SENSOR AND

ANALYZER HANDBOOK

HARRY N. NORTON

Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632

Contents

PREFACE xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii

INTRODUCTION I: INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Measurement Systems 1 1.2.1 Basic Electronic Measurement Systems 2 1.22 Multiple-Data Measuring Systems 3 1.2.3 Telemetry Systems 4

1.3 Analyzing Systems 10

1.4 Data Conditioning, Processing, and Display 11 1.4.1 Analog Data 11 1.4.2 Digital Data 12

1.5 Control Systems 14

Bibliography 16

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INTRODUCTION II: TRANSDUCER FUNDAMENTALS

11.1 Nomenclature and Terminology 18

11.2 Transduction Principles 20

11.3 General Characteristics 24 H.3.1 Measurand characteristics 24 11.32 Electrical Design Characteristics 25 11.3.3 Mechanical Design Characteristics 27 11.3.4 Performance Characteristics 28

11.4 General Criteria for Selection 51

Bibliography 53

SOLID-MECHANICAL QUANTITIES

1.1 Basic Concepts 55 1.1.1 Length, Angle, and Motion 55 1.12 Vibration 57 1.1.3 Mass, Force, and Torque 58 1.1.4 Elasticity, Strain, and Torsion 59 1.1.5 Units of Measurement 60

1.2 Acceleration and Vibration 64 12.1 Sensing Method 64 1.2.2 Design and Operation 65 12.3 Performance Criteria 77

1.3 Attitude and Attitude Rate 79 1.3.1 Sensing Methods 79 1.3.2 Design and Operation 80 1.3.3 Performance Criteria 88

1.4 Displacement, Position, and Motion 89 1.4.1 Sensing Methods 89 1.42 Design and Operation 90 1.4.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 117

1.5 Force, Mass, and Weight 120 1.5.1 Sensing Methods 120 1.52 Design and Operation 122 1.5.3 Performance Characteristics 130

1.6 Torque 131 1.6.1 Sensing Methods 131 1.62 Design and Operation 132 1.6.3 Performance Criteria 140

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1.7 Speed and Velocity 142 1.7.1 Sensing Methods 142 1.72 Design and Operation 145 1.7.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 154

1.8 Stress and Strain 155 1.8.1 Sensing and Transduction Methods 155 1.82 Design and Operation 155 1.8.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 163 1.8.4 Gage Installation 164 1.8.5 Strain Measurement Circuits 165

Bibliography 169

FLUID-MECHANICAL QUANTITIES

2.1 Basic Concepts 171 2.1.1 Flow, Density, and Viscosity 171 2.12 Humidity and Moisture 172 2.1.3 Pressure, Vacuum, and Liquid Level 172 2.1.4 Units of Measurement 173 2.1.5 Pressure-Depth and Pressure-Altitude 175

2.2 Density 176 22.1 Sensing Methods 176 222 Design and Operation 176 22.3 Performance Characteristics 177

2.3 Flow 178 2.3.1 Sensing Methods 178 2.32 Design and Operation 187 2.3.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 203 2.3.4 Installation Precautions 204

2.4 Humidity and Moisture 204 2.4.1 Sensing Methods 204 2.4.2 Design and Operation 210 2.4.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 216

2.5 Liquid Level 218 2.5.1 Sensing Methods 219 2.5.2 Design and Operation 229 2.5.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 240

2.6 Pressure 241 2.6.1 Sensing Methods 243 2.62 Design and Operation 248 2.6.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 270

Contents

2.7 Vacuum 272 2.7.1 Sensing Methods 272 2.7.2 Design and Operation 281 2.7.3 Performance Characteristics 287

2.8 Viscosity 288

Bibliography 289

3 ACOUSTIC QUANTITIES

3.1 Basic Concepts 291 3.1.1 Basic Definitions 291 3.1.2 Defining Relationships 293 3.1.3 Units of Measurement 294

3.2 Sensing Method 295

3.3 Design and Operation 295 3.3.1 Microphones 295

3.4 Microphone Performance Characteristics 299

3.5 Sound-Pressure Measurements 301

3.6 Sound-Level Measurements 303

3.7 Underwater Sound Detection 304

3.8 Ultrasonics 305

Bibliography 306

4 THERMAL QUANTITIES

4.1 Basic Concepts 309 4.1.1 Definitions 309 4.1.2 Related Laws 311 4.1.3 Temperature Scales and Units of Measurement 313

4.2 Thermometry 315 4.2.1 Sensing Methods 315 4.2.2 Design and Operation 340 4.2.3 Design and Performance Characteristics 357 42.4 Considerations for Selection 363 4.2.5 Measurement Circuits 373

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4.3 Radiation Pyrometry 376 4.3.1 Sensing Methods 376 4.3.2 Design and Operation 379 4.3.3 Performance Characteristics 386

4.4 Heat Flux 387 4.4.1 Calorimeters 388 4.4.2 Radiometers 391 4.4.3 Surface Heat-Flow Sensors 394

Bibliography 394

5 OPTICAL QUANTITIES 397

5.1 Basic Concepts 397 5.1.1 Light Intensity 397 5.12 Color 399 5.1.3 Light Interaction with Substances 400 5.1.4 Units of Measurement 401 5.1.5 Performance Characteristics of Light Sensors 402

5.2 Visible, Ultraviolet, and Infrared Light Intensity 404 5.2.1 Sensing Methods 404 5.2.2 Design and Operation 408 52.3 Specification Characteristics 429 52.4 Sensing Systems 430

5.3 Color 437 5.3.1 Sensing Methods 437 5.3.2 Design and Operation 437 5.3.3 Performance Criteria 438

5.4 Light Interaction with Substances 438 5.4.1 Sensing Methods 438 5.4.2 Design and Operation 441 5.4.3 Performance Characteristics 449

Bibliography 450

6 NUCLEAR RADIATION 452

6.1 Basic Concepts 452 6.1.1 Related Fundamental Constants 453 6.1.2 Related Laws 455 6.1.3 Units of Measurement 455

Contents vii

6.2 Sensing Methods 456 6.2.1 Radiation Detection Using Ionization 457 622 Radiation Detection Using Scintillation 458 62.3 Electron Detection 459

6.3 Design and Operation 459 6.3.1 Ionization Chambers 459 6.32 Proportional Counters 461 6.3.3 Geiger Counters 463 6.3.4 Semiconductor Detectors 464 6.3.5 Scintillation Counters 469 6.3.6 Electron Multipliers 470 6.3.7 Neutron Detectors 474 6.3.8 Signal-Conditioning and Display Equipment 475

6.4 Design and Performance Characteristics 477

6.5 Selection Criteria 478

Bibliography 479

ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC QUANTITIES

7.1 Basic Concepts and Units 480

7.2 Sensing Methods and Devices 482 72.1 Voltage Sensors 482 722 Current Sensors 483 72.3 Power Sensors 485 72.4 Electrostatic-Charge Sensors 486 7.2.5 Frequency- and Time-Sensing Devices 486 7.2.6 Magnetic-Flux-Density Sensors 487

Bibliography 489

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION

8.1 Basic Concepts 490 8.1.1 Units of Measurement and Underlying Concepts 491

8.2 Electrometric Analyzers 496 82.1 Conductivity Sensors 497 82.2 pH Sensors 503 8.2.3 ORP (Redox) Sensors 506 8.2.4 Specific-Ion Sensors 506 82.5 Coulometric Instruments 508 82.6 Polarographs 509 8.2.7 Electrometric Gas Analyzers 510

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8.3 Resistive Gas Sensors 512

8.4 Thermal Analyzers 512 8.4.1 DTA, DSC, and TGA 513 8.42 Thermal Conductivity Cells 514 8.4.3 Heat-of-Combustion Sensors 515

8.5 Ionization Analyzers 516

8.6 Photometrie Analyzers 517 8.6.1 Flame Photometers 517 8.62 Nondispersive Infrared Analyzers 518 8.6.3 Chemiluminescence Analyzers 520 8.6.4 Polarimeters 520

8.7 Chromatographic Analyzers 521 8.7.1 Gas Chromatographs 521 8.72 Liquid Chromatographs 523

8.8 Spectroradiometric Analyzers 524 8.8.1 Spectrophotometers 525 8.82 Infrared Spectroradiometers 532 8.8.3 Interferometer Spectrometers 533 8.8.4 Beta-, Gamma-, and X-Ray Spectrometers 534 8.8.5 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometers 537 8.8.6 Atomic Absorption and Flame Emission Spectrometers 8.8.7 Submillimeter and Microwave Spectrometers 539 8.8.8 Raman Spectrometers 539

8.9 Magnetic Resonance Spectrometers 541 8.9.1 Magnetic Resonance Spectrometers 541 8.92 Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometers 542

8.10 Mass Spectrometers 542

8.11 Surface Analysis Instruments 544

Bibliography 549

INDEX

Contents