Self-reported changes in clinical behaviour by

undergraduate dental students after video-based

teaching in paediatric dentistry

M. KalwitzkiDepartment of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Tubingen, Tubingen, Germany

Abstract Four cohorts of undergraduate students (n ¼ 113) were

filmed on video tapes whilst performing paediatric treatments.Selected parts of these tapes were shown the day after. Thus,

within one term each student was able to view his performance ona videotape as well as those of fellow students. After completion

of the clinical course in paediatric dentistry students were askedby means of a questionnaire about behavioural changes in their

clinical work regarding different topics. Considerable changes inbehaviour were reported for various topics. Most of the students

emphasised the viable role of the video for changing theirbehaviour. This was especially true for aspects of verbal and

non-verbal communication where mainly female students bene-fited. Moreover, video was thought to have been useful for

improving capacities to deal with patients in fear or pain and for

ergonomics. About two-thirds of the students (64.6%) thought that

watching the video had made it easier for them to put theoreticalknowledge into action. Video does not seem to play an important

role for confirmation and maintenance of behaviour patterns. Inconclusion however, it can be stated that video has a high impact

on the modification of behaviour patterns of undergraduatestudents for many aspects of clinical work. The use of video can

thus attribute to dental education in an effective way.

Key words: video-based teaching; dental students; behavioural

changes.

ª Blackwell Munksgaard, 2005Accepted for publication, 19 January 2005

T he benefits of video for teaching purposes in

dentistry have been documented for a wide

number of fields such as the training of mechanical

skills (1–4) and the simulation of clinical situations (5).

Its unique characteristics make video a superior

means for the development of interpersonal and

communicational skills (6–8). Therefore, the routine

use of video has been recommended in dental educa-

tion (9, 10). Previous studies showed (11, 12) that

undergraduate students are strongly interested in

psychological aspects in dentistry and that there is a

general high acceptance of video-related teaching.

A considerable percentage of students had reported

previously that through watching of video sequences

they had gained insights into inadequate behavioural

patterns which would make them change their beha-

viour in future (12). However, it was not investigated

if and what types of behavioural patterns were

changed.

Thus, this study aimed at evaluating the aspects of

clinical behaviour that were actually felt to have

changed after video-based teaching stressing especi-

ally the practitioner–patient interaction.

Aim of study

Clarification of the following questions was sought:

1. Do students think that behavioural patterns chan-

ged through watching videotapes?

2. In what fields of clinical work do these changes

occur?

3. What percentage of students feels that video has

influenced their behaviour?

4. What is the practical use of watching videotapes?

5. Are there gender-specific differences regarding the

points mentioned above?

Materials and methods

Over a period of 2 years four classes with a total of 113

students (59 males and 54 females) attending the

clinical course for paediatric dentistry (10th semester,

final semester before graduation) participated in the

study. Within this course students initially receive a

theoretical introduction and are subsequently required

to treat paediatric patients supervised by two

108

Eur J Dent Educ 2005; 9: 108–114All rights reserved

CopyrightªBlackwell Munksgaard 2005

european journal of

Dental Education

experienced clinicians. This theoretical introduction

consists of lectures covering psychological and prac-

tical aspects of paediatric dentistry. The age of the

patients in this course varies between 2 and 16 years,

including also mentally and/or physically handi-

capped children.

There are about eight students at a time participa-

ting in this course thus forming one of four groups per

semester. Within the duration of the course each

student performs about 15 treatments as the actual

practitioner and another 15 assisting a fellow student.

Treatment for every patient is being planned each day

before treatment in a meeting where the supervisor

discusses the cases with students, which is common

practice in all clinical courses within the curriculum.

Clinical study designThe clinical study design was identical to the one

described in a previous study (12). Two video cameras

were installed around the dental unit offering two

different perspectives. One camera showed the dental

unit and parts of the surroundings, e.g. the parents

sitting nearby, whilst the other gave a more detailed

perspective of patient and performing students.

Zooming was possible with both cameras. A monitor

that had been installed in the same room but away

from the dental unit allowed for switching of per-

spectives without interfering with the treatment and

without making this obvious to the patients, parents

or the performing students. A very sensitive micro-

phone was placed near the dental unit. Before start of

treatment the approval of the patient and the parents

was sought.

Whilst all treatments performed were taped on

video, the student that had performed the treatments

could choose from this material a short video

sequence (about 10 min length) that was going to be

shown the following day before the meeting of

treatment planning. Students were completely free in

choosing the video sequence. Most students however

seemed to have chosen an ‘interesting’ (i.e. difficult or

stressful) part of the treatment, for example trying to

cope with an aggressive or anxious patient. This

sequence was shown to the whole group and dis-

cussed for about 15 min. This discussion intended to

reveal patterns of patient–student interaction and

communicative aspects and to comment them in a

factual way, thus providing deeper insights into what

had been adequate and less adequate behaviour. By

the end of the semester every student had watched

video sequences of a treatment performed by himself

and other video sequences of at least seven fellow

students.

QuestionnaireAfter a pilot test (one class) a questionnaire was

designed. To provide for adequate standardisation,

two options (true and false) were offered for each

question from which the students could choose only

one.

The questionnaire was divided into four parts with

a total of 36 questions. Part 1 focused on patient

management especially regarding aspects of verbal

and non-verbal communication (28 questions) whilst

parts 2 and 3 focused on hygiene and ergonomical

aspects (six questions). Part 4 asked about the assess-

ment of practical usefulness of video-based teaching

(two questions).

Formulation of the questions of parts 1, 2 and 3

differentiated between two different levels of evalua-

tion: these levels are referred to as the ‘level of initial

conclusion’ and the ‘level of subsequent changes’.

There were no such differentiations in part 4.

Different formulations of the questions maintaining

the same contents sought to correspond to two

different mental processes based on the same video

sequences. The ‘level of initial conclusions’ sought to

make own behaviour conscious and complemented

internal questions like: How does my behaviour fit

into the picture of ways to behave? Can I be content

with my behaviour? The answers given on that level

assessed one’s own behaviour after having seen

oneself on video and other students on video, thus

clearing the present status of behaviour and providing

a kind of reference line (Table 1).

The ‘level of subsequent changes’ complemented

internal questions like: What do I need to change?

What behaviour patterns (of fellow students) did I like

enough to adopt for myself? The answers given on

that level assessed the changes that occurred after

TABLE 1. Questions of level 1: initial conclusion of behaviourafter video-based teaching

Patient managementMy verbal communication with the patient isgenerally adequateMy non-verbal communication with the patient isgenerally adequateIn general I am able find a good way to the patientIn general I am confident when dealing with a patientBefore watching the videos I have treated patients withdental fearI could handle this situation in an adequate manner

Before watching the videos I have treated patients with painI could handle this situation in an adequate manner

Infection controlMy behaviour concerning appropriate infection controlis generally adequate

ErgonomicsMy postures are generally ergonomically favourable

Behavioural changes in paediatric dentistry

109

having watched various video sequences, thus descri-

bing a new (desired) status (Table 2).

The students were asked to fill in the questionnaire

after the completion of the clinical course of paediatric

dentistry. This was done anonymously on a voluntary

basis. The responses from students repeating the

course were recorded only at first participation. The

data were analysed by using the statistical programme

jmp (13).

Results

The response rate was 100%. However, four students

had to be ruled out for filling in their questionnaires

incompletely. The remainder comprised a total of 113

questionnaires analysed. The percentages given in this

chapter reflect the percentages of questions that have

been answered with ‘true’.

Evaluation of ‘initial conclusions’ and‘subsequent changes’ of personal behaviouralpatternsPatient management

Of the students, 95.6% (n ¼ 108) judged their verbal

behaviour as being satisfactory. However, there was

quite a change concerning this aspect. About two-

thirds thought that they had talked more with the

patient after having watched the video. Of these

66.4% (n ¼ 75), 49 students (65.3%) connected this

fact directly to the video sequences. On the contrary,

only 6.2% (n ¼ 7) had talked less with the patient; a

mere four out of these saw this as a result of the

video (57.1%). A different way of talking with the

patient had been adopted by 52.2% (n ¼ 59). Video

had been the reason for 84.7% (n ¼ 50) of these

students.

As regards non-verbal communication, 97.3%

(n ¼ 110) saw little reason to complain about their

facial play and gesturing. Nevertheless, about half of

the students had changed their non-verbal communi-

cation (44.2%; n ¼ 50) and most of these students

thought this had been due to the video (86.0%;

n ¼ 43).

Almost all students, (99.1%; n ¼ 112) thought that

they had found a good way to approach the patient.

After watching the video sequences an even better

way to the patient had been found by 55.7% (n ¼ 63)

with 54 (85.7%) of these students attributing this to the

video sequences. A similarly high number of students

(91.1%; n ¼ 103) felt confident when dealing with the

patient.

At the end of the course 54.9% (n ¼ 62) of the

students felt even more confident of whom 38 (61.2%)

connected this to the video. Only 12.4% (n ¼ 14) felt

less confident with a mere nine (64.3%) stating that the

video had been responsible for that.

As much as 61.6% (n ¼ 70) had treated patients with

fear of treatment before, of which 62 (83.8%) felt that

they had managed this specific problem well.

Of 52.2% (n ¼ 59) of the student practitioners who

had treated fearful patients after watching video

sequences, 43 (72.9%) stated an improvement in

addressing this fear which was attributed to the video

by 39 of these 43 students (90.7%).

A similar high number (65.5%; n ¼ 74), had had a

patient in pain of which 83.8% (n ¼ 62) thought that

they had done well handling this type of patient.

Of 45.1% (n ¼ 51) who had treated a patient in pain

afterwards, 24 (47.1%) stated an improvement in

dealing with this type of patient. Twenty-one (87.5%)

of these 24 students connected this directly to the

video sequences.

Infection control

Ninety-one percent (n ¼ 103) of the students consid-

ered their behaviour concerning infection control

sufficient. Accordingly few students stated that they

had changed their behaviour regarding sufficient

TABLE 2. Questions of level 2: subsequent changes of behaviourafter video-based teaching

Patient managementI extended my verbal communication with the patient ortried to do soI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

I restricted my verbal communication with the patient ortried to do soI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

I communicated verbally in a different way or tried to do soI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

I changed my non-verbal communication or tried to do soI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

I found a better way to the patient or tried to do soI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

I gained more self-confidence dealing with the patientI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

I lost some self-confidence dealing with the patientI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

After watching the videos I have treated another patientwith dental fearI could handle this situation better than beforeI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

After watching the videos I have treated another patientwith painI could handle this situation better than beforeI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

Infection controlI changed my behaviour concerning appropriate infectioncontrolI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

ErgonomicsI changed my posturesI think that videos have caused this or attributed to this

Kalwitzki

110

hygiene: 12.4% (n ¼ 14). However, 11 of these stu-

dents related this directly to the video (78.6%).

Ergonomics

Only 23.0% (n ¼ 26) of the students estimated their

physical postures as sufficient. Consequently almost

half of the students (42.5%; n ¼ 48) changed their

posture. Forty-three of these 48 students (89.6%) felt

that this was caused by what they had seen on the

video sequences.

Total influence of video confirmed by studentsThe percentages of students who had confirmed

influence by the video sequences no matter if this

had resulted in a change of behaviour or not can be

seen for each question in Table 3. The average

percentage across all topics was 38.9%; however, there

were big differences concerning specific topics. This is

partly reflected by the fact that the percentage of

students who changed their behaviour and related this

change directly to the video sequences was 77.3%,

whilst the percentage of students who did not change

their behaviour and related the maintenance of their

behaviour directly to the video sequences was 8.9%.

Practical usefulness

A high percentage of students (64.6%; n ¼ 73) thought

that watching the video had made it easier for them to

put theoretical knowledge into clinical action. Most of

the students (88.5%; n ¼ 100) stated that they would

adopt positive behavioural patterns or have already

done so.

Gender-specific differencesWhilst in most cases answers given by males and by

females corresponded very well, there were a few

questions where this was not the case. Whilst 72.2%

(n ¼ 39) of the women reported that they talked more

with the patient after having seen the video sequences,

this was true only for 61% (n ¼ 36) of the men. More

female students (70.4%; n ¼ 38) admitted that they

had talked in a different way with the patient, whilst

considerably less of the male students (35.6%; n ¼ 21)

reported such changes. More than half of the women

(55.6%; n ¼ 30) had changed their non-verbal com-

munication or tried to do so, whilst this was the case in

only 33.9% (n ¼ 20) of the men. Consequently almost

all women (90.7%; n ¼ 49) but only 79.7% (n ¼ 47) of

the men reported that they had adopted favourable

behavioural patterns from watching the video. This

ratio changed when asking about self-confidence

when dealing with a patient: Whilst nearly all men

felt confident (96.6%; n ¼ 57), this was reported by TA

BL

E3.

‘Rep

orte

dch

ange

s’re

fer

toth

eto

tal

nu

mbe

rsan

dpe

rcen

tage

sof

stu

den

tsw

hore

port

edbe

havi

oura

lch

ange

s,in

clu

din

gvi

deo-

rela

ted

and

non

-vid

eo-r

elat

edch

ange

s.‘C

han

ges’

show

wha

tn

um

bers

and

perc

enta

ges

ofbe

havi

oura

lch

ange

sha

vebe

enre

late

dto

vide

o.‘T

otal

effe

ctof

vide

o’si

mpl

ysu

ms

up

chan

ges

and

mai

nte

nan

ceof

beha

viou

rth

atha

vebe

enbo

thre

late

dto

vide

o.N

um

bers

inpa

ren

thes

essh

ow95

%co

nfi

den

cein

terv

als

Reportedchanges

Behaviourrelatedto

video

Totaleffectofvideo

Changes

Maintenance

Total

%Total

%Total

%Total

%

Iextendedmyverbalcommunication…

75/113

66.4

(57.7–75.1)

49/75

65.3

(54.5–76.1)

7/38

18.4

(6.1–30.7)

56/113

49.6

(40.4–58.8)

Irestrictedmyverbalcommunication…

7/113

6.2

(1.8–10.6)

4/7

57.1

(20.4–93.8)

8/106

7.6

(2.6–12.6)

12/113

10.6

(4.9–16.3)

Icommunicatedverbally

inadifferentway

59/113

52.2

(43.0–61.4)

50/59

84.7

(75.5–93.9)

3/54

5.6

(0–11.7)

53/113

46.9

(37.7–56.1)

Ichangedmynon-verbalcommunication

50/113

44.2

(35.0–53.4)

43/50

86.0

(76.4–95.6)

5/63

7.9

(1.2–14.6)

48/113

42.5

(33.4–51.6)

Ifoundabetterwayto

thepatient…

63/113

55.8

(46.6–65.0)

54/63

85.7

(77.1–94.3)

2/50

4.0

(0–9.4)

56/113

49.6

(40.4–58.8)

Iwasmore

self-confidentdealingwiththepatient

65/113

57.5

(48.4–66.6)

38/62

61.3

(49.2–73.4)

4/51

7.8

(0.4–15.2)

42/113

37.2

(28.3–46.1)

Iwaslessself-confidentdealingwiththepatient

14/113

12.4

(6.3–18.5)

9/14

64.3

(39.2–89.4)

4/99

4.0

(0.1–7.9)

13/113

11.5

(5.6–17.4)

Icould

handle

asituationwithafearfulpatient

betterthanbefore

43/59

72.3

(60.9–83.7)

39/43

90.7

(82.0–99.4)

1/16

6.3

(0–18.2)

40/59

67.8

(55.9–79.7)

Icould

handle

asituationwithapatientin

pain

betterthanbefore

24/51

47.1

(33.4–60.8)

21/24

87.5

(74.3–100)

5/27

18.5

(3.9–33.1)

26/51

51.0

(37.3–64.7)

Ichangedmybehaviourregardinginfectioncontrol

21/113

18.5

(11.3–25.7)

11/14

78.6

(57.1–100)

10/99

10.1

(4.2–16.0)

21/113

18.6

(11.4–25.8)

Ichangedmypostures

48/113

42.5

(33.4–51.6)

43/48

89.6

(81.0–98.2)

5/65

7.7

(1.2–14.2)

48/113

42.5

(33.4–51.6)

Behavioural changes in paediatric dentistry

111

only 87% (n ¼ 47) of the women. A similar proportion

resulted regarding self-confidence after watching

video sequences: only 50.0% (n ¼ 27) of the women

felt more confident dealing with the patient whilst

almost two-thirds of the men (64.4%; n ¼ 38) reported

benefits.

Discussion

To assess the results in an adequate manner it is

important to realise that it is practically impossible

for students and the supervisors to distinguish

whether the modification of a specific behavioural

pattern occurred due to the effects of the video

sequences or due to more clinical experience gained

within the course. It seems quite probable that these

two options do not exclude each other but form

both part of any change. Apart from that it is quite

clear that students can only report about changes

that they felt to have happened, i.e. changes that

students are conscious about. However, it has been

established in psychological literature that uncons-

cious matters may cause specific patterns or modi-

fications of behaviour (14, 15). As a consequence it

seems possible that the actual affect and the effects

of the video sequences are higher than the results

shown can actually express.

Evaluation of initial conclusions and subsequentchanges of personal behavioural patternsPatient management

A number of studies have documented the advantages

of video for the improvement of interpersonal skills.

Burnard (16) and Minardi and Ritter (17) showed in

different studies with nursing students that videotape

recording enhanced the students’ ability to learn

effective interpersonal skills. Gleber (6) pointed out

that not only knowledge of communication skills but

also behaviour changed significantly in an experimen-

tal group that had been trained with videotapes when

compared with a control group in a group of dental

hygiene students. Our study shows that these mech-

anisms also work on the academic level as students

reported a high rate of change concerning their

communication patterns, thus confirming and extend-

ing the results of previous studies (11, 12). Similar

results stressing especially verbal communication

skills have been found by Crute et al. (18). The high

relevance of video for treating patients with fear and

pain can be explained by the fact that video offers role

models for practice and by getting feedback from

peers and tutors on performances (17).

Only a minority of students reported less confid-

ence saying that the video had been responsible for

the loss of confidence which is proof that there is

only very little adverse effect of video; however, it

should be kept in mind that this risk exists. An

explanation may be that these students may have

found their behaviour inadequate but may not have

been offered adequate alternatives within the video

sequences presented.

Infection control

The use of video to reveal shortcomings in infection

control as well as a means of education in that field

has been already documented (19–22). Whilst Porter

et al. (22) only evaluated shortcomings, Maeda et al.

(20) found that students could actually benefit from

videotapes by pre- and post-assessment tests. In our

study we found that only a low number of students

changed their behaviour of infection control after

having seen videotapes. A reason for this finding may

be that this topic was not stressed when discussing the

videotapes as interpersonal aspects were emphasised

in the discussion. This finding may be substantiated

by the results of Kidd et al. (23) who reported poor

compliance after standardised lecturing and video

alone, whereas individualisation showed better

results.

Ergonomics

Video has also been used for training programmes

ergonomics. Whilst Washington and Parnianpour

(24) taught mechanical concepts, Johnsson et al.

(25) reported a very high acceptance and improve-

ment rate of work postures in a medical setting.

Even without stressing particularly the ergonomical

topic about half of the students in our sample

benefited from the video sequences concerning this

aspect.

A reason for the fact that ergonomical matters

seemed to gather more attention than infection control

may be that the consequences of a wrong posture may

be felt as painful after the clinical work whereas

weaknesses concerning infection control only become

obvious when criticised by the supervisors.

Total influence of video confirmed by studentsand practical usefulnessThe high numbers of students who had related

behavioural changes directly to the video sequences

clearly show that video had played an important

role in most cases. This makes sense as students in a

learning situation are continuously looking for

new ways and alternatives to solve experienced

Kalwitzki

112

problems. As has been described by Minardi and

Ritter (17) video provides a very effective means of

meeting such demands, showing clinical situations

thus transmitting information of high practical rele-

vance.

Gender-specific differencesSeveral studies have shown that women put more

emphasis on non-verbal clues than do men (26) and

are more affected by non-verbal signals (27). Hoffman

(28) showed that interactions between women and

children are based on ‘a higher number of words

spoken’ than interactions between men and children.

Thus, it seems logical to conclude that women, being

more sensitive to verbal and non-verbal communica-

tion patterns, are more likely to change their beha-

viour.

Women seem to be more flexible changing adopting

new behavioural patterns than men are (29) but this

may be due to sheer need as women tend to feel less

confident when dealing with a patient. Apart from

that women seem to gain less confidence from the

videos. Gender-specific differences in the perception

of video may be an explanation. Stress stemming from

use of video (30) in combination with higher stress

levels in women when performing clinical work (31)

actually may have a greater impact on women,

especially as they seem to be more self-critical than

men. Another reason might be found in differences of

self-perception. Psychological studies with mirrors

have shown that these settings may actually demoti-

vate women but not men (32) especially ‘when

negative performance feedback is provided’ (33).

Thus, after a frustrating or unsuccessful treatment

women may be more affected than men and thus

benefit less from the video.

Conclusions

The results of all four classes correspond very well.

The tendencies found in class no. 1 could be confirmed

in class nos 2, 3 and 4. In conclusion, it can be stated

that video has a high impact on behavioural patterns

of undergraduate students for many aspects of clinical

work. Video-related changes occurred especially in

aspects of interpersonal and communicative skills

such as verbal and non-verbal communication

improving the handling of patients with fear or pain.

More research in this field could address topics like an

objective assessment of actual shifts of behaviour and

patients’ impressions about changes in the behaviour

of the practitioner.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Dr Detlef Axmann,

Department of Prosthodontics, and Carmen Buckley,

Department of Conservative Dentistry, both from the

University of Tubingen for revising the manuscript.

The installation of the video equipment was made

possible through sponsorship of the ‘Tubinger Profil’

fund for innovative teaching.

References

1. Boitel AE. Chirurgische Endodontie- Bericht uber denvideounterstutzten praktischen Operationskurs ‘Chir-urgische Endodontie’ vom 11. November 1994 in Zurich(Surgical endodontics. A report on the video-supportedpractical operating course on surgical endodontics of 11November 1994 in Zurich). Schweiz Monatsschr Zahn-med 1995: 105: 403–405.

2. Chen MS, Horrocks EN, Evans RD. Video versus lecture:effective alternatives for orthodontic auxiliary training.Br J Orthod 1998: 25: 191–195.

3. Ott KH. }Uber den Einsatz audiovisueller Medien imPhantomkurs der Zahnerhaltungskunde (The use ofaudio-visual media in the phantom course of restorativedentistry). Dtsch Zahnaerztl Z 1980: 35: 819–822.

4. Robinson PB, Lee JW. The use of real time videomagnification for the pre-clinical teaching of crownpreparations. Br Dent J 2001: 190: 506–510.

5. Suvinen TI, Messer LB, Franco E. Clinical simulation inteaching preclinical dentistry. Eur J Dent Educ 1998: 2:25–32.

6. Gleber JM. Interpersonal communications skills for den-tal hygiene students: a pilot training program. J Dent Hyg1995: 69: 19–30.

7. Wepman BJ. Communication skills training for dentalstudents. J Dent Educ 1977: 41: 633–634.

8. Holst A, Ek L. Effect of systemized ‘behavior shaping’ onacceptance of dental treatment in children. CommunityDent Oral Epidemiol 1988: 16: 349–355.

9. Friis-Hasche E, Kirkegaard E. Danish pediatric dentaleducation. In: Friis-Hasche E, ed. Child oral health care inDenmark. Copenhagen: University Press, 1994: 50–57.

10. Magri F, Schneller T. Psychologische Maßnahmen in derZahnmedizin. In: Basler HD, Florin I, eds. KlinischePsychologie und korperliche Krankheit. Stuttgart: WKohlhammer, 1985: 248–266.

11. Kalwitzki M. Acceptance of psychological teaching inpaediatric dentistry by undergraduate dental students.Eur J Dent Educ 1997: 1: 13–17.

12. Kalwitzki M, Rosendahl R, Gottle R, Weiger R. Accept-ance of video-based teaching in paediatric dentistry byundergraduate dental students. Eur J Dent Educ 2003: 7:66–71.

13. SAS Institute Inc. jmp. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc., 1995.14. Kunde W, Kiesel A, Hoffmann J. Conscious control over

the content of unconscious cognition. Cog 2003: 88: 223–242.

15. Vollmer F. The control of everyday behaviour. Theory &Psychol 2001: 11: 637–654.

16. Burnard P. Using video as a reflective tool in interper-sonal skills training. Nurse Educ Today 1991: 11: 143–146.

Behavioural changes in paediatric dentistry

113

17. Minardi HA, Ritter S. Recording skills on videotape canenhance learning- a comparative study between nurselecturers and nursing students. J Adv Nurs 1999: 26:1318–1325.

18. Crute VC, Hargie OD, Ellis RA. An evaluation of acommunication skills course for health visitor students.J Adv Nurs 1989: 14: 546–552.

19. Lewis DA, Brain G, Cushing AM, Hall A, ZakrzewskaJM. Description and evaluation of an education andcommunication skills training course in HIV and AIDSfor dental consultants. Eur J Dent Educ 2000: 4: 65–70.

20. Maeda Y, Mitta K, Ishii K, Nokubi T. A multimediasystem for infection control education. J Osaka Univ DentSch 1994: 34: 3429–3435.

21. Nishimura S, KagehiraM, Kono F, NishimuraM, TaenakaN. Handwashing before entering the intensive care unit:what we learned from continuous video-camera surveil-lance. Am J Infect Control 1999: 27: 367–369.

22. Porter SR, El-Maaytah M, Alfonso W, Scully C, Leung T.Cross-infection compliance of UK dental staff andstudents. Oral Dis 1995: 1: 198–200.

23. Kidd F, Heitkemper P, Kressel AB. A comprehensiveeducational approach to improving patient isolationpractice. Clin Perform Qual Health Care 1999: 7: 74–76.

24. Washington N, Parnianpour M. Using CIA to accommo-date a variety of learning styles in a biomechanics course.Biomed Sci Instr 1997: 33: 41–46.

25. Johnsson C, Carlsson R, Lagerstrom M. Evaluation inpatient handling and moving skills among hospital andhome care. Ergonomics 2002: 45: 850–865.

26. Kette GU, Konecni VJ. Communication channels andgender differences in decoding and integration of cues inlegal decision making. In: Davies G, Lloyd-Bostock S,eds. Psychology, law and criminal justice: internationaldevelopments in research and practice. Oxford, UK:Walter de Gruyter, 1995: 314–326.

27. Argyle M. The communication of inferiority and superi-ority attitudes by means of verbal and nonverbal signals.Bull Psychol 1969–1970: 23: 540–548.

28. Hoffman CD. A comparison of adult males’ and females’interactions with girls and boys. Sex Roles 1984: 11: 799–811.

29. Abraham JD, Hansson RO. Gender differences in theusefulness of goal-directed coping for middle-aged andolder workers. J Appl Soc Psychol 1996: 26: 657–669.

30. Raborn GW, Plecash JE. The use of videotape in thetreatment planning seminar. J Dent Educ 1986: 50: 187–189.

31. Peretz B, Rosenblum A, Zadik D. Stress levels and relatedvariables among dental students in Jerusalem, Israel. EurJ Dent Educ 1997: 1: 162–166.

32. Katula JA, McAuley E, Mihalko SL. Mirror, mirror on thewall…exercise environment influences on self-efficacy.J Soc Behav Pers 1998: 13: 319–333.

33. Feijfar MC, Hoyle RH. Effect of private self-awarenesson negative affect and self-referent attribution: aquantitative review. Pers Soc Psychol Rev 2000: 4:132–143.

Address:

Dr Matthias Kalwitzki

Department of Orthodontics

Faculty of Dentistry

University of Tubingen

Osianderstr. 2–8

72076 Tubingen

Germany

Tel: +49 7071/2985788

Fax: +49 7071/293488

e-mail: matthias.kalwitzki@med.uni-tuebingen.de

Kalwitzki

114