Sheep Research in EthiopiaReview of projects and thoughts on strategies

[1ST DRAFT]

December, 2012

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Table of contentsContentsList of Tables........................................................................................................................................... ii

Acronyms................................................................................................................................................. ii

Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................. ii

Executive Summary............................................................................................................................. ii

1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................2

2. Research projects, gaps and impacts....................................................................................2

2.1. Characterization of genetic resources...............................................................................2

2.1.1 Phenotypic characterization..........................................................................................2

2.1.1.1 Origin, identification and physical descriptions..................................................2

2.1.1.2 Performance evaluations............................................................................................2

2.1.2 Genetic characterization.................................................................................................2

2.1.2.1 Molecular characterization.........................................................................................2

2.1.2.2 Estimation of genetic parameters...........................................................................2

2.2. Research on conservation of genetic resources............................................................2

2.3. Characterization of sheep production systems..............................................................2

2.3.1. Classification and description of production systems..............................................2

2.3.2. Definition of breeding objectives and practices.........................................................2

2.3.3. Identification of production constraints........................................................................2

2.4. Genetic improvement – research and development programs................................2

2.4.1. Selective breeding programs............................................................................................2

2.4.1.1. Nucleus breeding programs..........................................................................................2

2.4.1.2. Village-based breeding programs...............................................................................2

2.4.2. Crossbreeding programs....................................................................................................2

2.4.3. Designing breeding programs..........................................................................................2

2.5. Improvement of the production environment.................................................................2

2.6. Sheep value chain Development.........................................................................................2

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2.7. Strategic Research...................................................................................................................2

2.8. Organization of the research system and current projects........................................2

2.9. General impact assessment..................................................................................................2

3. Thoughts on research strategies.............................................................................................2

3.1. Appraisal of the research system........................................................................................2

3.2. Research on sheep development strategies and schemes........................................2

3.3. Sheep breeding research.......................................................................................................2

3.4. Management interventions....................................................................................................2

3.5. Village research sites...............................................................................................................2

3.6. Value chain approach..............................................................................................................2

3.7. Strategic research....................................................................................................................2

3.8. Dissemination of information and technologies.............................................................2

3.9. Effective organization of sheep research.........................................................................2

4. Concluding remarks.....................................................................................................................2

5. References.......................................................................................................................................2

6. Bibliography....................................................................................................................................2

List of TablesTable 1. References to characterization activities on sheep resources of Ethiopia......2Table 2. Performance evaluation of nucleus and village sheep flocks in Ethiopia........2Table 3. Available estimates of genetic parameters for sheep breeds in Ethiopia.......2Table 4. Livestock production systems characterization activities in Ethiopia...............2Table 5. Nucleus breeding programs in Ethiopia.......................................................................2Table 6. Research efforts on strategy and design of breeding programs........................2Table 7. Documented research projects on sheep diseases/parasites, feeding and other management interventions...................................................................................................2Table 8. Current sheep research projects and activities of the national research system (EIAR).........................................................................................................................................2

AcronymsCADU Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit

BoA Bureau of Agricuture, Ethiopia

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EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural ResearchESGPIP Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement ProjectBHS Black Head Somali sheepNLIC National Livestock Improvement ConferenceESAP Ethiopian Society of Animal ProductionNVI National Veterinary InstituteCGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchILRI International Livestock Research InstituteICARDA International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry AreasDAD-IS Domestic Animal Diversity Information SystemDAGRIS Domestic Animal Genetic Resource Information System

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Acknowledgements

Executive Summary This working paper reviews sheep research and development endeavors in

Ethiopia. The objective is to review and document sheep research projects/activities and provide an overview of the major research outputs, dissemination of research results, impacts on the sheep industry, and the gaps in research. Thoughts on the future directions of sheep research are also forwarded. Sheep research and development in Ethiopia dates back to early 1960’s. The focus areas can be categorized into characterization of genetic resources, description of farming systems, genetic improvement, introduction and evaluation of forage species,

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development of feeding packages, identification of diseases and parasites, development of health interventions, and marketing studies.

Research on identification, classification and description of sheep resources of Ethiopia began in the 1970’s with the description of the sheep populations into broad categories of tail and fiber types. The activity recently included molecular characterization. Ethiopian sheep are now well characterized. Further research may be required to fill gaps in previous projects. Sheep populations that need further characterization works include Harerghe highland sheep, Begayit or Barca sheep and Nuer sheep. Documentation of breed information is also underway being currently handled by DAGRIS and DAD-IS projects. Characterization of performance levels identified small (Menz, Wollo, Tikur sheep), medium (sekota and simian sheep), large (BHS, Adilo, Farta and Arsi-Bale sheep) and very large (Gumz, Afar, Washera, Horro and Bonga sheep) sheep types in Ethiopia. The very large breeds are more prolific than the smaller breeds, with litter sizes ranging from 1.0 -1.09 in the small breeds to 1.28 to 1.55 in the very large breeds. Estimates of genetic parameters are now available for some breeds. The estimates indicate that there exist a high within-breed genetic variation in Ethiopian sheep populations and appreciable genetic improvements can be made through selective breeding, especially in growth traits. Numerous studies characterizing livestock production systems in Ethiopia have been conducted and reported by research institutes and Agricultural Universities.

Sheep genetic improvement in Ethiopia started in 1944 with the introduction of Merino breed from Italy to improve the performance of the local Arsi-Bale breed. The strategy adopted was both selective breeding and cross-breeding. The breeding programs address a limited number of breeds of sheep in the country. Research projects so far conducted include Afar, BHS, Horro, Menz, and Washera sheep nucleus selection projects/programs. Currently two crossbreeding programs are underway using the exotic breeds of Awassi and Dorper. Despite decades of research efforts, the research projects yielded unsatisfactory outputs. Besides, since genetic improvement is a long term venture requiring enduring commitment, sustaining sheep breeding programs in Ethiopia has proved to be difficult. Past failures in sheep genetic improvement endeavors have prompted research on design of breeding programs. Village-based cooperative breeding programs have now been established and running for Menz, Horro and Bonga sheep breeds. Appreciable genetic improvement has been achieved in the Menz program.

A number of research projects to improve the production environment (feeding, health) have been conducted and technologies and information generated. The impact of these research projects on the sheep industry has been quite notable in some cases. These include adoption of some improved forages in some areas, identification and mapping of geographical and agro-ecological prevalence of economically important diseases, vaccine development and designing health interventions (e.g. strategic deworming regimens and vaccination for viral diseases).

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The existing documentation system of research and development projects and outputs may not enable a comprehensive appraisal of the research system. The review cannot be considered as exhaustive. From the current review it can be seen that numerous research projects have been undertaken. A wealth of information and a number of technologies have been generated. Some of the research outputs haven been published in technical publications, annual reports and progress reports. Technologies have been demonstrated to end users through farmers’ field days and promoted through pamphlets and brochures. However, adoption of the technologies by the end users is not appreciable. There are also gaps in the research and development endeavors (e.g., breeding programs are not coordinated). This calls for a revisiting of the organization and functioning of the sheep research and development system. The link between research and development wings of the livestock sector need to be strengthened for effective dissemination of the research outputs.

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1. IntroductionSheep production is a major component of the livestock sector in Ethiopia

owing to the large population size with 25.5 million heads (CSA, 2011) and the diverse genetic resources (Gizaw, 2008). At the smallholder level, sheep are the major source of food security serving a diverse function including cash income, savings, fertilizer, food, socio-cultural functions and fiber. Sheep are particularly important for the pastoralist/agro-pastoralist and for farmers in the subalpine highlands where crop production is unreliable. Sheep are also important foreign currency earners account for 34% of the live animal export (Ethiopian Customs Authority, Personal communication).

Sheep research and development has been going on for decades in Ethiopia to improve the productivity of the local genetic resources, increase off-take rates, and increase their contribution to the livelihoods of farmers and pastoralists and to the national economy. A number of research and development projects have been undertaken by the national and international agricultural research systems and governmental and non-governmental development institutions. Achievements, challenges, impacts on the sheep industry and research gaps need to be periodically evaluated to direct the research and development efforts to meet the desired ends. To this end, a methodical and systematic appraisal of research projects may be required. However, an exploratory review of research can be indicative for a comprehensive evaluation. The objective of this working paper is to review and document sheep research projects/activities in Ethiopia. The paper aims to provide an overview of the major research outputs, dissemination of research results, impacts on the sheep industry, and the gaps in research. Thoughts on the future directions of sheep research are also forwarded.

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2. Research projects, gaps and impactsSheep research and development in Ethiopia dates back to early 1960’s. A

number of research and development projects have been initiated and some implemented addressing the different aspects of the sheep industry. The focus areas can be categorized into description of farming systems, identification of sheep production constraints, characterization of the sheep genetic resources, genetic improvement, introduction and evaluation of forage species, development of feeding packages, identification of the major diseases and parasites, development of health interventions, and marketing studies.

Sheep research and in general livestock research in Ethiopia has gone through various stages of transformation since its beginning in the 1960’s. The transformations involve changes in the research strategy/agenda, approaches, methodologies and organizational structure. The research approach in the early years was largely station-based technology generation for problems identified through diagnostic surveys and researchers observations. More consideration was given to identification of real farming problems with the advent of farming systems research. Recently, on-farm studies with more participation of farmers in the design and implementation of research projects is being adopted. For instance, breeding programs have shifted from nucleus to village-based breeding programs for some sheep breeds. The research system is currently engaging more in development projects as well, including scaling up of technologies and running full-fledged breeding programs (e.g., Dorper sheep breeding program).

The national research system is organized under one umbrella institute (EIAR) presumed to coordinate all the research in the country. The research entities engaged in sheep research include the federal research institute (EIAR), regional research institutes, Agricultural Universities, international research centers and NGOs. The national research system is more involved in adaptive and applied research, whereas the international research centers are involved in both strategic and applied research. Collaborations between the international and national research system has become stronger in recent years. In the following sections, sheep research projects and their major outputs will be presented. The review also attempts to analyze dissemination of the information and technologies generated to intermediate and end users, their impacts on the sheep industry, and the gaps in research.

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2.1. Characterization of genetic resources

2.1.1 Phenotypic characterization

2.1.1.1 Origin, identification and physical descriptionsA few research projects have addressed the subject of the origins of Ethiopian

sheep. African sheep including Ethiopian sheep are thought to be of Near Eastern origin (Epstein, 1954; Epstein, 1971; Ryder, 1984; Marshal, 2000) and Ethiopia is believed to be one of the major gateways for domestic sheep migration from Asia to Africa (Devendra and McLeroy, 1982). The history of introduction of sheep into Africa recognizes (Epstein, 1971) three waves of migration from Asia of precursor populations (fat-tailed, thin-tailed and fat-rumped sheep). The earliest sheep in Africa were thin-tailed and hairy and introduced to East Africa through North Africa (Marshal, 2000). The second wave of sheep introduction to Africa constitutes fat-tailed sheep entering North Africa via the Isthmus of Suez straits and East Africa via straits of Bab-el-Mandeb (Ryder, 1984). Fat-rumped sheep entered East Africa much later (Epstein, 1954; Epstein, 1971; Ryder, 1984). Accordingly, African sheep have been traditionally described and classified based on their tail type (Epstein, 1971; Ryder, 1984).

Identification, classification and description of sheep resources of Ethiopia have begun in the 1970’s with the description of the sheep populations into broad categories of tail and fiber types (MoA, 1975). Accordingly Ethiopian sheep were initially categorized into fat tailed (Arsi-Bale sheep), thin tailed (Horro sheep) and coarse woolled sheep (Menz and Tikur sheep). This classification identified only a few of the sheep populations in Ethiopia. Later, Galal (1983) described the physical characteristics of four sheep types and Sisay (2009) described the physical characteristics and eco-regional distribution sheep resources in Amhara region. The abovementioned identifications, classification and descriptions had some confusions and lack comprehensiveness as they addressed a limited part of the country. For instance, an earlier study (MOA, 1975) described Horro as thin-tailed and Arsi-Bala as fat-tailed, while Galal (1983) and Epstein (1971) described them as fat-tailed. BHS sheep has been classed with fat-tailed (Epstein, 1971) and fat-rumped group (Epstein, 1971), while Galal (1983) described the tail as short and fat, with the rump being also fatty. Adal sheep is also traditionally described as fat-tailed, but categorized as fat-rumped (Epstein 1971). This has called for research on a comprehensive classification and description of Ethiopian sheep at national level.

A recent comprehensive phenotypic classification and description at national level (Gizaw, 2008) classified the sheep resources as short fat tailed, long fat tailed, fat-rumped, course-woolled and short-haired sheep types. A detailed phenotypic description of the sheep types, estimates of breed population sizes, their breeding tracts, production systems and farmers preferences have also been provided (Gizaw et al. 2008a). Furthermore, a guide for their field identification is produced (Gizaw, 2010). These studies have found that the sheep types are traditionally recognized by the communities rearing them and named after the communities or their

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administrative locations or phenotypic characteristics, e.g. Afar sheep, Horro sheep, Black Head Somali sheep.

Further research may be required to fill gaps in previous projects. Currently, research on morphological characterization is still continuing at district level mainly through Masters Degree research projects of Agricultural Universities (See Table 1). Sheep populations considered as distinct through district-level surveys/observations and those that need further characterization works include Harerghe highland sheep, Begayit or Barca sheep and Nuer sheep. A population in three districts of the Harerghe highlands has been described as Harerghe Highland sheep (Wossenie 2012). Further verification may be required to determine whether the population is Afar type, Arsi type, a crossbred population between Afar and Arsi sheep or a distinct pure breed. The following facts may need to be considered. The three districts are contiguous to the breeding tracts of Afar and Arsi sheep, the population shares the phenotypic characteristics of Afar and Arsi-Bale sheep, and other districts in Harerghe highlands are inhabited by Afar, Arsi or BHS sheep types. Another population known as Begayit or Barca sheep found in North Western tip of Tigray region bordering Eritrea which is the main breeding tract for Barca sheep needs to be verified if it is different from a mainly Sudanese breed called Rutana and introduced into North western Ethiopia. Nuer sheep which is found in Gambella region and may also be found in the Sudan is not yet characterized.

Documentation of breed information is currently handled by ILRI’s DAGRIS and FAO DAD-IS which are mandated with documentation of livestock genetic resources. A reference review of characterization activities is provided in Table 1. The table shows that extensive efforts have been put into identifying and describing the sheep populations in Ethiopia. The information generated so far seems to suffice to describe the sheep types in Ethiopia. There is however a continuing effort to characterize sheep populations at district level and a tendency to describe each population in a district as a separate breed without consideration to the already defined breeds nationwide or region-wide. The primary attempt should be to try to categorize the district populations into one of the recognized breeds by comparing and contrasting its characteristics with that of the nationally and regionally defined breeds. In this context, further characterization efforts at district level may not be warranted. However, characterization activities at district level may continue to provide location and agro-ecological specific information on other components of characterization including description of the production system and environment, performance levels of the breeds, and farmers breeding practices and objectives.

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Table 1. References to characterization activities on sheep resources of Ethiopia

Sheep types Geographic distributions References to characterization projectsAdilo North Omo, Derashie, Gedio and Amaro zones of

Southern state; some northern Borena districts (1300 – 2400 m) Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a); Amelmal (2011)

Afar Afar state; boardering Tigray, Amhara; E. & W. Harerghe and E. Shoa of Oromia

Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Tesfaye (2008)

Arsi-Bale Arsi, Bale, E. Shoa, W. Harerghie zones, some districts in Borena zones of Oromia; Hadya, Gurage, Kembata & Sidama zones

Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a)

Begayit/Barca North western Tigray, mainly in Eritrea - - -BHS Somali state; lowlands of Bale, Borena and south Omo zones;

part of east Harerghe Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a); Fikerete (2008)

Bonga Keffa, Sheka and Bench zones of Southern State Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Zewdu (2008); Dejen (2010); Amelmal (2011); Abegaz (2004)

Farta South Gondar zone; Gondar zuria, Belesa, Dembia districts Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Sisay (2009), Shigdaf (2012)

Gumz Benishangul-Gumz state; lowlands of North Gondar Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Solomon (2007)Harerghe highland

Metta, Gorogutu and Dedere districts in east Harerghe zone, Oromia Wossenie (2012)

Horro East Welega, West Welega, Illubabor, Jimma and West Shoa zones of Oromia, and some area bordering Gambella and Benishangul districts

Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Zewdu (2008), Kejela (2010); Bosenu (2012); Abegaz (2004);

Menz North Shoa zone of Amhara state Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Tesfaye (2008), Sisay (2009); Tesfaye et al. (2012);

Nuer Gambella region - - -Sekota Wag Himra zone of Amhara and Tigray State Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a)Simien North Gondar zone of Amhara state

(Debark, Dabat, Janamora, Wegera)Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Sisay (2009), Surafel (2011)

Tikur North Wollo zone of Amhara state Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Sisay (2009), Mohamed (2012)

Washera West and East Gojam and Agew Awi zones of Amhara state; Dangur, Madura and Alefa Takusa

Gizaw et al. (2008a), Sisay (2009), Mengiste (2008); Shigdaf (2012); Tesfaye et al. (2012);

Wollo South Wollo zone of Amhara state Gizaw et al. (2007b); Gizaw et al. (2008a), Sisay (2009)

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2.1.1.2 Performance evaluations

Evaluation in Nucleus flocks: Maintenance of nucleus flocks in research and development centers dates back to the introduction of Merino sheep from Italy in 1944 to be crossed with a nucleus flock of Arsi sheep by CADU (BOA, 2000). Characterization of the phenotypic performance of the indigenous sheep types in nucleus flocks has been a priority research agenda since livestock research has begun in Ethiopia. The need to establish nucleus flocks was to provide controlled environments for a more accurate evaluation of performances, measuring a number of traits that would be difficult under village conditions, and comparative evaluation of more than one breed under similar environment. The objectives have been to establish the merits and demerits of the sheep breeds, utilize the breeds according to their merits and improve on their drawbacks through selective breeding and crossbreeding with improved exotic breeds. Performance evaluations included growth, reproductive, fleece and carcass traits. The Institute of Agricultural Research (now EIAR) started the characterization work on Afar, BHS and Horro sheep in nucleus flocks maintained in its research centers. Currently, on-station performance evaluation is underway in nucleus flocks of Afar, BHS, Horro, Menz, Washera and Bonga sheep. A list of on-station performance evaluation studies is presented in Table 2.

Monitoring village flocks: Research on performance evaluation later shifted from nucleus flocks to monitoring performances of village flocks under farmers’/pastoralists’ management. This was to obtain realistic information on the performance of breeds within the context of the specific farming system and production environment in which they are used. The information is thus more appropriate to design breeding and management interventions. Monitoring activities also provide information on the status of threatened breeds which can assist in conservation decisions. In these studies a wide range of data are collected including animal performance (growth and reproductive traits) and data describing the farming system and the production environment. Monitoring village flocks used to be a major research undertaking in sheep production research in Ethiopia. Documented village monitoring activities are summarized in Table 2. Village flock monitoring studies are costly in terms of project cost and duration. This could be the reason for a limited number of village monitoring activities conducted and for the later abandoning altogether by the research system.

Single visit surveys: Some breed survey projects (see reference list in Table 1) also collect information on performance in a single visit surveys. In such surveys information on reproductive performance levels is collected using farmer recall method and body weights of adult ewes with four permanent incisors are recorded.

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Extensive data have been collected on the performance of the sheep breeds through nucleus and village flock monitoring and single survey studies. The information has been collated and utilized to establish performance levels and estimate genetic parameters. The data have efficiently been utilized by MSc and PhD research projects in animal breeding. The research outputs show that there is a high diversity in performance among the sheep resources. The breeds can be classified on their body weights as small (Menz, Wollo, Tikur sheep), medium (sekota and simian sheep), large (BHS, Adilo, Farta and Arsi-Bale sheep) and very large (Gumz, Afar, Washera, Horro and Bonga sheep). Mature body weights of adult ewes range from 20.1 kg in Menz to 35.4 kg in Horro sheep (Gizaw et al. 2007b). The very large breeds are more prolific than the smaller breeds. Litter size ranges from 1.0 -1.09 in the small breeds to 1.28 to 1.55 in the very large breeds (Abegaz et al. 2000ab; Abegaz 2002a; Mengiste et al. 2011b; Gizaw et al. 2008a).

The information on performance of Ethiopian sheep is well published and presented at various scientific fora. However, it does not appear to reach the intermediate and end users including institutions involved in livestock development. Furthermore, utilization of the information to meet the objectives stated above is highly limited. Thus the output accrued from performance characterization does not seem to justify the effort and its impact on the sheep industry is yet to be realized.

Table 2. Performance evaluation of nucleus and village sheep flocks in Ethiopia

Breed Flock ReferencesMenz, Horro Nucleus Awgichew (2000); Rege et al. (2002); Markos et al.

(2004); Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. (2002); Mukassa-mugerwa et al. (2000); Berhan and Arendonk (2006)

Menz, crosses Nucleus Zelalem (1987); Sisay et al. (1989); Sendros (1993); Gizaw (2002); Mukasa-Mugerwa and Lahlou-Kassi (1995); Yiheyis (1990); sisay et al. (2012a)

Horro Nucleus Gizaw et al. (1995ab); Gizaw and Abegaz (1995); Yohaness and Gizaw (1995); Yohannes et al. (1995a); Yohannes et al. (1995b); Gemeda et al. (1997); Gizaw and Thwaites (1997); Abegaz and Gemeda (2000a); Abegaz et al. (2000b); Abegaz (2002); Abegaz et al. (2002c); Abegaz (MSc thesis)

Afar Nucleus Galal and Kassahun (1982); Biniam ( 1992)BHS Nucleus Bourzat et al. (1992); Biniam (1992)Menz Village Niftalem (1990); Tekleye and Kassali (1992); Mukassa-

Mugerwa and Lahlou-Kassi (1995); Abebe (1999); Tesfaye et al (2008);

Menz, crosses Village Gizaw et al. (2012b); Sisay et al. (2012b); Tesfaye et al. (2012); Hassen et al. (2002)

Farta Village Shigdaf (2011)Simien Village Surafel et al. (2012)Various Village Wilson (1982;1989)Adilo Village Getahun (2008)

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Adilo, Bonga Village Amelmal (2011)Washera Village Mengiste et al. (2009); Mengiste et al. (2011ab);

Shigdaf (2011)Arsi Village Mukassa-Mugerwa et al. (1986); Tsedeke (2007)Sekota Village Aemiro (2011Washera Nucleus Shigdaf (2011); Tesfaye and Gizaw (2011)

2.1.2 Genetic characterization

2.1.2.1 Molecular characterizationResearch on the molecular genetics of Ethiopian sheep is missing from the

research agenda of the national research system. This is because research facilities for molecular genetic studies are limited to few specialized genetics laboratories and researchers and technicians trained in molecular genetics have been lacking. Thus research on molecular genetics is a very recent venture in Ethiopia. To date, the only research undertaken is on the genetic diversity of Ethiopian sheep resources using neutral microsatellite markers (Gizaw, 2008). The study described the genetic diversity between and within the traditionally recognized sheep types in Ethiopian. The genetic information in combination with morphological diversity was utilized to classify the sheep resources of Ethiopia into genetically distinct six breed groups and nine breeds. These groupings can be used as management units to manage the genetic resource. The information can also be used to identify genetically unique populations and genes that contribute most to the overall genetic diversity and risk status of populations for the purpose of setting conservation priorities.

A new application of molecular genetics is being sought in sheep breeding in Ethiopia. Besides to estimating genetic diversity, neutral molecular markers can be used in crossbreeding studies for parentage identification and estimating genetic composition of crossbred animals. A project is currently underway at Debre Birhan research Centre to develop molecular tools to estimate the blood levels and pedigrees of Awassi-Local crossbred sheep in Ethiopia.

Research is yet to embark on direct application of molecular genetics to design breeding programs. Characterization using neutral genetic markers such as microsatellites may not help much in identifying QTLs that can be used for designing genetic improvement programs using marker assisted selection tools. Marker assisted selection tools are particularly helpful for improving reproductive traits which have low heritabilities and are thus difficult to improve through conventional breeding. This is a major gap in the national research agenda. However, over-enthusiasm with the use of molecular genetic tools and molecular genetics research projects need to be justifiable. For instance, traits with high heritability estimates such as growth traits can effectively be improved through low cost conventional quantitative genetic tools (e.g. Gizaw et al., 2007a).

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2.1.2.2 Estimation of genetic parametersIn the absence of molecular genetic data, estimates of genetic parameters

(heritabilities and genetic correlations) based on accurate phenotypic data are good indicators of the genetic characteristics of a population. Parameter estimates are the basis for designing animal breeding programs. Genetic parameters have been estimated for Ethiopian sheep breeds which are maintained in nucleus flocks in research and development centers. In this regard, data collected over decades in nucleus flocks have been effectively used. Estimates are now available for growth, reproduction, fleece, survival, linear body sizes and disease/parasite indicator traits (Table 3).

The estimates indicate that there exist a high within-breed genetic variation in Ethiopian sheep populations and appreciable genetic improvements can be made through selective breeding. This is particularly so for growth traits and verified in Menz sheep breeding program (Gizaw et al. 2007a; Gizaw et al, 2011a). However, heritability estimates are found to unreliable to bring about appreciable genetic improvements in reproductive traits (Abegaz and Gemeda, 2000b) and lamb preweaning survival (Markos, 2006; Abegaz and Gemeda, 2000b).

The information generated so far is barely used to design breeding programs for those breeds for which the genetic parameters were estimated. Furthermore, the estimates are fairly applicable to design breeding programs for other sheep breeds in the country. Estimation of genetic parameters cannot be done for all breeds in the country as it requires performance and pedigree data collected in nucleus flocks. However, recent studies indicate that indicative parameters can be estimated based on recording in village flocks maintained under smallholder sheep production systems (unpublished data).

Table 3. Available estimates of genetic parameters for sheep breeds in Ethiopia

Breed Traits ReferencesMenz Growth Gizaw and Joshi (2004a); Gizaw et al

(2007a); Hassen et al. (2003); Zelalem (1987); Markos (2006)

Reproduction - - -Fleece Gizaw et al (2007a)Linear body size Gizaw et al. (2008c);

Survival Gizaw and Joshi (2004b); Markos (2006)Awassi-Menz Growth traits; fleece traits Gizaw and Joshi (2004a,b); Hassen et al.

(2003); Zelalem (1987)Horro Reproductive traits;

survival; body weightsAbegaz and Gemeda (2000b); Abegaz (2002); Abegaz et al. (2002b); Abegaz et al. (2002c); Temesgen (2010);

Menz, Horro Growth traits Ewnetu (1999); Markos (2006)

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EPG, PCV Rege et al (1996)Semen characteristics Rege et al. (2000)Testicular characteristics Toe et al. (2000)

Afar Growth traits Galal and Kassahun (1982); Yibrah et al. (2012);

BHS Growth traits Yibrah et al (2012);

2.2. Research on conservation of genetic resourcesResearch and development programs on the conservation of sheep resources

of Ethiopia are limited. Major accomplishments so far include the extensive characterization of the sheep resources and documentation of breed information by IBC (FAO, 2007) and DAGRIS. The relative contributions of the breeds to the total sheep genetic diversity in Ethiopia, their risk status and economic merits were assessed and conservation priorities have been set (Gizaw et al. 2008d). However, the information is hardly used for developing conservation programs for the indigenous sheep resources in Ethiopia. As a result the Gumz sheep breed which has the highest contribution to the sheep genetic diversity and the only thin-tailed breed in Ethiopia (Gizaw et al., 2007b) is being eroded through crossbreeding with Rutan sheep. The current drive for a rapid livestock development through crossbreeding and the observed threat status of sheep resources in Ethiopia (Gizaw et al, 2008d) warrants research and development on conservation of the indigenous resources to be a top agenda.

The recent research approach to the conservation of the sheep genetic resources has been to develop breeding strategies and design breeding programs for a sustainable and rational utilization of the indigenous breeds. Developing rational crossbreeding programs would be required to strike a compromise between increasing livestock productivity while conserving the indigenous resources. Limited research has addressed conservation-based crossbreeding programs. This includes crossbreeding strategies and programs for the national and Amhara regional Dorper sheep breeding programs. Experiences with the Awassi sheep crossbreeding program in Ethiopia showed that indiscriminate crossbreeding activities would not help to bring about impacts on the sheep industry but rather dilute the sheep genetic diversity.

Research on indigenous breeds could serve both to conserve and improve the resources. Nucleus flocks maintained in research and development centers are serving conservation efforts, albeit not deliberately. Research on the management of nucleus flocks showed that nucleus flocks can be genetically improved while maintaining their genetic diversity if appropriate mate selection strategies to avoid inbreeding are followed (Gizaw et al. submitted). In situ conservation of sheep resources is being integrated with genetic improvement in community-based village sheep breeding programs being undertaken by the national (e.g. Debre Birhan research Center) and the international research system (ICARDA, ILRI) for Menz. Horro, and Bonga sheep breeds. Yet, these isolated efforts need to be scaled out to breed level improvement and conservation programs.

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2.3. Characterization of sheep production systems2.3.1. Classification and description of production systems

Numerous studies describing livestock production systems in Ethiopia have been conducted and reported, especially since the mid 1980’s when farming system research approach was adopted by EIAR. Many more are likely to remain unreported and inaccessible. Results of farmig systems studies by ILRI-IPMS covering a wide range of production systems and agro-ecological zones have been compied and analyzed (Gizaw et al. 2010b; Gizaw et al. 2011e). Accessible literature on farming systems are compiled and presented in Table 4.

The extensive research on farming systems have resulted in classification and description of a range of livestock production systems. Classification of the production systems depended on the level of livestock production and its contribution to the community as well as the type of crop production enterprises. The major livestock production systems classifications in Ethiopia have been documented by Alemayehu (2003). The livestock production systems are also described in relation to the sheep breeds (Gizaw et al., 2008a). The systems have been well described in terms of the production environment such as feed resources and important diseases, major constraints to sheep production, flock characteristics, farmers’ sheep breeding and management practices, farmers breeding objectives, agricultural service delivery and sheep marketing. The research outputs on characterization of production systems need to be availed to users in a usable format. Otherwise the impact of the research effort on the sheep industry would remain minimal. 2.3.2. Definition of breeding objectives and practices

Definition of breeding objectives and description of the characteristics of the overall production system and the environment is the basis for designing tailor-made management and breeding interventions. A participatory definition of breeding objectives is recently adopted and used to define breeding objectives for Menz sheep (Tesfaye, 2010; Gizaw et al., 2010c; Kahsa, 2009), Horro sheep (Zewdu, 2008), Afar sheep (Tesfaye, 2008), and Bonga sheep (Zewdu 2008) and other breeds (Table 4). Methodological approaches for defining breeding objectives have been reviewed by Gemeda et al. (2008). The breeding objectives defined for some of the breeds have been well utilized to design breeding programs.

Research to understand farmers’ traditional breeding practice has gained momentum recently. Some of the information has been used to design village selective breeding programs. Results show that farmers do practice selection of breeding stocks (e.g. 93% select rams in Menz region), using subjective selection criteria. However, it was found that there is congruence between selections on subjective section criteria and estimated breeding values (Gizaw et al. 2011a). Nonetheless, because of failure to achieve controlled mating of selected animals, genetic improvement in village flocks has been stagnant (Gizaw et al. to be submitted).

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2.3.3. Identification of production constraintsMost of the findings indicate that constraints to increased productivity and

market success of smallholder farmers are primarily diseases and parasites, feed shortage, and inadequate extension service delivery or lack of improved technologies. However, there are also other problems and severity of the problems varies across production systems and agro-ecological zones. Importance of diseases and parasites also vary with agro-ecologies, the most important ones across ecologies being Pasteurellosis, Fasciolosis, Sheep pox, Orf, Anthrax, Coenerosis, and Ectoparasitosis/tick/lice. The major feed source in all production systems and agroecologies is natural grazing. Sheep production is of subsistence nature and thus of low input-output system. This has led to low adoption of improved production systems.

Table 4. Livestock production systems characterization activities in Ethiopia

Geographic area Production system ReferencesAdaa Liben district; Oromia regional state Mixed crop-

livestockSamuel (2005)

Goma; Oromia regional state Mixed crop-livestock

Belete (2009)

Metema; Amhara regional state Agro-pastoral Tesfaye (2009)Alaba; SNNP regional state Mixed crop-

livestockTsedeke (2007)

Burie; Amhara regional state Mixed crop-livestock

Yenesew (2009)

Ziquala; Amhara regional state Mixed crop-livestock

Dereje Anduwalem (2004)

North Gondar zone; Amhara regional state

Mixed crop-livestock

Sisay Amare Zeleke (2006)

Debre Birhan, JimmaSebeta, Ziway

Mixed crop-livestock

Zewdie Wondatir (2010)

East wellega, and West shewa; Oromia regional state

Mixed crop-livestock

Abegaz et al. (2005)

Lalo Mama; Amhara regional state Mixed crop-livestock

Abebe (1999)

Kocher; SNNP regional state Mixed crop-livestock

Adugna (1988)

Debre Birhan area; Amhara regional state

Mixed crop-livestock

Agyemang et al. (1985)

West Ethiopia; SNNP regional state Berhanu (1997)Baso and worena; Amhara regional state Mixed crop-

livestockGryseels (1988)

South eastern Ethiopia; BHS sheep breeding tract

Pastoral; Agro-pastoral

Girma (1992)

Darolebu, Habro and Boke; Oromia regional state

Mixed crop-livestock

Dereje and Tesfaye (2008)

Amhara region; Amhara regional state Mixed crop-livestock

Amha and Fletcher (1991)

Different regions Desalegne (2009)Note: The studies cited in Table 1 also included chapters in characterization of livestock production systems.

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2.4. Genetic improvement – research and development programsSheep genetic improvement in Ethiopia started in 1944 with the introduction

of Merino breed from Italy to improve the performance of the local Arsi-Bale breed at CADU (BoA, 2000). Genetic improvement of the sheep resources has since been the major component of the livestock research and development efforts in Ethiopia. The strategy adopted was selective breeding to exploit the within breed genetic variation and cross-breeding of the local ewes with exotic sire breeds. The research projects addressed both cross- and selective-breeding, whereas development programs exclusively focused on cross-breeding programs. The breeding programs address a limited number of breeds of sheep in the country.

2.4.1. Selective breeding programs2.4.1.1. Nucleus breeding programs

Selective breeding programs in Ethiopia started in the 1970’s by the EIAR. The programs were designed with closed nucleus breeding flocks, where selection is implemented in nucleus flocks maintained in research centers without upstream flow genes from the village flocks. The objectives of the research projects have been to evaluate and estimate the genetic response of the non-descript local breeds to selection and establish elite nucleus flocks which can serve as sources of improved rams for dissemination to village flocks. Research projects so far conducted include Afar, BHS, Horro, Menz, and Washera sheep selection projects/programs. The breeding programs have largely targeted improving the growth performance of the local breeds. The local breeds have been characterized as slow growers and hence low meat yielders, the average carcass yield being about 6-7 kg. The selection criteria were post-weaning growth rate, six-month weight and yearling weight. Ewe reproductive traits are now included in the Washera sheep breeding program.

Despite decades of research efforts, the research projects yielded unsatisfactory outputs. Besides, since genetic improvement is a long term venture requiring enduring commitment, sustaining sheep breeding programs in Ethiopia has proved to be difficult. Results of selection in the nucleus flocks of Afar and BHS sheep remains unreported so far and the initial breeding programs were discontinued, with whatsoever genetic improvement achieved being lost with the disposal of the flocks. The Afar breeding program had to be reinitiated afresh recently with a new flock. Although the Washera breeding program was initiated in 2004 with a flock of 200 ewes, no effective selection and no evaluation of the breeding program has yet been conducted. Selection in the Horro sheep nucleus flock did not result in appreciable genetic improvements (Abegaz and Gemeda, 2000b; Temesgen, 2010) and the breeding program is showing no progress. Despite the above discouraging experiences, selective breeding has been proved to result in appreciable genetic improvement in local breeds. For instance, an elite nucleus flock of Menz sheep with genetic superiority in yearling weight of about 7 kg above

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the average has been established and improved rams are being disseminated to village flocks (Gizaw et al. 2011a). The reasons for the failure of most of the breeding programs could be lack of clear and documented selection procedures resulting in faulty procedures due to high turnover of breeders running the nucleus flocks, lack of skills in quantitative genetics particularly accurate estimation of breeding values, budgetary problems, lack of vision and commitment from researchers, and bias in the livestock development strategy towards cross-breeding projects.

2.4.1.2. Village-based breeding programsRecently village-based breeding programs that do not involve nucleus flocks

are being adopted. Attempts to develop village-based breeding programs in Ethiopia began as early as 2003 with Washera and later with Gumz sheep (ARARI research directory), but failed because of ambiguity among researchers in the new methods. Currently, the international research centers ILRI, ICARDA and BOKU in collaboration with the national research system are highly involved in developing village breeding programs. Village-based cooperative breeding programs have been established and running for Menz, Horro and Bonga sheep breeds (Gizaw et al. 2011a; Gemeda 2011; Tadelle, 2011). Appreciable genetic improvement has been achieved in the Menz program. Body weights at birth, 3 and 6 month of age increased by 0.42, 2.29 and 2.46 kg in the third generation lambs over the base generation.

There has been negligible impact of genetic improvement research on the sheep industry. However, huge information that form the basis for designing effective breeding programs including genetic characteristics of traits (estimates of heritabilities and genetic correlations) and farmers breeding objectives have been generated from characterization studies. The pitfall in genetic improvement studies have been failures to establish elite flocks that generate improved rams for village flocks and to develop clear selection methodologies and design of breeding programs/schemes for most of the breeds studied. As a consequence there is no livestock development program in Ethiopia involved in genetic improvement of sheep flocks through selective breeding. The sheep flocks maintained in the MoA sheep breeding and multiplication ranches at Debre Birhan and Amed Guya for Menz sheep and Horro ranch for Horro sheep were also not selectively bred due to technical limitations among the breeders in the development ranches. Lack of skills in quantitative genetic tools has been a major problem until recently.

Optimism seems to prevail over the long gloomy period of livestock breeding research in Ethiopia. The nucleus Menz sheep breeding program and the village-based breeding programs for Menz, Horro and Bonga sheep show a promising start. Nonetheless, the projects are limited to model villages and yet need to be scaled-up into development programs. Such good starts need to be built into the livestock development programs of the Ministry of Agriculture and the regional livestock

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development agencies with a long-term commitment. The research efforts put in these promising projects could serve as a model for initiating breeding programs for other breeds in the country.

Table 5. Nucleus breeding programs in Ethiopia

Sheep breed

Selection criteria Institution Current status

Afar Post-weaning weight gain

Werer Agricultural Research Centre

Initial program discontinued; Reinitiated in 2011

BHS Post-weaning weight gain

Werer Agricultural Research Centre

Discontinued; Flock established by SoRPARI but no selection activity

Horro Yearling weight Bako Agricultural Research Centre;

Continuing

Washera Pre-weaning weight gain and litter size

Andasa Agricultural Research Centre

Continuing

Menz Yearling weight Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Centre

Continuing

2.4.2. Crossbreeding programsThe dominant genetic improvement strategy for cattle, chicken and sheep in

Ethiopia has been crossbreeding of the indigenous livestock breeds with imported exotic sire breeds. Sheep crossbreeding has been condemned from two perspectives. Firstly crossbreeding is considered as a threat to the survival of the adapted indigenous breeds. Secondly, crossbreeding as a strategy failed to sustain genetic improvement in village flocks owing to the inadaptability of the exotic genotypes to the local environment which is commonly cited as the reason for the failure of sheep crossbreeding projects. However, crossbreeding can be considered as ‘’a necessary evil in livestock improvement’’, and its negative impact on the indigenous resources can be overcome through rational crossbreeding strategies (See Section 2.4.3). The failure of crossbreeding programs cannot solely be attributed to the lack of adaptation of the exotic genotypes, but mainly to failing to design village crossbreeding programs that suit to farmers’ aspirations and village breeding practices (See Section 2.4.3).

Early crossbreeding programs: Research and development on sheep crossbreeding started at CADU with the introduction of exotic wool sheep (Blue De Maine, Merino, Corriedale and Hampshire breeds) in the late 1960’s (Brännäng et al., 1987; Beyene, 1989). The Menz sheep crossbreeding program started in 1967 using Corriedale, Hampshire and Romney exotic as sire breeds. The primary objective of the breeding programs was to improve wool and meat production of the local breeds. The program was terminated and no trace of the exotic breeds is

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currently available, except few Corriedale animals in a South Wollo village with a high genetic admixture from the local breed. Such has been the history of sheep crossbreeding in Ethiopia. Lack of critical evaluation of failures has resulted in perpetuation of failures in subsequent projects and in reluctance to fund crossbreeding projects. Thus the potential impact of sheep genetic improvement on the sheep industry has not been realized to date.

Awassi crossbreeding program: The follow-up of the wool improvement project was introduction of Awassi sheep breed from the Middle East. The Awassi crossbreeding program was initiated in 1980 using Menz sheep as the dam breed. The research component of the program is mandated to Debre Birhan and Sirinka research centers and the development wing is run by Debre Birhan and Amed Guya sheep breeding and multiplication centers under Amhara Bureau of Agriculture. The program has a clear crossbreeding scheme for the multiplication of crossbred rams in the multiplication ranches. However, the strategy for the dissemination of genetic improvement to villages and sustaining crossbreeding at village level does not seem to be clear. Extensive and indiscriminate distribution of crossbred rams across the country for the last three decades yielded virtually no impact on the sheep industry (Gizaw and Tesaye, 2008).

Research on Awassi cross-breeding started way behind implementation of the development program. Research on Awassi crossbreeding initially focused on comparative evaluation of different genotypes of crossbreds with varying Awassi blood levels to determine the optimal crossbreeding level for the local conditions, developing feeding packages, and evaluation of the combining ability of the local Bonga and Washera dam breeds with Awassi (Sisay et al., 1989.; Sendros, 1993; Sendros et al., 1995; Gizaw, 2002). However, recommendations and feeding packages developed were not utilized in designing Awassi sheep development programs because the crossbreeding program could not be established in villages. The observation on the absence of effective and sustainable crossbreeding at village level has prompted a shift in the Awassi sheep research agenda to design of village crossbreeding programs (Gizaw et al. 2011c; Gizaw et al. 2012a). Subsequent implementation of Awassi crossbreeding activities in model villages as a pilot breeding program has shown that crossbreeding can be effective if appropriate designs are adopted and strong monitoring and evaluation is in place (Gizaw et al. 2012b; Tesfaye et al. 2012; Sisay et al. 2012b).

Dorper crossbreeding program: The majority of Ethiopian farmers’ sheep breeding objective is mainly meat rather than wool production which is determined by the market demands and the agro-ecology. Thus a national sheep breeding program was initiated to address farmers breeding objectives with the introduction of a specialized meat breed, the Dorper sheep, by the ESGPIP project in 2006. The program was well designed with strategically located nucleus and breeding/extension/dissemination centers across the country and nationally coordinated. The promising start seems to face the common tragedy of sheep breeding programs in Ethiopia with the phasing out of the ESGPIP. Currently the

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various Dorper centers in the country are being run with little national coordination. The visions and the strategy for a nationally coordinated breeding program and consortium of Dorper breeders formulated upon exit of the ESGPIP (Unpublished strategy document) were not materialized. Nonetheless, there are promising regional Dorper sheep research and development projects across the country with rational crossbreeding strategies and schemes (See Section 2.4.3).

A paradigm shift has been witnessed in sheep research with the Dorper breeding program. Research orientation has changed from the usual crossbreeding research activities of performance evaluations to developing crossbred genotypes and designing and testing village crossbreeding programs. The Dorper research can be considered as a research-cum-development project where research centers assumed the role of breeding, multiplication and dissemination centers. Research on Dorper crossbreeding currently focuses on village monitoring studies, designs of village crossbreeding schemes, formulating feeding packages, studies on carcass characteristics of crossbreds (Mekonen 2012), with a sideline activity of evaluation of the comparative performance of purebred and different grades of crossbreds. It is too early to assess the outputs of the research projects and the impact of Dorper research and development on the sheep industry.

Crossbreeding among local breeds: Crossbreeding research has recently added a new dimension to include crossbreeding among indigenous breeds. Research on the performance of Bonga and Washera sheep as sire breeds to improve Menz sheep has shown promising results (unpublished data). Washera rams are being widely used to improve the highland sheep breeds in Amhara region (Shigdaf, 2012). This research and development project is showing impact on the sheep industry. Yet, the widespread and indiscriminate use of Washera sires could threaten the genetic diversity in the area.

2.4.3. Designing breeding programsPast failures in sheep genetic improvement endeavors have prompted

research on design of breeding programs. Characteristics of smallholder sheep farming systems including small individual flock sizes, communal grazing and herding and hence uncontrolled breeding practices were unfavorable for implementing selective breeding programs in village flocks. The approach adopted initially and implemented in Afar, BHS, Horro and Menz sheep was generating genetic improvement in closed nucleus flocks and disseminating genetic gains to village flocks through improved rams. However, most of the projects were not implemented with long-term commitment and failed. These failures and the inconsideration off nucleus breeding programs to farmers’ breeding objectives led to the argument that such breeding schemes may not be appropriate for smallholder systems in developing sheep industries. A new approach which does not involve nucleus flocks, village- or community-based breeding programs, has thus been recently adopted to improve village flocks through selective breeding (Gizaw et al. 2009; Gemeda, 2011; Tadelle, 2011; Haile et al. 2011). However,

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Gizaw et al. (2011a) also suggested a breeding scheme that integrates the merits of nucleus and village-based breeding schemes.

Lack of appropriate designs to implement and sustain crossbreeding with a desired blood level in village flocks, inherent complexity of crossbreeding programs and lack of follow-up by implementers are some of the reasons for the virtual absence of impacts on the sheep industry. Research focused on developing rational crossbreeding strategies, alternative crossbreeding systems, and design of village crossbreeding schemes. Rational crossbreeding strategy that considers the conservation of the adapted sheep resources with a clear delineation of crossbreeding zones is being implemented for Dorper sheep crossbreeding in Amhara region. Regulation to enforce the rational crossbreeding strategy suggested for the national Dorper crossbreeding program is also suggested. A lot of research effort has went into designing selective- and cross-breeding programs suited to smallholder systems and designs have been developed and tested, guides produced (Gizaw et al. 2011b; Aynalem et al. 2011), and model villages established with a simultaneous impact on the livelihoods of farmers in the project areas (Table 6).

Table 6. Research efforts on strategy and design of breeding programs

Breeding designs/strategies Breeding program ReferencesVillage-based cooperative breeding scheme

Menz, Horro, and Bonga sheep breeding programs

Gizaw et al. (2009); Gizaw et al. (2011a); Gizaw et al. (2012e); Haile et al. (2011); Tadelle et al. (2012)

Nucleus breeding scheme Washera sheep breeding; Menz sheep breeding

Gizaw et al. (2010a)Gizaw et al. (2011a)

Linked Nucleus-village breeding scheme

Menz sheep breeding program

Gizaw et al. (2011a)

Cooperative village crossbreeding scheme

Awassi sheep crossbreeding program

Gizaw et al. ( 2012a); Gizaw et al. (2011c)

Coordinated national breeding program

ESGPIP Dorper sheep breeding program

ESGPIP unpublished document

Dorper sheep crossbreeding strategy

ESGPIP Dorper sheep breeding program

ESGPIP unpublished document

Dorper sheep crossbreeding strategy

ARARI Dorper sheep crossbreeding program

ARARI research directory

Development of synthetic breeds

Awassi sheep crossbreeding program

Gizaw et al. (2012c)

2.5. Improvement of the production environmentResearch projects addressing improvement of the sheep production

environment can be grouped into feed development and feeding, disease diagnostics and health interventions, and research on husbandry practices. Some of these research projects such forage development may not be specifically targeted to sheep research, except some research projects on sheep diseases and sheep feeding. A number of research projects have been conducted and technologies and information generated. Some of the results are published and are available in

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proceedings of the NLIC and ESAP and some journals. However, the majority are not easily accessible as they are found only in internal documents such as progress reports of the institutes.

Research on feed development focuses on introduction and evaluation of forage species. A number of forage varieties have been introduced and recommended to the various agro-ecological zones of the country. The impact of these research projects on the sheep industry has been quite notable in some cases. The most widely adopted forage species include Alfalfa, Sesbania, Napier grass, and Tree Lucerne. These feeds are rarely used for sheep except fattening sheep. Despite sustained efforts by the MoA and the research system to disseminate improved forage varieties to the farming community, the impact of improved forages on the livestock industry is very limited. This could mainly be due to the less adoption by farmers because of land shortage for forage production. Whatever improved forage plants adopted were on marginal entry points such as farm and homestead fences, soil conservation terraces and along irrigation channels. The balance of forage research may have to shift to identifying entry points for forage production. There is also a gap in improving the traditional grazing management and grazing lands.

Development of feeding/fattening packages is the major component of sheep production research in Ethiopia. Economic fattening packages are now available for Menz, Awassi-Menz crosses, Horro, Washera, Tikur, Afar, and BHS sheep. Most of these activities are reported in proceedings of livestock conferences. These results have yet to be adopted by the farming community, although sheep fattening is a common practice among most highland farmers. From Table 7 it can be easily recognized that feeding packages to improve reproductive performances and lamb survival are limited.

Research has contributed a lot to the identification and geographical and agro-ecological prevalence of economically important diseases. Disease diagnostics research is mainly mandated to regional disease laboratories and the national animal health laboratory at Sebeta. Farming systems research activities (Section 2.3) by regional research centers and Masters Program research projects also include identification of diseases through farmer participatory research. Disease and parasite identification studies have been the basis for designing health interventions tailored to specific agro-ecologies such as for strategic deworming regimens and vaccination for viral diseases. Vaccine development by NVI can be cited as an important contribution of research and this in turn is attributed to research results from serotype identification studies.

Research gap is observed in management interventions such as improved housing and improved flock management. Analyses of flock productivity utilizing data collected from village monitoring studies merely report on the existing level of productivity. Recommendations on interventions to introduce modern flock management practices are rarely suggested. Research to improve the traditional sheep production practices need to be strengthened.

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Table 7. Documented research projects on sheep diseases/parasites, feeding and other management interventions Research topic Breed/District ReferencesImproved feeding for growth, fattening, and carcass quality

Menz

Anteneh et al. (2008); Tesfaye et al. (2012); Gizaw et al. (2008b); Abebe et al. (2008a); Abebe et al. (2008b); Abebe (2008c); Tewodros et al. (2012); Sisay (1995); Tefera (2012)

Washera Gizaw et al. (2012d); ; Simegnew et al. (2012)

Horro

Gizaw et al. (1991); Gizaw and Abegaz (1995); Ulfina et al. (2003); Amensissa Eresso (2010); Takele Feyera (2010); Gemeda et al. (2007); Temesgen et al. (2007); Lemma et al. (1991)

Tikur Fitsum Berhe (2009);BHS Yibrah et al. (1991); Emebet Legesse

(2008); Getahun (2012)Afar Yibrah et al. (1991); Tesfay Hagos (2007);

Getahun (2012)Farta Fentie Bishaw (2007); Jemberu Dessie

(2008); Getachew Asefa (2005);Wollo Mesfin et al. (2008)

Tigray Highland/Sekota Tikabo Gebremariam (2005);Arsi-Bale Abebe Taffa (2007); Ermias Tekletsadik

(2008);

-----Getahun Kebede (2006); Mulat Alem (2006); Almaz Ayenew (2008). Zemichael G/sillasie (2006);

Feeding for improving wool production

MenzSisay et al. (1991)

Feeding to meet export demands Afar and BHS EIAR Summaries of completed research

2010/2011.

Feeding for improving reproduction

HorroUlfina et al. (2003a,b); Mukassa-Mugerwa et al. (1994); Gemeda et al. (2007); Abegaz (ESAP 5th)

Menz Sendros et al. (1995)Disease and parasite identification

Burie, Atsbi-womberta, Mieso, Metema, Fogera,

Alaba, and Alamata districts

Aklilu (2008); GebreMedhin (2007); Getahun (2007); Gizachew (2007); Kassaw (2007); Kuastros (2007); Yohannes (2007)

Strategic parasite control

Markos (2006); Argaw et al. (2010); Markos et al. (2010); Kassa et al. (2012);

2.6. Sheep value chain DevelopmentThere is currently a paradigm shift in livestock research towards addressing

the whole value chains in a holistic approach, particularly the CGIAR centers and NGOs in collaboration with the national research system. A research and development program (LIVES) solely dedicated to livestock and irrigated crops value

20

chain development in Ethiopia is recently launched by ILRI. ICARDA also recently launched the Ethiopian small ruminant value chain development program. SNV is also one of the leading institutes in livestock value chain research and development in Ethiopia.

The national research system is organized to address problems across the various stages of the sheep value chain, viz. research divisions addressing research issues related to provision of inputs such as feeds and medicaments, sheep production, and value adding and marketing. However, the research divisions are independently organized without a holistic research project to address the whole value chain. And research is highly biased towards inputs and production. Research on product quality, value adding and marketing is scanty. The only projects dealing with value adding is sheep fattening. The only research activities on product quality known to the authors of this paper are on carcass qualities of Ethiopian sheep (See Table 7) and darkening of frozen meat from highland sheep (Unpublished data on BHS, Afar, Menz; MSc thesis (Dr Girma). Research on wool quality and marketing is lacking. Socio-economic research focuses include farming systems characterization, market structures and credit services (Andargqachew and Borokken, 1992; Feven 2009, Ayele et al. 2003; Berhanu et al. 2007). There are very limited research activities on strategic issues that could guide the development policy such as analysis of the sheep production and off-take trends (Senait 1992; Asfaw et al., 2010). Although research projects on sheep meat value chains have been proposed by the national research system, most of them are yet to be implemented and the few published studies include Hailemariam (2008) and Dugassa and Belachew (2008),

2.7. Strategic ResearchStrategic and basic research on sheep biology including reproductive biology

has been exclusively the domain of ILRI which conducted extensive laboratory and field research on reproduction in Menz sheep (Mukassa-Mugerwa and Lahlou-Kassi, 1995.). A few field experiments on ewe and ram reproduction are also conducted by the national system (Abegaz; Gizaw and Thwaites, 1997). The national research system currently disfavors strategic research, being wholly engaged in developing livestock development packages and disseminating and pre-scaling up of livestock technologies.

Research on molecular genetics (particularly mapping of QTL) and animal biotechnology is absent from the national research program. The national research capacity needs to develop a lot before research on molecular genetics becomes the national research agenda. Yet other aspects of the research need to be strengthened and organized before embarking on such strategic research. For instance, without a well documented and organized database on phenotypic performance and pedigree records, molecular data is of little or no significance. Neither the CGIAR centers in the country are involved in such strategic research.

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2.8. Organization of the research system and current projectsThe national research system is organized into a federal research institute

(EIAR) and regional research institutes for each regional state in the country. Research in Universities and other institutes is supposed to be coordinated by EIAR. There are also two CGIAR centers and other NGOs such as SNV involved in research, particularly on value chain development. Such organization could enhance wider research coverage of the different geographic and ecological zones. However, the national research system is inadequately organized, each regional institute being autonomous in its research agenda although some of the regional projects are coordinated by EIAR. This could result in duplication of research efforts and inefficient utilization of the limited research expertise available in the country. The focus of research as reflected in the current ongoing research projects is shown in Table 8.

Table 8. Current sheep research projects and activities of the national research system (EIAR)

Project component Activities Institutes

Project 1 Breeding Establishing and upgrading elite nucleus flocks of

Menz sheep ARARIProject 1 Breeding Development of 50% Awassi x Menz synthetic

sheep breed ARARI

Project 1 Breeding

Developing community-based pure-breeding scheme and model breeding villages for Menz sheep

ARARI

Project 1 Breeding Establishing and upgrading elite nucleus flocks of

Afar sheep EIAR (Werer)

Project 1 Breeding Developing community-based pure-breeding

scheme and model breeding villages for Afar sheep EIAR (Werer)

Project 1 Breeding

Analysis of community breeding objectives and practices for sheep production in Fentale district (Phase I)

ORARI

Project 1 Breeding On-farm productive and reproductive performance

evaluation of sheep in Fentale area (Phase II) ORARI

Project 1 Health Study on major health problems causing sheep

carcass condemnation at export abattoirs EIAR (Debre Zeit)

Project 1 Health

Evaluation of anthelminthic activity of Vernonia amygdalina against Haemonchus contortus infections of sheep and goats of pastoralists and smallholder farmers in eastern Ethiopia

Haramaya University

Project 1 Health Assessment of major diseases and associated risk

factors of sheep in Fentale district (Phase I) ORARI

Project 1 Health

Identification of economically most important sheep diseases and designing disease prevention and control schemes (Phase II)

ORARI

Project 1 Marketing Study on meat sheep handling and transport by

Export abattoirs EIAR (Debre Zeit)

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Project 1 Marketing Factors influencing the supply response of sheep

export markets to price incentives EIAR (Debre Zeit)

Project 1 Marketing Assessment of sheep marketing systems in Fentale

district (Phase I) ORARI

Project 1 Nutrition

Fattening Arsi-Bale sheep with sugar cane top based diets: effect of supplementation and silage making

EIAR (Debre Zeit)

Project 1 Nutrition Determining optimum dietary crude protein level

for fattening local lambsEIAR (Debre Zeit)

Project 1 Nutrition

Evaluation of biological performance and economic benefits of cost-effective diets fed to fattening lambs

EIAR (Debre Zeit)

Project 2 Breeding Maintenance, multiplication and distribution of

purebred Dorper and 50% Dorper X local sheep ARARI

Project 2 Breeding Maintenance, multiplication and distribution of

purebred Dorper and 50% Dorper X Afar EIAR (Werer)

Project 2 Breeding Evaluation of village Dorper crossbreeding schemes EIAR (Werer)

Project 2 Breeding Evaluation of the performance of 25% and 37.5%

Dorper x Afar/BHS crossbred sheep EIAR (Werer)

Project 2 Breeding Maintenance, multiplication and distribution of

purebred Dorper and 50% Dorper x BHS sheep SoRPARI

Project 2 Breeding Evaluation of the performance of 25% and 37.5%

Dorper x Afar/BHS crossbred sheep SoRPARI

Project 2 Nutrition

Performance of Dorper x Afar & Afar Sheep Grazing on Panicum antidotale, Chloris gayana & cenchrus cilliaris Grown with alfalfa

EIAR (Werer)

Project 2 Nutrition

Development of finishing packages for 25% and 37.5% Dorper x Afar lambs under market-oriented semi-intensive feeding systems

EIAR (Werer)

Project 2 Nutrition

Development of finishing packages for 25% and 37.5% Dorper x Afar lambs under market-oriented semi-intensive feeding systems

SoRPARI

Project 1: Improving productivity of indigenous sheep through selective breeding and improved managementProject 2: Development of cross-breeding schemes and production packages for Dorper sheep

2.9. General impact assessmentA formal assessment of the impact of research on the sheep industry requires

a thorough investigation on the level of adoption of technologies by the livestock farming community and their effects on sheep productivity, farmers/pastoralists livelihoods and the overall national economy following standard impact assessment methodology. However, such information is not readily available currently and hence impact is assessed here roughly based on scantly available reports and our field observations.

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A wealth of information and knowledge has been generated by the research system and disseminated to users through various media including conferences and publications. However, there is a lot of information which is not readily available or easily accessible to users as it is kept as unpublished information or grey literature. Although it is difficult to quantify, the published knowledge and information is likely to be used by users in developing research and development projects. However, it remains to be evaluated whether the volume of information and knowledge being generated is in accordance with the real demand by the development sector.

Despite the large number of technologies generated, the impact of sheep research on the industry can be easily seen to be minimal. Most of the feeding/fattening packages, improved genotypes and forage species are not well disseminated to the sheep farming communities. The breeding programs set up in the country are not effectively functioning although there are some encouraging developments at model village level. It is high time to investigate the bottlenecks for effective dissemination and adoption of technologies – is it because of poor linkage between research and development, inappropriateness of the dissemination strategy and methods, inappropriateness of the technologies, or farmers’ socio-economic and cultural preferences and aspirations?

3. Thoughts on research strategies 3.1. Appraisal of the research system

A number of research strategies have been formulated since the beginning of livestock research in Ethiopia. It is important to appraise the research projects and outputs so far generated if the livestock research is directed according to the set strategy and the countries current and future livestock development needs and strategies. The volume of research currently undertaken in terms of the overwhelming number of projects in the various regional and national research institutes, centers, substations, Universities and others engaged in research need to be evaluated if they are efficiently organized and effectively supported with budget and manpower with the necessary research expertise. The research projects need also be evaluated whether they are commensurate with the role of research in development, which is not only solving current problems but with a foresight into the future. It is therefore paramount that the research system be appraised by professional research strategists and policy research institutes.

3.2. Research on sheep development strategies and schemesFrom the list of research projects (Table 8) it can be seen that the focus of

sheep research is on generation of information and technologies for improving productivity and marketing. The proportion of research on strategies and schemes is very small. Research on strategies provides baseline information to guide sheep development. The diverse production systems and agro-ecological zones have different potentials and limitations for sheep production. Suitability mapping and stratification of production zones will guide sheep development strategies and programs. Sustainable utilization and conservation of the indigenous sheep

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resources requires delineation of crossbreeding zones, pure breeding conservation zones, breeding zones and finishing zones.

The low level of improvement in livestock production in the smallholder system may not be mainly because of lack of improved technologies, but because of the challenges in introducing technologies into the system due to inappropriate schemes. Communal ownership of village resources such as grazing lands, communal flock management, uncontrolled livestock herding and breeding, and dominant crop culture in the highlands are the major challenges in improved breeding, forage development and health interventions. The smallholder sheep production system requires designing suitable production schemes to introduce technologies. Few projects on design of improved sheep breeding for communal sheep breeding systems are underway. Research on mode of development interventions for the various livestock production systems is highly required. To this end, some of the senior researchers need to be relieved of routine administrative works to provide favorable environment to cultivate thinkers, methodologists, and strategists.

3.3. Sheep breeding researchResearch centers may have to embark on full-fledged breeding programs

beyond maintaining breeding flocks. A promising breeding program by the research system encompassing generation of improved stock in nucleus flocks and their dissemination to village flocks is witnessed in Dorper sheep breeding. There are exiting resources and information required for designing breeding programs including nucleus flocks, genetic parameter estimates and breed characterization results for quite a few breeds. These resources and information need to be utilized to develop breeding programs for the major sheep breeds. Resources located in different institutes under different administration must be pooled and efficiently utilized. To this end means must be sought to effectively utilize the breeding expertise in research centers and nucleus flocks in multiplication centers (e.g. Awassi and Bonga flocks) and research centers (See Table 5). Breeding programs are costly and hence should not be started if they are not to be sustained in terms of budget and staff commitment. Furthermore, designing of breeding programs need to be nationally coordinated as they require good expertise in quantitative genetics. In this regard, establishment of the national livestock genetic improvement center by the MoA is a step in the right direction.

Design of breeding programs should consider alternative designs of breeding programs such as nucleus and village-based breeding schemes as well as conservation of the indigenous genetic resources. Research is required on genetic efficiency and feasibility of alternative designs of selective breeding programs and conservation-based crossbreeding strategies. Although a national breeding strategy to guide livestock breeding programs is lacking, strategies by research institutes for their mandate breeds and zones can be developed. Such was the approach adopted

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for Menz and Dorper sheep breeding in Amhara region and the national Dorper/Boer breeding strategy.

3.4. Management interventionsThe recent integrated approach including improved breed, feeding and health

targeting full sheep production package followed by the research system should be further promoted. The focus of sheep production management research needs to be revisited. Feeding management research is currently highly focused on improved forage variety trials. However, most of the forage species and varieties are not well adopted by the farming community. Thus some of the efforts could be directed to other feed research areas. Observations show that forage species high biomass yield are lacking, particularly for the highlands and sub-alpine highlands. Thus research need to target adopting species with high biomass and on improving the conservation and utilization of agricultural byproducts such as crop residues which can provide high biomass. Development of feeding and fattening packages seem to be fragmented. Projects targeting development of fattening packages for the major agro-ecological zones and sheep breeds with a component of pre-scaling up of the package for a further dissemination by the development institutions could be considered.

Research on survey of diseases may have to be scaled down as quite extensive work has already been done and the major diseases and parasites have been identified in most of the agro-ecological zones. Health research may have to focus more on delivery of health services. This would include delivery of strategic disease and parasite controls, improving efficiency of health clinics, and developing alternative and improving existing systems for provision of community-based animal health services. Virtually all survey reports indicate that farmers have doubts on efficiency of vaccines and drugs. This needs to be resolved through research. Another area of research could to be improving net off-take rates which have been reported to be low. Lamb mortality has remained to be the major loss of sheep and reduced off-take, besides low reproduction rates.

3.5. Village research sitesLivestock research in its early stages has largely been limited to on-station

research activities, but recently the strategy has shifted to on-farm research. A model village approach through organizing villagers into cooperatives is adopted by some research institutes such as cooperative village-based breeding programs by Debre Birhan research Centre, ILRI and ICARDA. Such models integrate research and development on breeding, feeding, health service, input provisions and marketing of sheep in a cooperative approach. A cooperative approach is essential to introduce technologies such improved breeding and disease control practices into villages. The model villages could serve as research sites (which are more appropriate than research stations) for developing and testing technologies and as demonstration sites. The schemes developed in model villages could serve as sheep development models and eventually be scaled up to other villages.

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3.6. Value chain approachThe research agenda in the national research system focuses on improving

productivity of the sheep resources and to a lesser extent input provision such as improve forage materials and health services. There is a gap in research on the other stages of the value chain, particularly product quality, value adding and marketing. Access to fair markets by livestock keepers for their products and inputs influences farmers’ incomes. Unfair share of profit margins by farmers could act as a disincentive for adopting improved technologies. Thus research should focus on addressing issues diminishing producers’ profits across the value chain. The CGIAR centers and other NGOs in Ethiopia in collaboration with the nation al research system are highly involved in small ruminant value chain research and development. There are targeted projects on small ruminant value chains including the LIVES project by ILRI, Ethiopian Small Ruminant Value Chain Development project by ICARDA, and GRAD project by SNV/CARE-Ethiopia in Southern Ethiopia. The comparative advantage of the national research system involving in additional value chain could be questioned.

3.7. Strategic research There is a general agreement that applied research should be the primary

research focus in developing countries where attaining food security is the priority development agenda. The livestock research agenda in Ethiopia is exclusively on the adoption and generation of improved technologies such as improved breeds, improved forage species and feeding packages. Lately the focus of research even sifted to pre-scaling up of best-bait technologies rather than generating technologies. This is appropriate strategy given the wealth of information and technologies lying idle in research and development institutions. Nonetheless, research for tomorrow could be considered today as a small fraction of the current research agenda.

Research on molecular genetics has become appealing to researchers. Information on QTL is helpful in genetic improvement of livestock. However, utilization of molecular genetic information requires setting up well functioning breeding programs with database on phenotypic performance and pedigree information. Such breeding system exists for few sheep breeds in Ethiopia. The comparative advantage of setting up molecular genetic research in Ethiopia vs. utilization of information generated from the international research system could also be considered.

3.8. Dissemination of information and technologiesThe output of research is huge. However, the directories of research projects

of the various research institutes are not accessible. These need to be easily accessible to planning departments and researchers to avoid duplications across the various institutes. Review and evaluation of the research system is unthinkable with the current documentation system. Research outputs are also only partially accessible. Most of the outputs are maintained as unpublished information or data

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which are not easily accessible. Collecting and documenting in a national repository and availing online would facilitate access. Professional societies such as ESAP or EIAR could be mandated for the task. Documentation should also include the various strategy, master plan and project documents which are kept as gray literature.

Dissemination of research outputs are almost exclusively targeted to professionals and experts through conferences and journals. Very little has been done to avail information and technologies to the wider users. An exemplary task accomplished by ESGPIP and MoA to disseminate information and technologies through manuals and technical bulletins in easy and local languages need to be adopted.

3.9. Effective organization of sheep researchThe current organization of the research system also needs to be more

coordinated to efficiently utilize the available skilled manpower across the different research centers within regional institutes and across regional research institutes and reduce the overhead costs of research administration. For instance, there are more than one main centers which deal on sheep within a regional research institute. The sheep research within regional institutes can be effectively coordinated into one main research center with a critical pool of staff and satellite sites (staffed with few technical assistances) to address the different agro-ecologies and breeds. Organization of the national sheep research system need to be revisited (e.g. Afar sheep research by EIAR and Afar Regional Research Institute). However, the national sheep research system cannot be viewed in isolation from the overall livestock research system. It is thus understood that thoughts on the organization of sheep research cannot be implemented unless the whole livestock research system is reorganized. In any case, it is high time for a more efficient research system which may involve formation of well coordinated institutes for selected commodities (such as Institute of Sheep Research) and integration of research and development to facilitate the dissemination of technologies (such as Ministry of Livestock Research and Development).

The current volume of sheep research activities seems to be too much for the budget that can be allocated and the research system is under-staffed. The project volume needs to be downsized to fit the research capacity or the capacity needs to be upgraded. There are quite a number of research results on sheep production and achievements. However, sheep research work has been developed as bits of activities without follow-up activities and not fitting into a broader research agenda. Thus most of the available results used to be too fragmented to form complete packages for recommendations. The approach would be to organize the national sheep research system into selected projects each project consisting of linked activities targeting a full-package output. This approach has recently started at regional level. The output of the current approach is yet to be evaluated.

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4. Concluding remarksThe existing documentation system of research and development projects and

outputs may not enable a comprehensive appraisal of the research system. The purpose of this review was thus to provide a preliminary review of sheep research in Ethiopia. The review cannot be considered as exhaustive. Thus a comprehensive bibliographic review of research projects and outputs and a systematic appraisal of the research system are required.

From the current review it can be seen that numerous research projects have been undertaken. A wealth of information and a number of technologies have been generated. Some of the research outputs haven been published in technical publications, annual reports and progress reports. Technologies have been demonstrated to end users through farmers field days and promoted through pamphlets and brochures. However, adoption of the technologies by the end users is not appreciable. There are also gaps in the research and development endeavors (e.g., breeding programs are not coordinated). This calls for a revisiting of the organization and functioning of the sheep research and development system. The link between research and development wings of the livestock sector need to be strengthened for effective dissemination of the research outputs.

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