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Serum Uric Acid and Blood Pressure in Children at Cardiovascular Risk WHAT’S KNOWN ON THIS SUBJECT: Uric acid (UA) is associated wi th hypertension in children, after body weight adjustment. Whether the whole spectrum of variables, such as visceral adiposity, insulin resistance, puberty, and renal function, influence the relationship between UA and blood pressure is unknown. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS: In a coho rt of chil dren at rela tive ly high car diova scul ar risk, the association between UA and blood pressure levels is independent of several well-known factors implicated in the development of hypertension, such as insulin resistance, pubertal status, and renal function. Abstract OBJECTIVES: Hyperuricemia has been shown to be a strong correlate of hypertension in children. However, the complex interaction between serum uric acid (UA), systemic blood pressure (BP), and possibly confounding factors has been elucidated only in part. METHODS: We evaluat ed office BP as well as clinical and biohumoral parameter s in a cross-sectional cohort of 501 childr en (280 boys and 221 girls) aged between 6 and 18 years (mean = 10.8 years) consecutively referred for cardiovascular risk assessment. RESULTS: Ove ral l, 156 (31. 1%) wer e nor mote nsiv e, 122 (24. 4%) showed transie nt hyper tension , 87 (17.4%) had prehyperte nsion, and 136 (27.1%) had hypertension . Altogether 33.3% and 40.5% of the study group were overweight or obese, respectively.  There was a trend toward greater weight and waist circumference and higher BMI, Homeostasis Model Assessment index, and UA levels as the BP categor ies rose. Moreover, the prevalence of pubertal children, obesity, and waist-to-height ratio above 0.50 progressively increased from lower to upper BP cat egories. Aft er adjusting for puberty, gen der , BMI (z-s cor e), Homeost asis Model Assessment inde x, and renal function, UA was found to be directly related to systolic and diastolic BP values (P = . 03). Using normotensive children for comparison, the risk of showing prehypertension or hypertension increased by at least 50% for each 1 mg/dL UA increase (P , .01), whereas it doubled for children in the top gender-specific UA quartile (P , .03).

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Serum Uric Acid and Blood Pressure in Children atCardiovascular Risk

WHAT’S KNOWN ON THIS SUBJECT: Uric acid (UA) is associated with hypertension inchildren, after body weight adjustment. Whether the whole spectrum of variables, such asvisceral adiposity, insulin resistance, puberty, and renal function, influence the relationshipbetween UA and blood pressure is unknown.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS: In a cohort of children at relatively high cardiovascular risk, theassociation between UA and blood pressure levels is independent of several well-knownfactors implicated in the development of hypertension, such as insulin resistance, pubertalstatus, and renal function.

Abstract

OBJECTIVES: Hyperuricemia has been shown to be a strong correlate of hypertension inchildren. However, the complex interaction between serum uric acid (UA), systemicblood pressure (BP), and possibly confounding factors has been elucidated only in part.

METHODS: We evaluated office BP as well as clinical and biohumoral parameters in across-sectional cohort of 501 children (280 boys and 221 girls) aged between 6 and 18years (mean = 10.8 years) consecutively referred for cardiovascular risk assessment.

RESULTS: Overall, 156 (31.1%) were normotensive, 122 (24.4%) showed transienthypertension, 87 (17.4%) had prehypertension, and 136 (27.1%) had hypertension.Altogether 33.3% and 40.5% of the study group were overweight or obese, respectively.

 There was a trend toward greater weight and waist circumference and higher BMI,Homeostasis Model Assessment index, and UA levels as the BP categories rose.Moreover, the prevalence of pubertal children, obesity, and waist-to-height ratio above0.50 progressively increased from lower to upper BP categories. After adjusting forpuberty, gender, BMI (z-score), Homeostasis Model Assessment index, and renalfunction, UA was found to be directly related to systolic and diastolic BP values (P = .03). Using normotensive children for comparison, the risk of showing prehypertension orhypertension increased by at least 50%for each 1 mg/dL UA increase (P , .01), whereas it doubled for children in the topgender-specific UA quartile (P , .03).

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CONCLUSIONS: Increased UA levels showed an independent predictive power for thepresence of higher BP levels among a cohort of children at relatively high cardiovascularrisk Serum uric acid (UA) was shown to be a strong correlate of establishedhypertension in children.1–3 Preliminary studies have also reported an associationbetween hyperuricemia and nonsustained hypertension,4,5 and, recently,a relationshipbetween changes in serum UA over time and blood pressure (BP) from childhood toadulthood has been reported.6 These findings have sparked growing interest in therelationship between UA and BP in children that may lead to pathophysiological insightsand greaterknowledge on the cause-effect relationship between these factors.7 The complexinteraction between serum UA,BPchanges,andotherwell-established risk factors hasbeen elucidated only inpart, and controversy remains as to whether UA is an independent causal factor ormerely a marker of the development of hypertension.8 It has been suggested thatseveral factors, such as age,9 puberty,10 obesity,11,12 insulin resistance, and impairedrenal function, 14 all ofwhich are related to UA levels, may play a role in the developmentof hypertension. In 2 recent trials, serum UA reduction by allopurinol or probenecidresulted in BP normalization in children and adolescents with increasedBP levels, thus supporting a causative role for UA in hypertension. 15,16 The purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationship between serum UA and BP, as wellas several possibly confounding factors, such as puberty, anthropometric parameters,insulin resistance, and renal function in a large group of children at relatively highcardiovascular (CV) risk.

METHODSSubjects We studied a cohort of children aged between 6 and 18 years (mean = 10.8years), consecutively referred by their primary care pediatricians to the San GerardoHospital, Unit for Cardiovascular Risk Assessment in Children, because of evidence of elevated BP values and/or because of positive family historyof CV disease. The latterwas defined as the presence in 1 or both of the parents of at least 1 among thefollowing: hypertension, type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, early ischemic heart disease,and cerebrovascular disease. None of these children were affected byimpaired glucose tolerance, diabetes, or renal insufficiency. Specific diagnostic tests

that are needed to rule out secondary hypertension were carried out in all children.Children with secondary forms of hypertension were excluded from the study.

Informed consent was obtained from the children’s parents, and the local ethicalcommittee approved the study protocol. Definition of Terms and Groups Height, weight(mobile digital scale[SECA; Vogel & Halke GmbH, Hamburg, Germany]; precision 100 g), and waistcircumference were measured with the subjects in their underwear. BMI was calculatedas weight (kg)/height (m2). BMI z-scores were calculated by using the Centers for

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Disease Control and Prevention charts (available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/). Weightwas approximated to hectograms, whereas height precision was 5mm. Weight class wasdefined according to the tables of the International Obesity Task Force, 17 distinguishingamong normal weight (NW), overweight (OW), and obese (OB). Waist circumference wasmeasured to the nearest 0.1 cm by a nonelastic flexible tape with the children in astanding position. The tape was applied horizontally midway between the lowest rib

margin and the iliac crest. Waist-toheight ratio (WtHr) was calculated by dividingwaistcircumferencebyheight.Acutoff of 0.5 was chosen to distinguish between low and high WtHr category, assuggested by several authors.18–21 Pubertal stage was assessed by a medicalexamination and children were classified into 2 categories: prepubertal and pubertalaccording to Tanner staging.22 BP was measured by using an aneroidsphygmomanometer with the appropriatecuff for the child’s upper armsize. The sphygmomanometer was calibrated before starting the study and onceamonth thereafter with a mercury sphygmomanometer.

Systolic BP (SBP) was defined by the first Korotkoff sound (appearance of sounds) anddiastolic BP (DBP) was identified by the fifth Korotkoff sound (disappearance ofsounds).BP values were approximated to the nearest 2mm Hg. Measurements were performedwhile children were sitting with their back supported and the cubital fossa supported atthe heart level, after a rest of at least 5 minutes. BP was taken 3 times (3–5-minuteintervals) and SBP and DBP percentiles were calculated according to thenormogramsrecommended by the National High Blood Pressure Education ProgramWorking Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents.23 Each child wasclassified according to the percentile of the mean of the 3 measurements as beingnormotensive (NT) if both SBP and DBP percentiles were,90th; prehypertensive (PH) if the SBP and/or DBP percentile was $90th but both were ,95th; or hypertensive (HT) if theSBP and/or DBP percentile was$95th. Childrenwhowere referred by family pediatricians

because of evidence of elevated BP values, but whose SBP and DBP percentiles wereboth ,90th percentile when BP was measured at the Cardiovascular Risk in ChildrenUnit, were classified as having transiently elevated BP (TH).

Family history of hypertension was defined as the presence of at least 1 parent withhypertension. Biochemical Parameters Blood samples were taken from allsubjects aftera 12-hour fasting period to measure plasma glucose and insulin, and serum UA, totalcholesterol, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein concentrations. Plasma glucosewas measured by a glucose oxidase method and insulin was evaluated bychemiluminescent immunometric assay. Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) indexwas calculated by dividing the product of plasma insulin (mU/mL) and plasma glucose(mmol/L) by 22.5.24 Glomerular filtration rate was estimated(eGFR) by means of theupdatedSchwartz formula using serum creatinine and height measurements and a kconstant of 0.413.25 Serum creatinine level was measured by using the Jaffemethodreferable to the standardized reference measurement procedure (isotope dilution massspectrometry), as recommended. Statistical Methods The cohort was categorized intogroups according to hypertension category, weight class, and UA gender-specificquartiles. The continuous variables were described by mean and SD and comparedacross groups by Fisher-Snecodor and Student’s t tests. The categorical variables weredescribed by the proportion of subjects falling into each category. Proportions were

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compared across groups by the x2 test. Box-plots were used to describe the distributionof UA according to hypertension category andweight class based groups. Correlation between continuous variables was assessed bythe Pearson correlation coefficient. Multiple linear regression was used to assess theinfluence of age, pubertal status, gender, BMI z-score (or WtHr) and eGFR on UA. Theimpact of UA was considered on SBP z-score and on DBP z-score by a multiple linear

regression model adjusting for age, pubertal status, gender, BMI z-score (or WtHr), andHOMA index. Logistic regressionmodelswere used to assess the impact of theaforementioned factors on the odds ratio (OR) of being TH, PH, and HT with respect toNT in 3 separate models on the TH versus NT, PH versus NT, and HT versus NT,respectively. No data were missing for any of the mentioned variables. All analyses andgraphics were conducted with the packageR (available at http://cran.r-project.org/).

RESULTSAmong 648 children consecutively referredto ouroutpatient clinic forCVrisk assessmentbetween November 2004 and March 2012, 147 were excluded (12 because they were ,6years of age, and 135 because data for 1 or more of the variables included in thepresent analyses were missing). In the resulting final cohort of 501 subjects (55.9%boys and 44.1% girls), mean age was 10.8 years (SD = 2.4 years), 156 (31.1%) wereNT, 122 (24.4%) were TH, 87 (17.4%) were PH, and 136 (27.1%) were HT. Among them,33.3% and 40.5% were OW or OB, respectively. Elevated BP (PH or HT) was found in32.1% among 131 children with NW, in 42.5% among 167 OW and 54.2% among 203OB. Table 1 reports the clinicalcharacteristics of study subjects on thebasis of thevarious BP categories. As expected, there was a trend toward higher BMI z-score andhigher percentages of OW or OB, increasing WtHr, and HOMA index as BP categoriesrose. Moreover, the prevalence of pubertal, OB, children whose WtHr was above 0.50progressively increased from thelower to the upper BP categories. Despite similarities in age, family history of hypertension, renal function, fasting serum glucose, and lipid profile, the childrenshowed a significant rise in serum UA levels along with increasing BP levels.

DISCUSSION

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In this large groupof childrenat relatively highCVrisk,serumUAwasindependentlyassociated with BP levels across different BP categories, from normotension to transientand then prehypertension, upto established hypertension. Although the association between mild hyperuricemia andhypertension has previously been described in severalstudiesbothinadultsandinchildren,1,3,4,6,26 a relationship between UA and prehypertension

has mainly been reported in adults,27 with only a few, relatively small studies carried outin children with white coat and borderline hypertension.4,5,16 Although the clinical settingof our study is cross sectional, it provides us with an opportunity to investigate thecomplex association between UA and other variables (such as insulin resistance,obesity, puberty, and BP) in a group of subjects in whom pathophysiologicalmechanisms and changes leadingto the development of hypertension are still at play. This is even more interesting inlight of the recently reported finding that UA levels may be a predictor of the futuredevelopment of hypertension in adults.6 The relationship between UA and BP that weobserved becomes clinically relevantfor higher UA values, since children in the top UA quartile (ie,$5.0 mg/dL for boys and$4.7 mg/dL for girls) showed a twofold higher risk of being PH and HT (Table 3, Fig 2).On the other hand, althougha trend toward higher UA values was present across all BP categories, UA levels couldnot help identify children with nonsustained hypertension. The prevalence of OW andOB was relativelyhigh in our study sample, as expected on the basis of recruitment criteria. Nonetheless,the association between UA and BP persisted after adjusting for BMI z-score and forWtHr, a finding that clearly supports a pathogenetic role for serum UA in the earlyphases of hypertension development.With the aim of better elucidating the role of UA in the development of essentialhypertension, in the current study we excluded patients with renal insufficiency and/ordiabetes. However, we analyzed the relationship between UA and those parameters,such as eGFR and HOMA index, which, even in the range of normality, could beimplicated in the development of hypertension in children.13 Even slightly elevated

serum UA levels have shown to be strong, independent predictors of the developmentof type 2 diabetes in adult cohorts ofunselected general populations,28 as well as of HTpatients.29,30 Moreover, recent data strongly support the hypothesis that insulinresistance in children might play a role in hypertension development regardless of obesity and fat distribution. 13 Other variables, such as puberty and renal function, 10,14

have also been shown to bear an influence on the link between UA and BP in children. To date, only a few studies have investigated the relationship of sexual maturity1,2 andestimated renal function3,4,31 with UA and BP, and none have taken insulin resistanceinto consideration. In the current study, HOMA index was found to be linearly related toUA levels and increased along with UA quartiles (Table 2), and BP categories (Table 1).However, in multiple linear and logistic regression analysis, the relationship betweenthis marker of insulin resistance and BP levels and categories almost completely losesits strength, whereas serum UA maintains its independent link to BP. Although theseresults cannot help to define whether serum UA is influenced by BP elevation and insulinresistance or vice versa, they certainly point toward a complex relationship amongthese factors. As for renal function,wefound that eGFR was similar in all BP categories,and the addition of this variable to linear and logistic regression analyses left therelationship between UA and BP unchanged. Even accounting for body mass andpuberty,the independent role of UA variations on BP values did not decrease. Our dataconfirm and expand those previously reported by Loeffler et al3 in a large study

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conducted on a representative sample of adolescents in the United States. In fact, wewere fortunate enough to obtain a larger study samplefrom our records and therefore were able to demonstrate an association between SBPas well as DBP and serum UA levels even in a fully adjusted multivariate linearregression analysis. Our study has both strengths and weaknesses that deserve to becommented on. Among the former, the fact

that, unlike other previous large studies, 3 the definition of elevated BP and theallocation of children into different BP categories was not based on a single physicalexamination. BP was measuredin at least 2 different occasions: previously by the family pediatrician and then again inour clinic, and in both cases themean of 3measurementswas used for analysis. To fullyaccount for age, gender, and height, according to the tables published in the fourthreport on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment in children and adolescents, 23 weused BP z-scores rather than raw BP values, which makes our observations morereliable as compared with those of a variety of previous reports.1,2,4,6,16

Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge, for the first time several clinical andbiohumoral variables have been concurrently collected and analyzed in a group of referred children. Last, there are some limitations to our study. First, given the cross-sectional nature of its design, it would be inappropriateto derive definitive conclusions regarding the cause-effect relationship between UA andBP levels,even though the association we report persisted even when several well-knownconfounding factors were taken into account. Second, the lack of a control group maylimit the implications of our observations. Nevertheless, within the context of childrenwith relatively high CV risk, our data show a clear trend in the BP-UA association alongwith progressively worse BP categories, from transientto established hypertension. Higher UA levels show a significant association with theoccurrence of higher BP levels even among a cohort of children at relatively high CVrisk. Third, ambulatory bloodpressure monitoring was not performed in our study and therefore we could not classifyany subject into the “white-coat hypertension” or “masked hypertension” category.

However, there is a generalconsensus in current pediatric literature that diagnosis of hypertension in children andadolescents be based on office BP measures and not on ambulatory blood pressuremonitoring.

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CONCLUSIONS

In children at relatively high CV risk, UA shows a strong relationship with BP valuesacross different BP categories, from normal BP to transient, up to preand finally toestablished hypertension. The association between UA and BP levels is independent of several wellknown factors potentially implicated in the development of hypertension,such as insulin resistance, pubertal stage, and renal function. These data support theneed for further large, prospective, and interventional studies to clarify thepathophysiological mechanisms underlying the relationship between serum UA and BP.

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Asam Urat Serum dan Tekanan Darah pada Anak diRisiko Kardiovaskular 

APA YANG DIKENAL DENGAN TOPIK: Asam urat (UA) dikaitkan dengan hipertensi padaanak-anak, setelah penyesuaian berat badan. Apakah seluruh spektrum variabel, seperti

adipositas viseral, resistensi insulin, pubertas, dan fungsi ginjal, mempengaruhi hubungan antaraUA dan tekanan darah tidak diketahui.

APA INI ADDS STUDI: Dalam kelompok anak-anak pada risiko kardiovaskular yang relatif tinggi, hubungan antara UA dan tingkat tekanan darah tergantung pada beberapa faktor terkenalterlibat dalam pengembangan hipertensi, seperti resistensi insulin, status pubertas, dan fungsiginjal .

Abstrak 

TUJUAN: Hyperuricemia telah terbukti menjadi kuat berkorelasi hipertensi pada anak-anak. Namun, interaksi yang kompleks antara asam urat serum (UA), tekanan darah sistemik (BP), danfaktor-faktor yang mungkin membingungkan telah dijelaskan hanya sebagian.

METODE: Kami mengevaluasi BP kantor serta parameter klinis dan biohumoral dalam kohortcross-sectional dari 501 anak-anak (280 laki-laki dan 221 perempuan) berusia antara 6 dan 18tahun (rata-rata = 10,8 tahun) berturut-turut dirujuk untuk penilaian risiko kardiovaskular.

HASIL: Secara keseluruhan, 156 (31,1%) adalah darah normal, 122 (24,4%) menunjukkanhipertensi transien, 87 (17,4%) memiliki prehipertensi, dan 136 (27,1%) mengalami hipertensi.Secara keseluruhan 33,3% dan 40,5% dari kelompok studi yang kelebihan berat badan atauobesitas, masing-masing. Ada kecenderungan berat badan lebih besar dan lingkar pinggang danBMI, indeks Homeostasis Model Assessment, dan UA tingkat yang lebih tinggi sebagai kategoriBP naik. Selain itu, prevalensi anak pubertas, obesitas, dan rasio pinggang-ke-ketinggian di atas0,50 semakin meningkat dari rendah ke kategori BP atas. Setelah disesuaikan untuk pubertas, jenis kelamin, BMI (z-score), Homeostasis indeks Assessment Model, dan fungsi ginjal, UAditemukan langsung berhubungan dengan sistolik dan tekanan darah diastolik nilai (P = .03).Menggunakan anak normotensif untuk perbandingan, risiko menunjukkan prehipertensi atauhipertensi meningkat setidaknya 50%untuk setiap 1 mg / dL UA peningkatan (P, 01), sedangkan dua kali lipat untuk anak-anak di atasspesifik gender UA kuartil (P, 03).

KESIMPULAN: Tingkat UA Peningkatan menunjukkan daya prediksi independen untuk adanya

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tingkat BP lebih tinggi di antara kelompok anak-anak pada risiko kardiovaskular relatif tinggiasam urat Serum (UA) telah terbukti menjadi kuat berkorelasi hipertensi didirikan padachildren.1-3 Awal penelitian juga telah melaporkan hubungan antara hiperurisemia dannonsustained hipertensi, 4,5 dan, baru-baru ini, hubungan antara perubahan UA serum dari waktuke waktu dan tekanan darah (BP) dari anak menjadi dewasa telah reported.6 Temuan ini telah

memicu minat dalam hubungan antara UA dan BP pada anak-anak yang dapat menyebabkanwawasan patofisiologi dan lebih besar  pengetahuan tentang hubungan sebab-akibat antara factors.7 The interaksi yang kompleks antaraserum UA, BPchanges, faktor risiko andotherwell mapan telah dijelaskan hanya dalam bagian, dan kontroversi tetap, apakah UA merupakan faktor kausal independen atau hanya penanda perkembangan hypertension.8 Ia telah mengemukakan bahwa beberapa faktor, sepertiusia, 9 pubertas, 10 obesitas, resistensi insulin 11,12, dan gangguan fungsi ginjal, 14 semuaofwhich terkait dengan tingkat UA, mungkin memainkan peran dalam perkembangan hipertensi.Dalam 2 uji coba terakhir, serum pengurangan UA oleh allopurinol atau probenesidmengakibatkan BP normalisasi pada anak-anak dan remaja dengan peningkatanTingkat BP, sehingga mendukung peran penyebab untuk UA di hypertension.15, 16 Tujuan dari

 penelitian ini adalah untuk menyelidiki hubungan antara serum UA dan BP, serta beberapa faktor yang mungkin membingungkan, seperti pubertas, parameter antropometri, resistensi insulin , danfungsi ginjal dalam kelompok besar anak-anak di kardiovaskular (CV) risiko yang relatif tinggi.

METODESubyek Kami mempelajari kelompok anak-anak berusia antara 6 dan 18 tahun (rata-rata = 10,8tahun), berturut-turut disebut oleh dokter anak perawatan primer mereka ke Rumah Sakit SanGerardo, Unit Pengkajian Risiko Kardiovaskular pada Anak, karena bukti nilai BP tinggi dan /atau karena keluarga penyakit CV historyof positif. Yang terakhir ini didefinisikan sebagaikehadiran dalam 1 atau kedua orang tua setidaknya 1 di antara berikut: hipertensi, diabetes tipe2, dislipidemia, penyakit jantung iskemik dini, dan penyakit serebrovaskular. Tak satu pun darianak-anak dipengaruhi olehgangguan toleransi glukosa, diabetes, atau gagal ginjal. Tes diagnostik khusus yang diperlukanuntuk menyingkirkan hipertensi sekunder dilakukan pada semua anak. Anak-anak dengan bentuk sekunder hipertensi dikeluarkan dari penelitian.

Informed consent diperoleh dari orang tua anak-anak, dan komite etika lokal menyetujui protokol penelitian. Definisi Istilah dan Kelompok Tinggi, berat (skala mobile digital[Seca, Vogel & Halke GmbH, Hamburg, Jerman], presisi 100 g), dan lingkar pinggang diukur dengan subyek dalam pakaian mereka. IMT dihitung sebagai berat (kg) / tinggi badan (m2). BMIz-skor dihitung dengan menggunakan Centers for Disease Control dan Pencegahan grafik (tersedia di http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/). Berat didekati untuk hectograms, sedangkan presisitinggi adalah 5mm. Kelas berat didefinisikan sesuai tabel dari Obesitas Internasional Task Force,17 membedakan antara berat badan normal (NW), kelebihan berat badan (OW), dan obesitas(OB). Lingkar pinggang diukur dengan ketelitian 0,1 cm dengan pita fleksibel nonelastic dengananak-anak dalam posisi berdiri. Rekaman itu diterapkan secara horizontal di tengah-tengahantara margin tulang rusuk terendah dan krista iliaka. Rasio pinggang-toheight (WtHr) dihitungdengan dividingwaist circumferencebyheight.A

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cutoff dari 0,5 dipilih untuk membedakan antara kategori WtHr rendah dan tinggi, seperti yangdisarankan oleh beberapa authors.18-21 tahap pubertas dinilai dengan pemeriksaan medis dananak-anak digolongkan menjadi 2 kategori: prapubertas dan pubertas menurut Tanner staging.22BP diukur dengan menggunakan sphygmomanometer aneroid dengan appropriatecuff untuk lengan atas anak 

ukuran. Sphygmomanometer itu dikalibrasi sebelum memulai studi dan sekali amonth setelahnyadengan sphygmomanometer merkuri.

Tekanan darah sistolik (SBP) ditentukan oleh pertama Korotkoff suara (penampilan suara) dandiastolik BP (DBP) diidentifikasi oleh kelima Korotkoff suara (ofsounds hilangnya). Nilai BPdidekati ke terdekat 2mm Hg. Pengukuran dilakukan sementara anak-anak duduk dengan merekakembali didukung dan fossa cubiti didukung di tingkat jantung, setelah istirahat minimal 5 menit.BP diambil 3 kali (3-5-minuteintervals) dan SBP dan DBP persentil dihitung menurut

normogramsrecommended oleh Tekanan Tinggi Education Group Nasional Darah ProgramKerja Tekanan Darah Tinggi pada Anak dan Adolescents.23 Setiap anak diklasifikasikanmenurut persentil rata-rata dari 3 pengukuran sebagai normotensi (NT) jika kedua SBP dan DBP persentil itu, ke-90, prehypertensive (PH) jika SBP dan / atau DBP persentil adalah $ 90 tapikeduanya, 95, atau hipertensi (HT) jika SBP dan / atau DBP persentil adalah $ 95.Childrenwhowere dirujuk oleh dokter anak keluarga karena bukti nilai BP tinggi, tapi yang SBPdan DBP persentil berdua, persentil ke-90 ketika BP diukur pada Risiko Kardiovaskular di UnitAnak, diklasifikasikan sebagai memiliki transiently tinggi BP (TH).

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Riwayat keluarga hipertensi didefinisikan sebagai kehadiran setidaknya 1 orang tua denganhipertensi. Biokimia Parameter Sampel darah diambil dari allsubjects setelah periode puasa 12 jam untuk mengukur glukosa plasma dan insulin, dan serum UA, kolesterol total, trigliserida,dan konsentrasi high density lipoprotein. Glukosa plasma diukur dengan metode oksidaseglukosa dan insulin dievaluasi dengan uji Immunometric chemiluminescent. Homeostasis Model

Assessment (HOMA) Indeks dihitung dengan membagi produk insulin plasma (mU / mL) danglukosa plasma (mmol / L) oleh 22.5.24 Laju filtrasi glomerulus diperkirakan (eGFR) dengancara rumus updatedSchwartz menggunakan kreatinin serum pengukuran dan tinggi dan ak konstan 0.413.25 kadar kreatinin serum diukur dengan menggunakan Jaffemethod referabledengan prosedur referensi pengukuran standar (pengenceran isotop spektrometri massa), sepertiyang direkomendasikan. Metode Statistik kohort ini dikategorikan ke dalam kelompok sesuaidengan kategori hipertensi, kelas berat, dan UA kuartil gender-spesifik. Variabel kontinyudijelaskan oleh mean dan SD dan dibandingkan seluruh kelompok oleh Fisher-Snecodor dan tes tStudent. Variabel kategoris digambarkan oleh proporsi subyek jatuh ke setiap kategori. Proporsidibandingkan seluruh kelompok dengan uji x2. Box-plot digunakan untuk menggambarkandistribusi UA sesuai dengan kategori hipertensi dan

kelas berbasis kelompok berat. Korelasi antara variabel kontinyu dinilai dengan koefisienkorelasi Pearson. Regresi linier berganda digunakan untuk menilai pengaruh usia, status pubertas, jenis kelamin, BMI z-score (atau WtHr) dan eGFR pada UA. Dampak UA dianggap pada SBP z-score dan DBP z-skor dengan regresi linier berganda Model disesuaikan untuk usia,status pubertas, jenis kelamin, BMI z-score (atau WtHr), dan indeks HOMA.Regressionmodelswere logistik digunakan untuk menilai dampak dari faktor-faktor tersebut padaodds ratio (OR) menjadi TH, PH, dan HT sehubungan dengan NT di 3 model terpisah pada THversus NT, PH vs NT, dan HT vs NT, masing-masing . Tidak ada data yang hilang untuk setiapvariabel tersebut. Semua analisa dan grafis dilakukan dengan packager (tersedia di http://cran.r- project.org/).

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HASILDi antara 648 anak berurutan referredto ouroutpatient klinik forCVrisk penilaian antara November 2004 dan Maret 2012, 147 dikeluarkan (12 karena mereka, 6 tahun, dan 135 karenadata untuk 1 atau lebih dari variabel-variabel termasuk dalam analisis ini yang hilang). Dalamkohort akhir yang dihasilkan dari 501 subyek (55,9% laki-laki dan 44,1% perempuan), usia rata-

rata adalah 10,8 tahun (SD = 2,4 tahun), 156 (31,1%) adalah NT, 122 (24,4%) yang TH, 87(17,4% ) adalah PH, dan 136 (27,1%) adalah HT. Di antara mereka, 33,3% dan 40,5% adalahOW atau OB, masing-masing. Peningkatan BP (PH atau HT) ditemukan pada 32,1% di antara131 anak dengan NW, di 42,5% di antara 167 OW dan 54,2% di antara 203 OB. Tabel 1 laporanclinicalcharacteristics dari subyek penelitian pada thebasis dari berbagai kategori BP. Sepertiyang diharapkan, ada kecenderungan lebih tinggi BMI z-skor dan persentase yang lebih tinggiOW atau OB, meningkatkan WtHr, dan indeks HOMA sebagai kategori BP naik. Selain itu, prevalensi pubertas, OB, anak-anak yang berada di atas 0,50 WtHr semakin meningkat darimenurunkan ke kategori BP atas. Meskipun kesamaan dalam usia, riwayat keluarga hipertensi,fungsi ginjal, puasa glukosa serum, dan profil lipid, anak-anak menunjukkan peningkatan yangsignifikan pada tingkat serum UA seiring dengan meningkatnya tingkat BP.

PEMBAHASANDalam childrenat groupof besar relatif highCVrisk, serumUAwasindependently terkait dengantingkat BP di kategori BP berbeda, dari normotension untuk sementara dan kemudian prehipertensi, naik untuk mendirikan hipertensi. Meskipun hubungan antara hiperurisemia ringan dan hipertensisebelumnya telah dijelaskan dalam beberapa studiesbothinadultsandinchildren, 1,3,4,6,26hubungan antara UA dan prehipertensi terutama telah dilaporkan pada orang dewasa, 27 denganhanya beberapa, studi relatif kecil dilakukan dalam anak-anak dengan jas putih dan batashypertension.4, 5,16 Meskipun pengaturan klinis dari studi kami adalah cross sectional,memberikan kita kesempatan untuk menyelidikihubungan kompleks antara UA dan variabel lain (seperti resistensi insulin, obesitas, pubertas,dan BP) dalam kelompok mata pelajaran di antaranya mekanisme patofisiologi dan perubahanterkemukauntuk pengembangan hipertensi masih bermain. Hal ini bahkan lebih menarik mengingat baru- baru ini melaporkan menemukan bahwa tingkat UA dapat menjadi prediktor dari perkembanganmasa depan hipertensi pada adults.6 Hubungan antara UA dan BP yang kami amati menjadiklinis yang relevanuntuk nilai-nilai UA tinggi, karena anak-anak di atas UA kuartil (yaitu, $ 5,0 mg / dL untuk laki-laki dan $ 4,7 mg / dL untuk perempuan) menunjukkan risiko dua kali lipat lebih tinggi menjadiPH dan HT (Tabel 3, Gambar 2). Di sisi lain, meskipunkecenderungan nilai UA tinggi hadir di semua kategori BP, tingkat UA tidak bisa membantumengidentifikasi anak dengan hipertensi nonsustained. Prevalensi OW dan OB relatif tinggi dalam sampel penelitian kami, seperti yang diharapkan berdasarkan kriteria perekrutan.Meskipun demikian, hubungan antara UA dan BP bertahan setelah disesuaikan untuk BMI z-score dan WtHr, sebuah temuan yang jelas mendukung peran pathogenetic untuk serum UA padatahap awal pengembangan hipertensi.Dengan tujuan yang lebih baik elucidating peran UA dalam pengembangan hipertensi esensial,

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dalam studi saat ini kita tidak termasuk pasien dengan insufisiensi ginjal dan / atau diabetes. Namun, kami menganalisis hubungan antara UA dan parameter, seperti eGFR dan indeksHOMA, yang, bahkan dalam kisaran normal, bisa terlibat dalam pengembangan hipertensi padachildren.13 Bahkan sedikit peningkatan kadar serum UA telah terbukti kuat, prediktor independen perkembangan diabetes tipe 2 pada kohort dewasa ofunselected populasi umum, 28

serta HT patients.29, 30 Selain itu, data terakhir sangat mendukung hipotesis bahwa resistensiinsulin pada anak-anak mungkin memainkan peran dalam pengembangan hipertensi tanpaobesitas dan distribusi lemak. 13 variabel lain, seperti pubertas dan fungsi ginjal, 10,14 juga telahditunjukkan untuk menanggung pengaruh terhadap hubungan antara UA dan BP pada anak-anak.Untuk saat ini, hanya beberapa studi telah meneliti hubungan seksual maturity1, 2 dandiperkirakan ginjal function3, 4,31 dengan UA dan BP, dan tidak ada telah mengambil resistensiinsulin menjadi pertimbangan. Dalam penelitian ini, indeks HOMA ditemukan linear terkaitdenganTingkat UA dan meningkat seiring dengan UA kuartil (Tabel 2), dan BP kategori (Tabel 1). Namun, dalam analisis regresi linier dan logistik, hubungan antara penanda ini resistensi insulindan tingkat dan kategori BP hampir sepenuhnya kehilangan kekuatannya, sedangkan serum UA

mempertahankan hubungan independen untuk BP. Meskipun hasil ini tidak dapat membantuuntuk menentukan apakah serum UA dipengaruhi oleh BP elevasi dan resistensi insulin atausebaliknya, mereka pasti mengarah ke hubungan yang kompleks antara faktor-faktor ini. Adapunfungsi ginjal, wefound bahwa eGFR adalah serupa dalam semua kategori BP, dan penambahanvariabel ini untuk analisis regresi linier dan logistik meninggalkan hubungan antara UA dan BPtidak berubah. Bahkan akuntansi untuk massa tubuh dan pubertas, peran independen UA variasi pada nilai-nilai BP tidak menurun. Data kami mengkonfirmasi dan memperluas yangsebelumnya dilaporkan oleh Loeffler et AL3 dalam sebuah studi besar yang dilakukan padasampel yang representatif dari remaja di Amerika Serikat. Bahkan, kami tidak cukup beruntunguntuk mendapatkan sampel penelitian yang lebih besar dari catatan kami dan karena itu mampu menunjukkan hubungan antara SBP serta DBP dantingkat serum UA bahkan dalam analisis regresi linier sepenuhnya disesuaikan multivariat.Penelitian kami memiliki kekuatan dan kelemahan yang layak untuk mengomentari. Di antaramantan, fakta bahwa, tidak seperti penelitian besar lainnya sebelumnya, 3 definisi BP tinggi dan alokasi anak ke dalam kategori yang berbeda BP tidak didasarkan pada pemeriksaan fisik tunggal. BP diukur dalam setidaknya 2 kesempatan yang berbeda: sebelumnya oleh dokter anak keluarga dankemudian lagi di klinik kami, dan dalam kedua kasus themean dari 3measurementswasdigunakan untuk analisis. Untuk sepenuhnya memperhitungkan usia, jenis kelamin, dan tinggi,sesuai tabel dipublikasikan dalam laporan keempat pada diagnosis, evaluasi, dan pengobatan pada anak-anak dan remaja, 23 kami menggunakan BP z-skor daripada nilai BP baku, yangmembuat pengamatan kami lebih dapat diandalkan dibandingkan dengan orang-orang dari berbagai reports.1 sebelumnya, 2,4,6,16Selanjutnya, untuk yang terbaik dari pengetahuan kita, untuk pertama kalinya beberapa variabelklinis dan biohumoral telah bersamaan dikumpulkan dan dianalisis dalam kelompok anak-anak yang dimaksud. Terakhir, ada beberapa keterbatasan dalam penelitian kami. Pertama, mengingatsifat cross-sectional dari desain, itu tidak pantasuntuk mendapatkan kesimpulan yang pasti tentang hubungan sebab-akibat antara UA dan tingkatBP,meskipun asosiasi kami melaporkan bertahan bahkan ketika beberapa faktor pembaur terkenal

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yang diperhitungkan. Kedua, kurangnya kelompok kontrol dapat membatasi implikasi dari pengamatan kami. Namun demikian, dalam konteks anak-anak dengan risiko CV relatif tinggi,data kami menunjukkan tren yang jelas dalam pergaulan BP-UA bersama dengan kategori BPsemakin buruk, dari transientuntuk mendirikan hipertensi. Tingkat UA tinggi menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dengan

terjadinya tingkat BP tinggi bahkan di antara kohort anak-anak beresiko CV relatif tinggi.Ketiga, darah ambulatory pemantauan tekanan tidak dilakukan dalam penelitian kami dan karena itu kami tidak bisamengklasifikasikan subjek apapun ke dalam "putih-coat hipertensi" atau kategori "hipertensi bertopeng". Namun, ada seorang jenderalkonsensus dalam literatur pediatrik saat ini yang diagnosis hipertensi pada anak-anak dan remajadidasarkan pada tindakan kantor BP dan bukan pada pemantauan tekanan darah rawat jalan.

KESIMPULAN

Pada anak-anak beresiko CV relatif tinggi, UA menunjukkan hubungan yang kuat dengan nilai-nilai BP di kategori BP berbeda, dari BP normal sementara, hingga akhirnya preand hipertensididirikan. Hubungan antara tingkat UA dan BP adalah independen dari beberapa faktor ternama berpotensi terlibat dalam pengembangan hipertensi, seperti resistensi insulin, tahap pubertas, danfungsi ginjal. Data ini mendukung perlunya penelitian lebih lanjut besar, prospektif, danintervensi untuk memperjelas mekanisme patofisiologi yang mendasari hubungan antara serumUA dan BP.