:

Europe’s Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Cambridge

University Press, 1989), 50-6. 35 Bateson, Convict Ships, 68. 36 Brand and Staniforth, “Care and Control”, 31 and TAHO, CSO 22/88/1859, Edward Caldwell,

Surgeon R.N to Sir William Burnett, Hobart Town, 1843. 37 Kirsty Reid, “Setting Women to Work: The Assignment System and Female Convict Labour in Van

Diemen’s Land, 1820-1839,” Australian Historical Studies, 34, no. 121 (2003): 4-9. 38 Lucy Frost, Abandoned Women: Scottish Convicts Exiled Beyond the Seas (Sydney, Allen and

Unwin, 2012), 46-65 39 See for example McKeown, Modern Rise, 150 40 Simon Szreter, ‘The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain’s Mortailty Decline c. 1850-1914:

A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health”, Social History of Medicine, 1, no 1 (1988):, p.32. 41 James Colgrove, “The McKeown Thesis: A Historical Controversy and Its Enduring Influence,”

American Journal of Public Health, 95, no. 5 (2002): 725–729 and Szreter, “The Importance of Social

Intervention, 1-38.