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SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS IN POWER SYSTEM

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CH-1: INTRODUCTION

AC Power Systems are required to feed active Loads (real power or watt) as well as reactive load (Volt-ampere reactive - VAr).

Majority of loads connected to a typical Power System are Inductive in nature. Hence it is essential for a Power system to meet

demand of active (MW) & reactive Power (inductive) at all times by means of generated active & reactive power.

In a power system, Loads (Watts & VArs) increase or decrease continuously. The system generation (Watts & VArs) shall

accordingly respond continuously by meeting the changing loads to ensure stable system operation. By stable operating system

means the power system adjusts its active & reactive generation such that the system frequency and voltages remain within

normal operation limits and any oscillations in the power are damped out. The system is said to have reached a stable equilibrium

when the generated power (MW & MVAr) matches the load demand (including losses), system voltage & frequency are within the

normal operating range and the capability of all power system components are not exceeded. Due to system inertia and time

constants as well as due to delay in control response times, oscillations in angle, frequency or voltage occur in power systems which

are damped out by various means.

Slow and small changes in the loads are met by increasing or decreasing the generated power (by governor, exciter action or action

of tap changers, capacitor bank/shunt reactor switching as well as other regulating equipment actions). This is related with steadystate and dynamic stability of the system. It is possible for any Power system to lose steady state stability under certain conditions

or contingencies (leading to total or partial loss of system or load). Power systems are planned, operated & maintained to achieve

stability at all times with minimal loss of loads. Some actions are undertaken by the system planner/operator to prevent system

becoming steady state unstable (such as expansion of system, interconnections, increasing active & reactive sources & sinks,

upgrading existing equipment thermal capabilities, HVDC links etc).

Fast or sudden large changes in load demand (e.g. due to faults, load disconnections, auto-reclose actions, manual/automatic

controller mis-operations etc) sometimes may result in system unable to meet with the new demand within a time limit. System

may become unstable when it is unable to control the system voltage, frequency or damp out large oscillations quickly. This is

related with transient stability of the system. It is also possible for any Power system to lose transient stability under certain

conditions or contingencies (leading to total or partial loss of system or load). Actions like fast acting controllers, automatic

reclosing, high-speed interruption, action of power electronic VAr controllers etc are useful in preventing transient instability.

Active power is produced by various generating stations. System responds to the active power demand changes based on the

system frequency/MW changes. Generator governing systems respond to the changes automatically and manually by power

system operators.

Reactive power is produced by various generating stations as well as other VAr sources. System responds to reactive power

demand changes both automatically & manually by means of generator excitation control system, VAR sources switching actions

based on the system voltage/MVAr changes.

SHUNT CAPACITORS

Shunt Capacitor banks are the most commonly used VAr sources in Power system. These are used at all voltage levels from

Distribution LV system to EHV Transmission systems. Thus Shunt capacitor banks are available at all system Voltage levels.

Shunt Capacitors are applied for improving the power factor of loads as well as for system voltage support. Most of the Shunt

capacitor banks are fixed capacity and hence are introduced into or removed from the system in steps using circuit switchers

(either manually or automatically). Thus result in step changes in system Voltage/VArs. For continuous changes some power

electronic based switched VAr devices are used.

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Solidly Grounded Shunt capacitors also provide low impedance path at higher frequencies. Hence are often designed & applied as

harmonic filters or as dual purpose devices (i.e. for VAR support at fundamental frequency as well as harmonic filters with or

without tuned series inductors at higher frequencies). Some power converter devices and loads which introduce various harmonics

based on their design also require Shunt capacitors.

In addition to Shunt Capacitors there are various other VAr sources such as Synchronous Generators, some asynchronous or

variable-speed Synchronous Generators with Converters, Synchronous Converters, Power Cables, OH Transmission lines, SVC,

STATCOM etc.

Shunt Reactors, Synchronous Generators, power electronic based VAr devices act as VAr loads. Some actions of Power

Transformers tap changers may result in exciting current increase and act as VAr loads.

Synchronous Generators & some asynchronous Generators are typically rated for operation at 0.8 to 0.85 power factor at rated

MVA (Rated Power factor of larger Generators are usually 0.85). Thus some Generators can deliver 50 to 60% of rated MVA as

MVAr (which is at the cost of real power, MW). Maximum MVAr an over-excited Generator can produce is limited by its rotor/field

thermal capability and rotor dynamics. Similarly, a Synchronous Generator can also operate as under-excited and is limited by

stability.

Fixed speed Induction Generators also require MVAr to be supplied from the System (and act as VAr loads).

Transmission lines have series inductive reactance and shunt capacitive reactance. EHV Over-Head (OH) Transmission lines can

produce considerable MVAr. Cables can produce large MVArs depending on the Voltage rating (e.g. 132kV cable may produce

1MVAr/km, 220kV cable may produce 3MVAr/km and a 500kV cable may produce 10MVAr/km)

SERIES CAPACITORS

EHV Transmission lines can be equipped with series capacitors installed to compensate part of its inductive reactance. Thus, they

result in increased stability limit (and lead to higher power transfer capability of transmission system). This is called series

compensation and typically applied at end stations or at an intermediate position between two ends of EHV line.

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CH-2: CAPACITOR FUNDAMENTALS

A capacitor can be viewed as a power storage device in electric field. Any conducting metal separated by a dielectric forms a

capacitor. Thus a power conductor and the ground act as a capacitor with air as dielectric media. Similarly, phase conductors and

air separating them also acts as a capacitor.

DUALITY BETWEEN INDUCTANCE & CAPACITANCE:

Inter-related duality exists between Inductance & Capacitance similar to Current & Voltage or magnetic field & Electric field.

Inductive phenomena is related with the strength of the Magnetic field (which is produced by flow of charged particles - in

Electricity world, it is the electric current). Inductor thus can be defined as a device that stores energy in magnetic field.

Capacitive phenomena is related with the strength of the Electric field (which is produced due to availability of stationary

charged particles - in Electricity world, it is the Electric Potential). Capacitor thus can be defined as a device that stores

energy in electric field.

An Inductor is defined by its Inductance value (L) and its unit is Henry. It follows equation L= /I; where is magnetic flux

and I is current through Inductor. An Inductor is thus said to have an Inductance of 1 Henry when it generates a magneticflux of 1 Weber when 1 Ampere is flowing through it.

A Capacitor is defined by its Capacitance value (C) and its unit is Farad. It follows equation C= Q/V; where Q is electric

charge and V is voltage across the capacitor. A capacitor is thus said to have a Capacitance of 1 Farad when it is able to

accumulate a net charge of 1 Coulomb when 1 Volt is applied across it.

[Moving charge (or Electric current) produces Magnetic field. Magnetic flux is a c ontinuous loop. There is no magnetic uni-pole thus always has N-S dipole (and

magnetic force field is long range force and interacts with magnetic poles).

Stationary charge (or Electric PD) produces Electric field. Electric flux is not a continuous loop. Charge can be isolated as a positive & a negative charge (electric

force field is also long range force and interacts with charges). Smallest positive charge is a positron and corresponding negative charge is an electron.]

Inductance is an interactive property (similar to inertia) for motion of electrons (charge) or current in metallic circuits

(conductors). Thus an Inductor always opposes a changing current. Thus results in producing a back emf opposing the

applied emf to prevent a current from increasing and reversing the polarity of back emf to prevent the current from

decreasing.

Capacitance is an interactive (similar to charging a spring) on application of stationary charge or Voltage across dielectric

circuit (insulators). Thus a Capacitor always opposes a changing PD between it.

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CH-3: AC CIRCUITS -1:

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CH-4: AC CIRCUITS-2

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CH-5: AC CIRCUITS-3

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