Self-Preservationatthe

CenterofPersonality

SuperegoandEgoIdealinthe

RegulationofSafety

Ralf-PeterBehrendt

VernonSeriesinCognitiveScienceand

Psychology

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Inmemoryofmymother,

AmandaBehrendt,

1939-2016

TableofContents

Introduction

Chapter1Compliance1.1ConditionalityofParentalLove

1.2SubordinationtoaLeader

1.3Superego

1.4ConflictandSelf-Contempt

1.5PersonaandSelf-Definition

1.6PerfectionismandObsessionality

1.7Summary

Chapter2ExhibitionismandAmbition2.1EgoIdeal

2.2StrivingforSuperiority

2.3CharacterologicalDefenses

2.4VanityandSelf-Aggrandizement

2.5AffectiveManifestations

2.6Summary

Chapter3AssertivenessandAggressiveControl

3.1LossandAmbivalence

3.2JealousyandEnvy

3.3RighteousnessandSenseofEntitlement

3.4VindictivenessandManipulativeness

3.5PassiveAggressiveness

3.6Reparation

3.7Summary

Chapter4DisplayofHelplessnessandAppealtoPity

4.1PersistenceofInfantileDependency

4.2RegressiontoInfantileDependency

4.3IllnessBehavior

4.4GuiltandSelf-Punishment

4.5Masochism

4.6Depression

4.7Summary

Chapter5Detachment5.1Omnipotence

5.2HiddenGrandiosity5.3GrandioseFantasy

5.4FaithinGodandBeliefinFate

5.5SchizoidPersonalityDisorder

5.6Psychosis

5.7Summary

Chapter6IdealizationandIdentification6.1IdentificationinObjectRelationships

6.2IdentificationwiththeGrouporLeader

6.3IdentificationwithGod

6.4Infatuation

6.5Summary

Conclusions

References

Index

Introduction

Heinz

Kohut(1971,1977)developedselfpsychology,abranch

ofpsychoanalytictheory,inrecognitionofthe

centralroleofself-esteemandself-cohesioninthe

functioningofthepersonality.Kohutdidnotexpand

ontheresonancesinhistheorywiththeworksof

AlfredAdler,PaulFedern,KarenHorney,andJoseph

Sandler;butneitherdidSandlerhighlightthe

contributionsofHorneyandFedern,orHorneythoseof

AdlerandFedern,yettheirtheoriesarehighly

compatibleandcomplementeachother.The‘principle

ofself-preservation’,advancedbyselfpsychologyas

thefundamentalprincipleunderlyingsocialbehavior

andpersonalityorganization,stipulatesthatthe

subjectmustmaintainhistiestohisselfobject

surroundifheistopreservetheintegrityofhis

self(Stolorow,1983;Brandchaft,1985).Inother

words,thepersonalityisorganizedaroundtheneed

forapproval(Flugel,1945),specifically,andthe

needforsafety(Sandler,1960a),moregenerally.This

imperativecanbeinconflictwithotherdemands,

internal(‘instinctual’)orexternal.All

psychologicalconflictsareultimatelyconcernedwith

thepreservationoftheintegrity(cohesion)ofthe

self(Stolorow,1985).Egodefenses,thefocusof

classicalpsychoanalysis,are‘egofunctions’

(Hartmann)thatservethepreservationoftheself

(ego),thatis,thesubject’ssenseofconnectedness

totheselfobjectsurround(andhencehisfeelingof

safety[Sandler]).Egodefenses(defensemechanisms)

resolveconflictsbetweentheneedforsafetyand

‘instinctualdrives’(driveimpulses).Driveimpulses

arouseanxiety(andhenceareconsciouslyintolerable)

insofarastheresultingbehaviorwouldbesocially

inacceptable(andinvitedisapproval)andwouldthus

threatenthenarcissistichomeostasisandintegrityof

theself.Theselfis‘narcissisticallycathected’

(Hartmann,1964;Jacobson,1964),meaningthatitis

constituted,andmaintainedinitscohesiveness

(Kohut),byothers’approvingattitudestowardoneself

andbyothers’recognitionandacceptanceofoneself,

attitudesthatareinducedandhavetobemaintained

byoneselfthroughemploymentofwhatcanbecalled

‘narcissisticbehaviors’(proximallyconcernedwith

othersbutultimatelywithoneselfandone’ssafety).

‘Self’and‘ego’aretreatedsynonymouslyinthis

book,inkeepingwithFreud’searlierworkandalso

withFedern(sothat,forthemostpart,‘ego’hereis

nottobetakenaspartofthe‘mentalapparatus’,

developedbythelaterFreud,andnotasan

unconsciousstructurethatisdefined,accordingto

Hartmann,byitsfunctions).

Freud

(1914)recognizedmorethanacenturyagothat

narcissismandtheregulationofself-regardareat

theserviceofself-preservation,aninsightof

fundamentalimportanceforsocialpsychologyand

personalitytheory,yetthelineoftheoretical

developmentthroughAdler,Federn,Horney,andSandler

toKohutisasparselyconnectedand

underappreciatedone.Self-regardorself-esteem,

beingregulatedby‘narcissisticobjectchoice’

(Freud,1914)(theuseofobjectsasselfobjects,i.e.

fornarcissisticpurposes)andbybehaviorstrategies

aimedatenhancingone’sworthandapprovabilityin

theeyesofothers,referstoone’s“confident

convictionofbeinglovable”(Storr,1968,p.77),

one’simplicitknowledgeofbeingacceptabletoothers

andsafelyembeddedinthesocialmilieu.Whatthis

meansisthatoneisprotectedagainsttheaggressive

potentialitiesofothers.Theneedforapprovaland

recognition(Flugel,1945),forthepurposeof

upholdingself-esteem,isequivalenttothestriving

forcoherenceoftheself(Kohut)andtheneedto

maintainthefeelingofsafety(Sandler),allofwhich

canberegardedasdirectexpressionsofour

evolutionarilyancientneedforprotectionagainst

intraspecificaggression(KonradLorenz),againstthe

riskofvictimization,expulsion,andannihilationby

ourfellowhumanbeings(whereby‘paranoidanxiety’

[MelanieKlein]istheawarenessofthisrisk).

Protectionagainstintraspecificaggressionis

principallyachievedbyappeasementorsubordination

ofothersandbybindingthemintoamutually

aggression-inhibitingcontext.Safetyisalsofelt

whennarcissisticsuppliesarereceivedorreadily

available.

Developmentally,thefirstcontextwithinwhichsafety

isexperiencedisthemother-infantrelationship(the

primarynarcissisticfusionwiththemother).Self-

esteemissimilarlybasedontheinfant’searliest

experienceofhismother,namelytheexperienceof

receiving“sufficientlovingcare”(Storr,1968,p.

77).Themother-infantrelationshipisnotonlythe

firstaggression-inhibitingcontextbutalsothe

templateforalllaterrelationships(asappreciated

bypsychoanalysisingeneral).Itisfromthecontext

of‘trueparentalcare’(involvingthefeedingand

groomingofoffspringinexchangeforinfantilecare-

seekingbehaviors)(Eibl-Eibesfeldt,1970)that

variousbehaviorpatternsevolvedthatservedthe

inhibitionofintraspecificaggressioninincreasingly

complexsocialformations.

Humans

are,firstandforemost,object-seeking(ratherthan

pleasure-seeking)beings,asemphasizedbyFairbairn

(1952).Theprimaryaimofthepersonisnotlibidinal

pleasure,asFreudhadproposedandearly

psychoanalystshadmaintained,buttoestablish

satisfactoryrelationshipswithobjects,relationships

thatprovideandrecreatethecontextofsecurity.

Object-relationstheoryemphasizesourdependenceon

objects(Klein,1940,1946;Faribairn,1952).Self

psychologyelucidatesthenatureofthisdependence,

attributingtoobjects‘selfobject’functions,that

is,theabilitytoactassourcesofnarcissistic

supplies(approval,recognition,acceptance),thereby

maintainingtheindividual’snarcissisticbalance

(self-esteem,integrityoftheself)(Kohut).Itis

importanttoemphasizethatselfobjectsaremerely

objects(significantothers),butthroughthemthe

selfisconstitutedandmaintainedinitscohesiveness

(bywayofmirroring).JoffeandSandler(1965)

formulatedthisinsightthus:theobjectis“avehicle

fortheattainmentoftheidealstateofwellbeing”

(safety),it“isultimatelythemeanswherebya

desiredstateoftheselfmaybeattained”(p.158).

Wellbeingorsafetyresultsfromsocialrecognition

andapproval,thatis,fromnarcissisticsuppliesor

theiravailability(Joffe&Sandler,1968,p.231).

Thefeelingofsafetyisthedevelopmentalextension

oftheinfant’s“awarenessofbeingprotected…bythe

reassuringpresenceofthemother”;it“developsfrom

anintegralpartofprimarynarcissisticexperience”

(Sandler,1960a,p.4).Primarynarcissism,as

implicatedintheearliestrelationshipbetweenmother

andinfant,givesrisetosecondarynarcissism,that

is,theregulationofself-regardbyrelatingto

(externalorinternal)objects(Freud,1914).Primary

narcissismwassuggestedbySandlerandSandler(1978)

tobetheoriginofthesenseofsafetyorwellbeing,

whichtheindividualattemptstoregainthroughout

lifebywayofrelatingtoobjects.Itisthe

developmentaldeparturefromprimarynarcissismthat

givesrisetoongoingefforts,throughoutlife,to

reexperiencefeelingsofsafetybyrelatingtoobjects

inawaythatrecapitulatesaspectsoftheearlyand

earliestrelationshipwiththemother(Sandler&

Sandler,1978).Theneedforapprovalfromthoseabout

us,“forthefeelingthatweareacceptedbysociety”,

is“acontinuationintoadolescentandadultlifeof

theyoungchild’sneedfortheapprovalofhis

parents,whiletheanxietyanddespondencycausedby

thesenseofbeingoutcastsfromsocietycorresponds

similarlytotheinfant’sdistressatlosingtheir

loveandsupport”(Flugel,1945,pp.55-56).

Klein’s

conceptof‘depressiveanxiety’(afeatureofthe

‘depressiveposition’

ofinfantiledevelopment)referstotheinfant’s

insightintohisdependence,forsurvival,onthe

maternalobject(and,later,theadult’sdependenceon

aderivativeoftheprimaryobject).Bycontrast,

anxietyassociatedwiththe‘paranoid-schizoid

position’ofinfantiledevelopment(reemerginglater

inlifeasaresultoffailureinearlylifeto

‘repair’internalobjects,onwhomtheinfantand

latertheadultdepends)(Klein,1940,1946)relates

tothepotentialofaggressionfrom(persecutionby)

conspecificsandconsequentialannihilation(including

thepossibilityofaggressionfromthemother).Lack

ofcloserelationshipsinearlylife(andfailurein

childhoodtoformsecureinternalobjects,equivalent

tofailuretoformasecureself)rendersthe

individualliabletoregresstotheparanoid-schizoid

position,inwhichfearsofpersecutionand

annihilationarereawakenedandconfirmed(Klein,

1940).Insecurity(lackofsecurelyestablished

internalobjects)bringsbacktothesurfaceparanoid

anxietyandtheneedtomonitorsuspiciouslytheworld

ofexternalobjects(Klein,1940).Thedangertowhich

primitivehumanswouldhavebeenexposedearlyonin

hominoidevolutionwasthatofpersecutionand

annihilationbytheprimalgroup;anditistodeal

withthispossibilityandindefenseagainstthisfear

thatwehavetodrawonsecurelyestablishedinternal

objectsandactivateselfobjectfunctionsofexternal

objects,objectsthatensureourself-preservationby

supplyinguswithnarcissisticnourishmentorhaving

thesesuppliesavailableforus(andtherebysignaling

tousthattheiraggressionisinhibited).

Developmentally,theroleofthemotheristakenover

bytheleaderofthegroup;theinternal

representativeofthemother(thesuperego)is

projectedontotheleaderbyeachmemberofthegroup.

Notonlytheleader,thegroupasawholerelatesto

theindividualmemberinmuchthesamewayasthe

motherrelatestotheinfant(Scheidlinger,1964,

1968);andtheindividual’sfearsofthegroupand

needforprotectionfromthegroup(dependenceonthe

group)mirrortheinfant’sbasicattitudestowardthe

mother,asdescribedbyKlein.

Anxiety arises “out of loss of narcissistic

supplies” (p. 136), implying loss of

connectedness to others and “loss of help and

protection”(Fenichel,1946,p.44).

Anxiety,“themostextremedegreeofwhichisa

feelingofannihilation”

(p.134),“meansalsoalossofself-esteem”

(Fenichel,1946,p.44).

Anxietyisthe‘polaropposite’ofthefeelingof

safety(Sandler)implicitinone’sconnectednessto

andacceptancebythegrouporleader.Anxietyisan

awarenessofthebasichostilityofthegroupandof

thedangerofbeingattacked.‘Basicanxiety’(‘basic

thedangerofbeingattacked.‘Basicanxiety’(‘basic

insecurity’)is“afeelingofhelplessnesstowarda

potentiallyhostileworld”(pp.

74-75),“abasicfeelingofhelplessnesstowarda

worldconceivedaspotentiallydangerous”(Horney,

1939,p.173).Inastateofbasicanxiety,the

environmentisfeltasamenace,“theenvironmentis

dreadedasawhole”(Horney,1939,p.75).Basic

anxietyisafeelingof“impendingpunishment,

retaliation,desertion”(Horney,1937,p.235).

Thedangerfortheindividualconsists,inpart,in

thepossibilityofbeingobliterated(Horney,1939,p.

75),thatis,beingannihilatedbyconspecificsorthe

groupasawhole.Basicanxiety,arisingwhen“one

feelsfundamentallyhelplesstowardaworldwhichis

invariablymenacingandhostile”(Horney,1937,p.

106),motivatesthepursuitofreassurance,approval,

andlove(i.e.,narcissisticsustenance).Receiving

others’reassurance,approval,oraffectionserves“as

apowerfulprotectionagainstanxiety”(p.96).In

solicitingothers’approvaloraffection,weinhibit

theirinnatehostilitytowardusandcounteractour

senseofbeinghelplesslyexposedtoamenacingworld.

Horney(1937)spokeof“thedilemmaoffeelingatonce

basicallyhostiletowardpeopleandnevertheless

wantingtheiraffection”(p.111),adilemmathatis

experiencedmostvividlybyneuroticpersonsaswell

aspatientswithschizophrenia(Laing,1960).

Wilhelm

Reich(1928,1929)wasperhapsthefirsttoarticulate

thataperson’scharacterisa‘narcissistic

protectionmechanism’,amechanismthatprotects

againstdangersemanatingfromaninherentlydangerous

outerworld.Indeed,theseekingofapositionof

safety,apositionwhereinothers’acceptance,

approval,orloveareforthcomingoravailable,isthe

operatingprincipleofthepersonality.Thereare

differentstrategies,featuringindifferent

personalitytypes,ofrecreatingtheinfant’s

experienceofbeinginthefocusofthemother’s

lovingandcaringattention,ofrecreatingastatein

whichacceptancebythemotherwasfelttobe

unwaveringandunquestionable.Narcissisticneeds,

arisingoncetheinfantrecognizeshisseparateness

fromthemother(andentersthestageofsecondary

narcissism),“compelthechildtoaskforaffection”,

wherebythechildmaysolicitandprocureessential

narcissisticsuppliesbywayofexhibitionistic

behaviorsor“byforce”;orhemayseektoattainthem

“bysubmissivenessanddemonstrationofsuffering”

(Fenichel,1946,p.41).Thereis,throughoutlife,a

strivingtoreenactaspectsofearlyandtheearliest

objectrelationships,sothat“agreatdealoflifeis

involvedintheconcealedrepetitionofearlyobject

relationships”andreenactmentofrelationship

patternsthathavefromthefirstyearsoflife

operatedas‘safety-givingoranxiety-reducing

maneuvers’(Sandler&Sandler,1978).Throughoutlife,

theindividualisdisposedtoemployoneoranother

modeofgeneratingsafety,submissionbeingonethem,

controlanother,exhibitionismyetanother.Theaimof

predominantlyexhibitionisticpatternsofrelating,

notjusttoanotherindividualbutalsotothegroup

oranorganization,istodisplayanapprovableself

andtotherebyattractnarcissisticsustenance

(positiveattentionintheformofapproval).

Submissivenessandforcefulcontrolaremethodsof

generatingandmaintainingacontextinwhichcare-

giving(narcissisticallynourishing)signalscanbe

receivedfromderivativesofthematernalobject;they

aremethodsofcontrollingtheresponsivenessand

availabilityofsuchderivatives.Personalitiesdiffer

withregardtotheextenttowhichthesemethodsare

wovenintotheirhabitualpatternsofsocialbehavior.

Throughtheexerciseofpowerover

others,generallyinvolvingasublimatedor

neutralizedformofaggression,the‘purposeofthe

self’(Horney),whichistomaintainorestablish

connectedness(tothesocialsurround)andtherebyto

minimizebasicanxiety,canbeserved.Controlover

theothermayinvolvethethreatofabandonment.One

inducesfearofabandonmentinanother,sothatone

doesnothavetofaceabandonmentoneself.Making

oneselfindispensibletoacommonpursuitoran

organization(onwhichthesafetyofeachmember

depends)isarelatedmethodofattainingaposition

ofsafety.

Compliance,beingaderivativeofevolutionarilyolder

submissivebehavioremployedinagonisticencounters

(withconspecifics),inhibitsintraspecificaggression

andtherebygeneratesacontextofsafety,thecontext

inwhichtheselfcanexpressitsneedsforaffection

andplayfulness.

Developmentally,complianceemergesinthemother-

infantcontextforthepurposeofupholdinginhibition

ofmaternalaggression.Noncompliancedisinhibits

maternalaggressionand,laterindevelopment,thatof

thesuperegoorofexternalrepresentativesofthe

superego.Compliancewithinternal(superego)and

externalstandardsflowsintomanymodesofrelating

tothesocialsurroundonvariouslevels,modesthat

involveappeasementofthesuperegoorsuperego

projectionssoastoenablethesolicitationof

narcissisticnourishmentfromthem.Thedisplayof

helplessnessisanotherstrategyforovercoming

anxietyandstrengtheningtheself.Basicanxiety

“concurswithafeelingofintrinsicweaknessofthe

self”;andthisweaknessgivesriseto“adesireto

putallresponsibilityuponothers,tobeprotected

andtakencareof”(Horney,1937,p.96).Theexample

of‘regression’toapositionofhelplessnessand

greaterdependencyalsoillustratestheprinciplethat

safety-seekingmodesofbehaviorbecomestabilizedin

particularenvironmentalorculturalcontexts.Not

justregression,everymodeofsocialbehavioris

aboutrecreatingconditionsunderwhichthemother’s

careandlovewerereliablyavailable,wherebythe

attainmentofapositionofsafetyinthiswaycan

occurondifferentlevelsofsocialcomplexity,

importantlywithgreaterorlesserreferencetothe

widersocialandculturalcontext.Horneysawinbasic

anxietyapowerfulmotivatorforsocialbehaviorand

organizerofthepersonality,butshedidnotfully

appreciatethefactthatpatternsofsocialbehavior

areinessencepatternsofunconsciouslyrelatingto

themotherandseekingthesafetyinherentinthe

earliestrelationship.Horney(1937)discerned“four

principlewaysinwhichapersontriestoprotect

himselfagainstthebasicanxiety:affection,

submissiveness,power,withdrawal”(p.96).Thesefour

principleways,troughwhichbasicanxietyiskeptat

aminimum,lieattheheartofdifferenttypesof

personalitystructure.Intheneuroticpersonality,

these“movestoward,against,andawayfromothers

becamecompulsive”(Horney,1950,p.366).

Thesuperego

isanintrojectedsourceofapprovalanddisapproval,

andassuchwould“takeoverthefunctionsofparents

orothermoralauthorities”,but“wecannever–at

anyratewithintherangeofnormalmentallife–

becomeentirelyindependentoftheapprovalor

disapprovalofoursocialenvironment”(Flugel,1945,

p.55).Narcissisticnourishment,intheformof

approvalorpraise,canbeattainedfromthesuperego

orfromexternalsuperegoprojectsonconditionof

compliance.Attainmentofapprovalorpraisefromthe

superego(frominternallyimaginedorexternally

projectedversionsofthesuperego)involves

projectedversionsofthesuperego)involves

preparationfororperformanceofculturallydefined

socialacts,includingculturalandreligiousrituals,

andaspirationtoorfulfillmentofvaluedsocial

roles,sothatbothexhibitionismandcomplianceare

broughttobear.

Thesuperegoisreadilyprojectedontoexternal

authorityfiguresoradoptstheformofinternal

imagesofsignificantothers.Godanddistant

ideologicalleadersaretheclearestexamplesof

superegoprojectionsintotherealmofimagery.God

providesthemoststrikingevidencefortheexistence

ofthesuperego.Religiousandothercultural

processesinsocietyarefoundeduponanunceasingand

sometimesincreasingneedtoreexperiencethesafety

thatwasonceprovidedbythemother,wherebyboththe

needforsafetyandtheenduringroleofthemother

remainunconscious.Ascounterparttotheexternally

projectedsuperego,thereistheexperientialselfor

‘ego’(inFreud’soriginalsenseoftheterm,andin

thesenseFederncontinuedtouseit),whichcaptures

thefeedback(mirroringresponses)wereceiveforour

displaysofcomplianceandforoursituationally

appropriateexhibitionisticorambitiousactions.

Thereisalsotheselfthatfeaturesbrieflyand

indistinctlyinourimagination,whichencapsulates

ourexpectationofnarcissisticsustenancefromthe

socialmilieuatlarge(beinganabstractsuperego

projection).Thelatterselfismorecloselyrelated

to(oramanifestationof)theegoideal(andalso

relatedtotheidealself[Sandler]oridealizedself-

image[Horney]).Thisimaginaryselfincentivizes

goal-directedbehavior;itaidsourreality-oriented

strivingforacceptancebyoneofthedevelopmental

derivativesofthemother(orbyaprojectionofthe

superego),tobeacceptedandbethuseligibleto

receivecareandaffection.Theimaginedselfcan

howeveralsobeemployeddefensivelyinstatesof

detachment.Wemaybedrawntostatesof

introspection,statesinwhichweimagineourselfand

theworldasitrelatestous(toourself)andin

whichwebolsterourselfinordertoovercome

paranoidanxiety,thefearofbeingdeprivedof

others’recognitionandacceptanceandbeingexpelled

fromthegrouporannihilated.Totheextentthat

socialroleshavebecomeimpreciseandfluidand

relationshipshavebecomefragile,theselfhastobe

shapedordefinedinternallyforthepurposeof

pleasingthesuperego,whichthenoperatesasa

substituteforastableexternalpointofreference.

Weinspectandshapeourselfforonepurpose,thatof

becomingacceptabletothesuperegooroneofits

projections.Neithertheexperientialselfnorthe

self-image(relatedto‘egoideal’)existsinitself.

Theselfisalwaysbound(inadipole)tothe

superego,toanexternalderivativeoftheprimary

object,ortooneoranothergroup;theselfrelates

to(andisstructuredby)thesuperegooraprojection

ofthesuperego.

Selfpsychology

suggeststhatastablerepresentationoftheself

signifiesstableconnectednesstotheselfobject

milieu;anditentailsasenseofworthwhileness,that

is,anexpectationthatapprovingorcomforting

responseswillbeforthcoming,eitherfromthe

selfobjectmilieuitselforfrominternalself-esteem-

regulatingstructures(essentiallythesuperego).The

selfofthechildis,atfirst,precariously

establishedand“dependsforthemaintenanceofits

cohesiononthenear-perfectempathicresponsesofthe

selfobject”(Kohut,1977,p.91).Thechildphase-

appropriately“demandsperfectempathy”and“total

controlovertheselfobject’sresponses”(p.91).A

faulty,nonempathicresponseoftheselfobjectcauses

thechildtorespondwithanxietyorrage.

‘Optimalfrustrations’compelthechildtointernalize

aspectsofhisselfobjects(Kohut,1971,1977).Ina

processcalled‘transmutinginternalization’,

narcissisticexpectationsarewithdrawnfrom

selfobjectsandtransferredtoinnerstructuresthat

performmirroring(soothingandcomforting)functions

fortheself(Kohut,1971,1977);capacitiesthat

developforempatheticself-observationandself-

understandinghelpthechildtomaintainself-cohesion

andself-esteemattimesofunresponsivenessof

selfobjects(Stolorow,1983).Nevertheless,ourneed

forselfobjectsisenduring.Thechild’s“archaic

needsfortheresponsesofarchaicselfobjects”(p.

77),forperfectmirroringandmergerresponses,

developsintoan“empathicintunenessbetweenselfand

selfobjectonmatureadultlevels”(p.66)andan

“abilitytoidentifyandseekoutappropriate

selfobjects”thatpresentthemselvesintheperson’s

‘realisticsurroundings’(Kohut,1984,p.77).

Throughoutlife,weseekoutavailablemature

selfobjectsinoursocialsurround,inorderto

establishempathicallyresonantrelationshipswith

them.Althoughourselfobjectexperiencesmature,“the

archaicselfobjectcontinuestoexistinthedepthof

ourpsyche;itreverberatesasanexperiential

undertoneeverytimewefeelsustainedbythe

wholesomeeffectofamatureselfobject”(Kohut,1983,

p.398).Thisarchaicselfobjectinthedepthofour

psycheisnothingotherthanthesuperego.

Wedepartfromthe

assumptionthattheexternalworld,asweperceiveit,

isinafundamentalsenseequivalenttothe

consciouslyexperiencedinnerworld.

Weshallregardthesuperegoasaconsciousphenomenon

thatbelongstotherealmofimagery,existingonthe

marginsofconsciousnesswhenthesocialworldis

thoughtabout.Ourconsciousexperienceofthe

externalsocialworldis,toasubstantialextent,an

externalversion,or‘projection’ofthesuperego.The

mostvaryingsocialconfigurations,includingthe

cohesivegroup,representexternalreplicasofthe

superegoandthusoftheprimaryobject.Wewillnot

inthisbookfocusonthesuperegoasanunconscious

structure,althoughboththesuperego(asanaspectof

imaginaryconsciousness)andthefeaturesand

compositionoftheexternalsocialworld(structured

inpartasaprojectionofthesuperego)canbe

readilyregardedasinstantiationsofanunconscious

representationthatcanalsobecalled‘superego’.

Likewise,weshallreasserttheequivalenceofegoand

self,regardingbothasphenomenanotonlytaking

shapeinimagerybutimportantlyexistingonthe

marginsoftheconsciouslyexperiencedexternalsocial

world(whilstacknowledgingthattherewouldbean

unconsciousrepresentationthatsupportssuchself-

experience).Thiswillallowus,throughour

discussionsofpsychicprocesses,toarriveata

relativelysimplemodelofthepersonality.The

experientialselforegoisthedistillateof

simultaneouslyexperiencedaspectsoftheexternal

socialworldthatrelatetooneself.Theexperiential

self,belongingtosocial‘reality’,wouldcorrespond

totheimaginaryself,foundintherealmoffantasy.

Thisimaginaryselfistheegoidealandserves

anticipatory(andguiding)functions.Attheendof

thebook,wewillrealizethefullbenefitoftreating

theegoidealasaformofself-imagery,asthe

imaginaryequivalentoftheexperientialself.Sandler

etal.(1963),inviewofthewidelyaccepted

unconsciousconceptualizationoftheegoideal,felt

theneedtointroducetheterm‘idealself’,asthe

consciousequivalentoftheegoideal(muchas

Hartmannhadfelttheneedtodefineaconsciousself

incontradistinctiontotheunconsciousego).While

Sandleretal.(1963)discriminatedbetweenegoideal

andidealself,weshalltreategoidealandideal

selfheresynonymously,consistentwiththeequation

ofegowithself(andthereturntothespiritofthe

earlierFreudandtheviewsofFedernthereafter)

(whilenotdenyingthattherewillbeneurally

embeddedrepresentationsthatgiverisetooneor

anothersetofconsciousphenomena,eitherin

externalizedconsciousnessorinimagery).Iftheego

idealweretoberegardedasaconsciousphenomenon

(albeitanindistinctandfleetingone),thenthe

variousformsofself-imageryimplicatedinpsychic

processes(byHorneyandAdler,inparticular)canbe

unifiedwithmuchofwhatisknownabouttheegoideal

andalsocanbeunderstoodmoreclearlyintheir

relationshiptotheego(self)andsuperego.

Regarding

thestructureofthebook,insightsgainedby

authoritiesrepresentingdifferentstrandsof

psychoanalyticthinkingwillbepresentedselectively

andplacedsidebyside,soastoallowthe

illustrationofcommonandunitingthemes.Theaimis

nottocriticallydiscusspsychoanalyticschoolsor

considerthewayinwhichtheyhavebecomesomewhat

fragmentedoreveninsulatedfromeachother.Rather

diversepsychoanalyticmaterialisreviewedfroma

commonperspective,thatwhichaffordscentralityto

theprincipleofself-preservation,therebybringing

intofocuscoreprocessesinthepersonalitythathave

longbeenforeseenbutthathavebeeninsufficiently

emphasizedandescapedfullappreciationinthemist

ofterminologicalandconceptualdifferencesthat

surroundspsychoanalytictheoryatlarge.In

particular,thecompatibilityofselfpsychology

(Kohut,Stolorow,Wolf,andothers)withother

branchesofpsychoanalytictheoryandthepresenceof

self-psychologicalinsightsintheworksofearlier

andcontemporaneoustheoreticians(Adler,Arieti,

Bergler,Bion,Erikson,Fairbairn,Fenichel,Flugel,

Freud,Greenson,Hartmann,Horney,Kernberg,Klein,

Laing,Mahler,Money-Kyrle,Nunberg,Rado,Reich,

Redl,Riviere,Rothstein,Sandler,Schecter,

Scheidlinger,Schilder,Winnicott,andothers)willbe

shown.ThesubsequentChapters,eachdealingwitha

particularsafetystrategy,concludewithbrief

Summarysections;andanoverallsynthesisisoffered

intheConclusions.Itisperhapsbestrecommended

thattheparagraphsandsectionsintheseChaptersare

readoneatatimeandrepeatedly,soastoallowthem

tounfoldtheireffectandconveytheirmessage.

Assertivenessand

AggressiveControl

The child’s healthy exhibitionism is

complementedbyhealthyassertivenessvis-à-vis

mirroring selfobjects. Aggression, as Kohut

(1977)sawit,

“is,fromthebeginning,aconstituentofthechild’s

assertiveness,and

undernormalcircumstancesitremainsalloyedtothe

assertivenessof

theadult’smatureself”(p.116).Aggressionis“a

constituentofthe

firmnessandsecuritywithwhich[thechildoradult]

makeshisdemands

vis-à-visselfobjectswhoprovideforhimamilieuof

(average)

empathicresponsiveness”(p.118).Aggression,being

anintegralpartof

sociallyadaptive,nondestructiveassertiveness,

isaimedatcontrollingtheemotionalresponsiveness

oftheselfobject,

“wheneveroptimalfrustrations(nontraumaticdelaysof

theempathic

responsesoftheselfobject)areexperienced”(Kohut,

responsesoftheselfobject)areexperienced”(Kohut,

1977,p.121).

Angrybehavior,asBowlby(1973)recognized,hasthe

functionof

coercionand,whenexpressedtowardaparentor

partner,actstopromote,not

disrupt,thebond(p.248).Angerintheformof

reproachfulbehavior

towardtheattachmentobjecthasthefunctionof

discouragingherfrom

strayingawayagainoroccupyingherselfinother

matters(Bowlby,

1973).Angerbecomesdysfunctional,manifestingas

hatred,

“wheneveraperson,childoradult,becomesso

intenselyand/or

persistentlyangrywithhispartnerthatthebond

betweenthemis

weakened,insteadofstrengthened”(pp.248-249),

“wheneveraggressive

thoughtsoractscrossthenarrowboundarybetween

beingdeterrentand

beingrevengeful”(Bowlby,1973,p.249).InKohut’s

(1977)terms,

destructivenessemergesasa‘disintegrationproduct’

when‘empathy

failures’ofselfobjectscausethe‘psychological

configuration’ofassertivenesstobreakdown(pp.

114-115).Destructivenessis“theresultofthe

failureoftheselfobjectenvironmenttomeet

thechild’sneedforoptimal…empathicresponses”(p.

116).Chronic

narcissisticragebecomesembeddedinthepersonality

ifthe

phase-appropriateneedforomnipotentcontroloverthe

selfobjectwas

consistentlyortraumaticallyfrustratedinchildhood

(Kohut,1977,p.

121).

Aggression, according to the concept of

‘neutralization’

ofinstinctualenergy,canbemodifiedanddiverted

towardsociallyor

culturallymoreacceptableorvaluedaims(Hartmann,

1964,p.217).

Neutralizedaggressionserves,forinstance,the

situationally

appropriatesolicitationofacceptanceandapproval,

thatis,of

narcissisticsustenancefortheself.Aggression,

usuallyinits

neutralizedfrom,isusedtomaintainorrestoreone’s

dominance

positioninthegroupandothers’respectforoneself

andtherebytomaintainone’ssafety(asreflectedin

self-esteem).

Thestrivingtodominateothersiscloselyrelatedto

‘theurgeto

impress’others(Hass,1968).Theurgetodominate

promptsustoaspire

topositionsofsocialeminenceandesteem(p.138).A

pleasurablesense

ofpowerisassociatedwithimpressingotherpeople

“withtheattainmentofsuperiorpositions,titles,

decorations,

andmarksofdistinction”(p.205).Mansurrounds

himselfwith

possessionsandsymbolsdesignedto“accentuatethe

impressionhemakesonothers

andintensifyhispleasurablesenseofpower”,whereby

“thedesireto

acquirethemincreaseshiswillingnesstowork”(Hass,

1968,p.183).By

impressingothers,byfollowinghis“strivingfor

success,esteem,and

power,forsocialacceptanceandstanding,for

recognition,superiority,andadmiration”(p.179),

heinhibitstheiraggressionandmaintains

theirrespect.Failuretoimpressothershas“a

particularlycorrosive

effect”;itreleases“contemptandrepudiationonthe

partofothers”

(Hass,1968,p.179).Suchfailurealsoundermines

accessto

narcissisticresources(whichsustaintheself)and

endangerstheself

(facingitwiththepossibilityofannihilation).If

theindividualdoes

notreceivethelevelofsupportheexpectsfrom

others,thenhisown

hostileaggressionisadefensivestrategytohandle

‘fearconcerning

survival’(Heard&Lake,1986,p.436).Hostile

aggressionhas,in

thefirstplace,theaimofsubordinatingothersand

restoringtheir

respect,thusreestablishingterritorialclaimsover

narcissistic

resourcesandreaffirmingtheself.Hostile

(offensive)aggressioncan

bemaladaptiveand,whenfailingtoachieveits

primaryobjective,turn

intorage.Theneuroticperson,whenhissecret

expectationofareturn

forthefavorsorgenerosityhehasshownisnot

fulfilled,finds

himselfthrownbackontohisbasicanxietyandmay,at

thesametime,experiencerage(Horney,1937,p.135).

Hostility,incitedwheneffortstosolicitapprovalor

affectionare

affectionare

frustratedandwhen“self-esteemhasbeenwoundedby

humiliation”,canmanifestasspitefulnessor

vindictivenessandtake“theformofadesireto

humiliateothers”(Horney,1937,p.178).

The

desiretooutperformanddefeatothersis

counterbalancedbyafearof

others’enviousandretaliatoryactions.Thisisa

fearofretaliationfortheruthlesspursuitof

ambitionsforpower,prestige,andpossessions

(Horney,1937,p.207).Theneuroticperson,in

particular,

“automaticallyassumesthatotherswillfeeljustas

muchhurtand

vindictiveafteradefeatashedoeshimself”;andso

heisanxious

abouthurtingthem(p.196).Hefearsthat,ifhewere

toannoyothers,

therewouldbe“afinalbreak;heexpectstobe

droppedaltogether,to

bedefinitelyspurnedorhated”(Horney,1937,p.

252).Theneurotic

personfearsthebegrudgingenvyofothers(p.214);

hefeelsthat“oncehehasshownaninterestin

successheissurroundedbyahordeofpersecuting

enemies,wholiein

waittocrushhimateverysignofweaknessor

failure”(p.211).He

failure”(p.211).He

feelsthat,oncehehasmadeamistakeorshownsome

weakness,hewill

betheobjectofdisrespectorridicule(p.224).

Thus,basicanxiety(reflectingfeelingsof

insignificance,helplessness,andinsecurity)impels

theperson“tostriveforandattainmoreand

morestrengthandpowerinordertobesafe”(p.268).

Atthesametime,

thefearofothers’envyandretaliationcurtails

spontaneousself-assertion,causesdifficultiesin

criticizing

others(ormakingaccusations),andinhibits

competitiveness(Horney,1937,p.250).Theneurotic

personisafraidofpeople;and,insofarashemust

presentarationalfront,heispreventedfromfeeling

orventinganygrievanceagainstthem(Horney,1939,

p.

242).Reproachesagainstothersaccumulateandare

rechanneledontothe

self,turningintoself-reproaches(Horney,1939,p.

242).

3.1LossandAmbivalence

Anger

directedatatemporarilyunresponsiveattachment

objectaimsto

increaseherresponsivenesstoone’sattemptsto

inducehertodisplay

affectionateorattentivebehaviors(Bowlby,1973).

Whenseparationis

Whenseparationis

permanent,thatis,whenobject‘loss’hasoccurred

(bereavement),painandangeraresimilarlyfelt,but

then“angerandaggressive

behaviourarenecessarilywithoutfunction”(p.247).

Duringearly

phasesofgrieving,“abereavedpersonusuallydoes

notbelievethatthe

losscanreallybepermanent”andcontinuestoactas

thoughitwere

stillpossibletofindthelostperson(p.247);“the

lostpersonisnot

infrequentlyheldtobeatleastinpartresponsible

forwhathas

happened,infacttohavedeserted”,sothat“anger

comestobedirected

againstthelostperson,aswellas,ofcourse,

againstanyothers

thoughttohaveplayedapartinthelossorinsome

waytobe

obstructingreunion”(Bowlby,1973,pp.247-248).

JoffeandSandler

(1965)thoughtthat“whatislostinobjectlossis

ultimatelyastate

oftheselfforwhichtheobjectisavehicle”(p.

178).Whenalove

objectislost(andmentalpainarises),“the

affectivevaluecathexis

affectivevaluecathexis

oftheobjectisgreatlyincreased,andattentionis

focusedalmost

exclusivelyontheobjectbecauseitisthekeytothe

reattainmentof

theloststateoftheself”(Joffe&Sandler,1965,p.

159).The

self,inordertoavoidannihilationordisintegration

anxiety,hastoreattachitselftoanother

representativeoftheprimaryobject,

eitherinrealityorinfantasy.Theselfis

inseparablyboundtothe

primaryobjectoranylaterrepresentativeofthe

primaryobject;and,

iftheselfcannotreattachitselftoaconscious

derivativeofthe

primaryobject,itseeksconsolationintheillusion

ofomnipotence,whereinanomnipotentselfisbound

upwiththeunconsciousomnipotentobject(anaspect

ofthesuperego).

The pain and anger experienced after loss of

an external object is related to narcissistic

injuryandragefeltinconsequenceofaslight

or rejection. Tenuous links to objects that

onlyserveasselfobjects

areeasilybroken.Aslightorrebuffcausesthe

grandioseselfto

collapse;andwhatislostthentemporarilyisthe

linkoftheselfto

theomnipotentobject.Hence,thelossalsoconcerns

aninternalobject,

unconsciously.Narcissisticinjury,whenacceptanceor

approvalhas

beensolicitedbutisnotforthcoming,uncoversa

“discrepancybetween

anegocreatedinfantasyandtheactualperson”

(Federn,1952,p.313),

“adiscrepancybetweentheactualstateoftheselfon

theonehandand

anidealstateofwell-beingontheother”(Joffe&

Sandler,1965,

p.156).Thepainandangerarisingfromawoundto

self-esteemmayberationalizedasdisappointment.

Narcissisticpersonsarehypersensitivetoslights;

theytendtoreactwithrageandrevengefulfantasies

whentheirneed

forconstantadmirationisfrustrated,whentheir

assertiveand

exhibitionisticoutreachfornarcissisticsustenance

runsagroundandcontroloverselfobjectsislost

(Kohut,1977,pp.259-262).Aggressionis

primarilyaimedatrestoringtheempathic

responsivenessofthe

selfobjectsurround,butnarcissisticragewillbe

counterproductive.In

thosewitha‘narcissisticbehaviordisorder’(pp.

193-195),perverse

ordelinquentbehaviors,unconsciouslydesignedto

ordelinquentbehaviors,unconsciouslydesignedto

forcemirroring

responsesfromtheselfobjectmilieu,“areonlyone

stepremovedfromtheunderlyingdefectinself-

esteem”(Kohut,1977,p.195).

Mourning the loss of an object is not

dissimilar to the state depression , in which

there is a loss of control over selfobjects.

Maniaisa

defensivemodethataimstopreventdepressive

feelingsoflossand

guilt(Klein,1940).Ifthedevelopmentallynormal

‘depressiveposition’

wasnotovercomesuccessfullyinearlychildhood,

then,inlaterlife,

lossof(controlover)anyexternalobjectreawakens

‘depressive

anxieties’aboutlosingthe‘goodinternalobject’

(counterpartofa

secureself).Itisthelossofthegoodinternal

objectthatis

unconsciouslymournedinmania,wherebyexcessive

anxietyaboutthepossibilityoflosingthegood

internalobject(leadingtoinsecurityoftheself)is

associatedwithaninabilitytoformrealobject

relations(involvinginvestmentoflibidoandthe

sharingof‘socialfeeling’).Inthereawakened

depressiveposition,thepersongainsinsightinto

hislackofrealobjectrelations

(believingunconsciouslythathehas‘destroyed’his

(believingunconsciouslythathehas‘destroyed’his

objects)andhence

intohisfundamentalloneliness(Riviere,1936).

Depressiveanxieties,actingasareminderofthe

‘damage’donetothegoodinternalobject(the

introjectedmaternal

object),canbeavoidedinpartbydenyingdependency

onexternalobjects(Klein,1940).Denialisamanic

defense.Contemptforandtriumphoverexternal

objectsarefurthermanicdefenses(wherebythese

externalobjectsaretreatedasmereselfobjects).

Maniainvolves

omnipotentcontroloverselfobjects(objectsthatare

all‘within’the

personhimself,inthesensethattheyonlyexistfor

himself[Riviere,

1936]),whichaimstocompensateforthelackinggood

internalobject.

Thenarcissisticperson,too,unconsciouslyfearsthat

anylesseningof

controloverhisexternalobjectswillreawaken

depressiveanxieties

(Riviere,1936).Thenarcissisticpersonisalways

closetobeingaware

thathelacksrealobjectrelations;andhis

omnipotentdefensesarean

attempttoavoidthedespairanddepressionthatthis

insightwouldbring(Riviere,1936).

The

threatoflosinga(narcissistically)neededexternal

objectincreases

effortstocontroltheobject,wherebyaggressive

controloverthe

object(ambivalentattack)notonlyfostersan

omnipotentsenseof

independencebutalso,inaviciouscircle,deepens

thefeelingofguilt,which,inturn,isdefended

againstbydenialofdependencyonandsadistic

triumphovertheobject(Segal,1973).Underneaththe

person’sattitudeof

omnipotentcontrol,thereis“acravingforabsolute

blissincomplete

unionwithaperfectobjectforeverandever”,which

is“boundupwith

anuncontrollableandinsupportablefuryof

disappointment”(Riviere,1936).Persecutoryfears,

anaspectofthe‘paranoid-schizoidposition’into

whichthenarcissisticormanicpersonreadily

regresses,strengthenmanicmechanismsofdefense.

‘Bad’andpersecutoryobjectsneedtobemonitored

constantly,sothattheinnerbadobject(persecutory

superego)canbemanicallysubordinated.Attackson

externalobjects

increasetheirdestruction,“therebydeepening

depressiveanxietiesand

makingtheunderlyingdepressivesituation

increasinglyhopelessand

persecutory”(Segal,1973).

persecutory”(Segal,1973).

3.2JealousyandEnvy

Jealousy

illustratestheuseofaggressionforthepurposeof

bindinganobject

inarelationship.Jealouspersons“bindtheirpartner

withchainsof

love”;they“buildawallaroundtheirlovedone”

(Adler,1927,p.180).

Theyfeeltheyhaveanexclusiveclaimovertheir

object’sattention

andlove.Personswhoareinclinedtofeelingjealous

“arenotableto

lovebutneedthefeelingofbeingloved”(Fenichel,

1946,p.391).They

haveanintensefearoflossofloveandlongforan

alternative,more

securesourceofnarcissisticsustenance.Their

longingforanother

objectproducesjealousy“onaprojectivebasis;their

longingforanotherpartnerisprojected”,sothat

theybelievethatitistheirpartner,notthey

themselves,whoislookingforanewobject(p.391).

Theprojectionisreinforcedbythespecial

sensitivityofjealouspersonstosignsoftheir

object’sunfaithfulness(Fenichel,1946).

Whilejealousyinvolveshostilityagainstthe

attachment object, envy involves hostility

towardaperceivedrival(thethirdpersonina

triangularconstellation)withwhomtheenviousperson

competesfor

attentionandloveoftheprimaryattachmentobjector

ofoneofits

externalderivativesor,unconsciously,ofthe

superego(internal

omnipotentobject).Ineitherenvyorjealousy,

aggressiveimpulsesare

directedagainstobstaclesperceivedtobeintheway

ofthestriving

foranexclusiveobjectrelation(inrealityor

unconsciousfantasy).

Envyisthefeelingofresentmentorhostilitytoward

thegoodqualities

orabilitiesofanotherperson.Anattemptordesire

tospoilthese

qualitiesorabilitiesisfundamentaltoenvy(Joseph,

1986).Personswhoarepreoccupiedwiththestriving

forpower

anddominationandwho“spendtheirtimeinmeasuring

thesuccessof

others”(p.181)(andcomparingothers’successeswith

theirown

achievements)becomeenviouswhentheycannotgain

superiorityoverothers(Adler,1927).Theywouldthen

be“interestedsolelyin

takingthingsawayfromotherpeople,indepriving

takingthingsawayfromotherpeople,indepriving

themandputtingthem

down”(Adler,1927,p.182).AsHorney(1950)argued,

neuroticpersons

have‘grandioseclaims’,whichareresponsiblefor

theirchronicsmolderingenvyanddiscontent(p.47).

Theirself-esteemdependsontheirpower,possessions

,andprestige;andtheyenterastateofmiserywhen

theyfail“tohavetheone

advantageinwhichanotherpersonsurpasses[them]”

(astheycompare

themselveswiththeotherperson)(Horney,1937,p.

183).Whilemostof

us“willfeelsomeenvyifothershavecertain

advantagesweshouldlike

tohaveourselves”(p.182),neuroticpersonsfeel

humiliatedifthey

haveto“givesomeonecreditforsomething”(p.196).

Inassociation

withtheirattitudeofbegrudgingenvy,theyhave“a

tendencytodepriveothers”(p.180)and“todefeator

frustratetheeffortsofothers”(Horney,1937,p.

193).

There are various defenses that the envious

personcanemploytoprotect

himselfagainstinacceptableanddisapproved(and

thereforeegodystonic)

feelingsofenvy.Theenviouspersonmaydevalue

himselfinorderto

increasethegapbetweenhimselfandtheenviedperson

(adefense

relatedtomasochism)(Joseph,1986).Alternatively,

theenviouspersonmayregardtheenviedpersonas

inferioranddevaluethelatter’squalities.The

neuroticpersonreadilydevaluesothers’achievements

andthereby“succeedsinassuaginghisenvyand

discharginghisresentment”(Horney,1945,p.203).

Anotherenvious

personmayidealizetheenviedperson,placingthe

latteronapedestal

andoutofreach,justastheleaderofagroupwould

be(Joseph,1986;Spillius,1993).Inarelated

defense,theenviouspersonmayidentifyhimselfwith

theenviedperson,

allowinghimtointrojectsomeofthelatter’s

enviablequalitiesand

vicariouslypossessthesequalities.Theenvious

personmayprojecthis

envy(sothatothersappearenvious)orstirup

feelingsofenvyinothers

(bymakingthemawareofhisownoutstanding

qualities)(Joseph,1986;

Spillius,1993).Theenviouspersonmayrestrict

contactwithothersand

avoidsituationsthatcanstimulateenvyinhimself.

Competitivenessis

amoreadaptivedefenseagainstfeelingsofenvy;in

acquiringsuperior

qualitiesorcapacities(power,prestige,or

possessions),thepersonavoidsfeelingenvious

towardothers(Joseph,1986).

The

strivingforprestige,wealth,andpoweris

competitive;itcanbe

all-consumingandopenlyaggressive.Neuroticpersons

notonlyhavea

tendencytodepriveothers;theyarefearfulthatthey

themselves“will

becheatedorexploitedbyothers”,that“someonewill

takeadvantageof

[them],thatmoneyorideaswillbestolenfrom

[them]”(Horney,1937,

p.185).Whenevertheydofeelcheatedorexploited,a

disproportionate

amountofangerisdischarged(Horney,1937,p.186).

Prestige,wealth,

andpowerdemarcateournarcissisticresources.In

strivingtoobtainprestige,wealth,andpower,we

seekunconsciouslytocontroltheattentionandlove

wecontinuetoneedfromtheprimary

maternalobject(whichwasintrojectedinchildhood

andbecamethe

lovingaspectofthesuperego).Inthispursuit,we

findourselvesin

competitionwithothers,withthosewhorequire

narcissisticnourishmentfromthesamecentralobject

representingtheirprimaryobject.Competitorshaveto

beoutperformedor,ifwefailtodoso,their

achievements

havetobespoilt(enviously).Successfulcompetitors

(fortheattention

ofaconcreteorabstractcentralobject,suchasa

leaderoranorganization)areenvied;and,ifsuch

envyisegodystonicandarousesshame,defenses

againstenvyhavetobeerected.Narcissisticpersons

may

toleratefeelingsofenvymoreeasilyandactonthem

unreservedly.Such

envywastermed‘impenitent’(Spillius,1993).

Narcissisticpersons

needtobeassuredoftheirobject’slovemore

urgently;andtheir

impenitentenvyreflects,unconsciously,their

mourningforthe‘idealparents’theywishtheyhad

had(andtheloveand

attentiontheywishtheyhadreceived)andalsofor

the‘idealself’theywouldliketohavebeen

(Spillius,1993).

Persons who are easily consumed by envy are

those “who are not concerned about making

themselvesusefulto

others”(Adler,1927,p.183).Theyarenarcissists,

inthattheylack

‘socialfeeling’.Theycanalsobeconsideredas

antisocialpersonalitiestotheextentthattheyare

notmovedat

allbythe“factthattheiractionscausesufferingto

others”(andthey

mayeventakepleasureinothers’pain)(Adler,1927,

p.183).

Excessiveenvypreventsthepersonfromhavingwarm

andtrusting

relationships.Asaresult,theenviouspersonis

likelytoremain

insecure,causing,inaviciouscircle,increased

dispositiontoward

envy(Joseph,1986).Others’happinessandtheir

abilitytocareand

lovecanbecomethesubjectofenviousthoughtsand

actions.Others’

happinessand“their“naïve”expectationsofpleasure

andjoy”irritate

theneuroticperson(Horney,1945,pp.201-202).

Begrudgingenvy

togetherwithanimpulseto“trampleonthejoyof

others”(p.202),“to

frustrateandtocrushthespiritofothers”(p.202)

ariseinhimwhen

heseesothers“love,create,enjoy,feelhealthyand

atease,belong

somewhere”(Horney,1945,p.201).

3.3RighteousnessandSenseofEntitlementThe

strivingforpower,prestige,orpossessions

providesachannelthroughwhich‘repressed

hostility’canbe

discharged(Horney,1937,p.166).Inthestrivingfor

power,prestige,

orpossessions,whetherneuroticornot,“acertain

amountofhostility

maybedischargedinanondestructiveway”(pp.174-

175).Evenwhenthe

needforpoweriscompelling,itcanbedisguisedin

‘sociallyvaluable

orhumanisticforms’and“doesnotnecessarilyappear

openlyas

hostilitytowardothers”(p.174).However,when

hostilityisconcealed

inactivitiessuchasgivingadviceortakingthe

initiative,“theother

persons…willfeelitandreacteitherwith

submissivenessorwithopposition”(p.174).Hostility

thatwashithertoconcealedand

pressedintocivilizedformscanbreakoutmoreopenly

whenthe

neuroticpersondoesnotsucceedinhavinghisownway

(p.174).He

wouldthenshowa“plainangerreactiontoalackof

compliance”

withhiswishesandexpectations(p.169)orreact

withhiswishesandexpectations(p.169)orreact

angrilytoothers’

failuretofollowhisadvice(Horney,1937).Adler

(1927)observedthat

personswithdeepinnerinsecurity(inferiority)

(correlatedwithlack‘socialfeeling’)notonly

engageincompensatorystrivingforsuperioritybut

alsohaveatendencytojudge,criticize,andridicule

others(p.162).Theirsharpandcriticalmanner,an

expressionof

‘socialhostility’,allowsthem“togainafeelingof

superiorityby

degradingotherpeople”(‘depreciationcomplex’)(p.

163).Their

tendencytodegradeothersisassociatedwiththeir

insistenceonalways

beingright.Theygotogreatlengthstoprove

themselvesrightandto

proveotherstobeinthewrong(Adler,1927,p.198).

Horney(1945)

suggestedthat“acombinationofpredominant

aggressivetrendsand

detachmentisthemostfertilesoilforthe

developmentofrigidrightness;andthenearertothe

surfacetheaggression,themoremilitantthe

rightness”(p.138).The‘aggressivetype’ofneurotic

personality

“seemstohaveanunusualcapacityfordefinite

opinions”;“hisopinions

willoftenhaveadogmaticorevenfanaticcharacter”

willoftenhaveadogmaticorevenfanaticcharacter”

(Horney,1945,p.

170).

Bursten (1973) argued that argumentativeness,

critical suspiciousness, and jealousy , shown

by persons with a ‘paranoid type’ of

narcissistic personality structure, reflect a

sense of disappointment or betrayal when

reunion with an omnipotent object cannot be

achieved.

Argumentativeness,criticalsuspiciousness,and

jealousy(comprisinga

‘modeofnarcissisticrepair’)betraytheperson’s

needtobethe

‘specialselectedone’intheeyesoftheomnipotent

object(Bursten,

1973).Adeepsenseofinadequacy(whichrendersthe

personunacceptable

intheeyesoftheomnipotentobject)andrelated

shamearecounteractedbyexternalizationsand

projections.Theparanoid

narcissistconstantlylooksforshamefulconductin

others,soasto

affirmandsupporthisprojections.Ifotherscanbe

seenasinadequate

andshameful,theparanoidnarcissistfeelsmore

acceptableagaintothe

omnipotentobjectwithwhichheunconsciouslyseeksto

reunite

reunite

(Bursten,1973).

Being driven and compelled to actualize his

idealized self-image (turn himself into the

glorified image of himself), the neurotic

person

is“liabletoexpectanunreasonableamountfrom

others”;hemakes

unreasonableclaimsonothers,tothefulfillmentof

whichhefeels

entitled(‘grandioseclaims’)(Horney,1950,p.370).

Theneuroticpersonfeels“entitledtobetreatedby

others,orbyfate,inaccordwithhisgrandiose

notionsabouthimself”,“entitledto

specialattention,consideration,deferenceonpartof

others”(p.41),

“entitlednevertobecriticized,doubted,or

questioned”(p.43),

“entitledtoeverythingthatisimportanttohim”(p.

42).Heinsistson

havingspecialrightsandtakesbenefits“accruing

fromlawsor

regulations…forgranted”(p.44).Notonlydoeshe

assertexceptional

rightsforhimself,hemayalsoadopt“aright,a

title,whichin

realitydoesnotexist”(Horney,1950,p.42).The

‘senseof

entitlement’isasenseofhavingspecialrightsand

ofbeingentitled

tobreakthelaw(Moses,1989).Thepersonwhohasa

senseof

entitlement“holdstenaciouslytotheconvictionthat

hisbehavioris

correct,appropriate,andadequate”(p.489).Any

challengetohis

entitlement,to“hisviewofhimselfassomeonewith

rightsofspecial

entitlement”,canleadtoself-righteousindignation

(p.492)and‘the

righteousrageofentitlement’(Moses,1989,p.488).

Inotherwords,if

theneuroticperson’sgrandioseclaimsarenot

satisfiedandhisexceptionalrightsnotrespected,if

others

donotcatertohisgrandioseillusions,thenhe

experiencesadeep

senseofunfairness,andhecanbecomefuriously

indignant(Horney,

1950,pp.41-42).Nonfulfilmentofgrandioseclaims

“isfeltasan

unfairfrustration,asanoffenseaboutwhichwehave

arighttofeel

indignant”(p.42).Hithertoinhibitedandneutralized

aggressioncan

thusbereleaseddirectly.Severereactionsto

thusbereleaseddirectly.Severereactionsto

frustration“are

indicatedbytheterrorofdoomanddisgrace”andby

rageatselfand

others(Horney,1950,p.31).

The sense of entitlement derives from the

child’s demands for the total and undivided

attention

ofthemother(Moses,1989,p.485).Children

graduallygiveuptheir

senseofentitlement;

butitpersistsinamelioratedformintoadulthoodas

themakingof

“demandswhichareappropriatelyone’sright”(p.

486).Thesenseof

entitlementisexcessiveinpersonswhobelievethat

theyweresubjected

intheirchildhoodtounjustdeprivationand

suffering.Thesenseof

entitlement,whenitisexcessive,isafeatureofthe

narcissistic

personalityandcoexists

withshamelessness.Shameandthesenseofentitlement

“areinsomeway

oppositesidesofthesamecoin”(p.484),bothbeing

“closelyrelated

totheself,tonarcissisticproclivities”(Moses,

1989,p.483).Shame

1989,p.483).Shame

seemstocurtailanysenseofentitlement,muchasit

curtails

exhibitionism.Inhibitionorrepressionofthesense

ofentitlement,orofexhibitionism,canbemaintained

byreactionformationintheformofmodesty.Indeed,

thesenseofentitlementmaybeunconscious,being

hidden“behindacloakofmarkedmodesty”(Moses,

1989,p.486).

3.4VindictivenessandManipulativenessHaving

beenwronged,theneuroticpersonmaybecome

vindictive.Experiencing

animpulsetogetbackatothersandthedesireto

vindictivelytriumphoverthem,he“triesthrough

hardhittingaccusationstoenforcetheircompliance”

and“mayruin[them]withinsatiableclaims”(Horney,

1950,p.55).The

neuroticperson,havingbeenwrongedbysomebody,

startstoponderthe

hatefulqualitiesofthatperson,sothatthatperson

“suddenlybecomes

untrustworthy,nasty,cruel,contemptible”(p.56).

Wheneverthe

expressionofovertangerandhostilityissocially

unacceptableand

inhibited,“onewillhavetoexaggeratethewrong

done;onewillthen

inadvertentlybuildupacaseagainsttheoffender

thatlookslogic

thatlookslogic

tight”(p.56).Overemphasison‘justice’havingtobe

restoredcanbea

camouflageforvindictiveness(p.55).Ifangercan

stillnotbeexpressed,thewrongedneurotic

personbecomesdespondentorplungesintomiseryand

self-pity;orhisangermayappearinpsychosomatic

symptoms(andhissuffering

wouldthenbecomethemediumtoexpressreproaches)

(Horney,1950,pp.

56-57).Thesadisticpersonismorethanjust

vindictive.Thesadistic

personishabituallyinclined“totellothershow

stupid,worthlessand

contemptibletheyareandtomakethemfeellikedust”

(Horney,1939,p.

220).Bydegradingothersandstrikingatthem“with

righteous

indignationfromtheheightof[his]own

infallibility”(Horney,1939,

p.220),he“giveshimselfafeelingofsuperiority”

(Horney,1945,p.206).He“gainsastimulating

feelingofpoweroverthem”(p.206);andhisfeeling

ofstrengthandpridereinforceshisunconscious

feelingofomnipotence(p.207).Histriumphant

“elationatbeingabletodowithothersashe

pleases”thus“lessenshisownsenseofbarrenness”

and“obscureshis

ownhopelessdefeat”(p.207).Sadism,asaneurotic

trend,isadefenseagainstdeep-seatedinferiority

andself-contempt(Horney,1945).

On account of feelings of inferiority and

insecurity, aggressive criminals are more

likelytoperceivesocial

threats,suchasintheformofanother’srealor

imaginaryminor

aggression,andreacttothesewithcounteraggression

(Schilder,1951,

p.215).Criminalaggressionisnotonly“areaction

toanimmediate

situation”butalso“toasituationinchildhood”(p.

215),achildhood

thathasimbuedtheindividualwithfeelingsof

inferiorityand

insecurity.Schilder(1951)proposedthat“aggressive

actiontakesplace

whentheindividualfeelsrestrictedinhispowerto

achievean

adequatemasteryofthesituation”(p.219).Actsof

aggressionhelpthe

individualtorestorehis‘threatenedmasculinity’,

thatis,to

reassertcontroloverhisfateandenvironment;“the

assaultbecomesasymbolformasculinityregained”(p.

215).The

regainingofmasculinityalsomeansthat,throughthe

regainingofmasculinityalsomeansthat,throughthe

aggressiveact,

theaggressivecriminalrestoreshisprestige(p.218)

andthushisself-esteem(narcissistichomeostasis).

Theindividualexpectsthatthesocialenvironment,

oncemasteryoverithasbeenreestablished,will

providehimwiththeneededapproval

andrespect(narcissisticsustenance).AsSchilder

(1951)putit,an

“aggressiveimpulsehasamuchgreaterchanceof

becomingcriminal

actionwhenthecriminalactioncanreckonwithopen

ortacitapproval

ofthosesocialfactorswhichplayapartintheego

formation”(p.

217).

Vain

(narcissistic)persons“whowouldliketoruleothers

mustfirstcatch

theminordertobindthemtothemselves”(Adler,

1927,p.173).They

mayshowanattitudeofamiability,friendliness,or

approachabilityin

ordertolullothersintoasenseofsecurityanduse

them

(narcissistically)soastomaintaintheirpersonal

superiority(p.173).Theywouldhoweverproceedto

aggressivelycontrolthose

boundtothemselves,thusremovingtheirveilof

boundtothemselves,thusremovingtheirveilof

amiability(Adler,

1927).InBursten’s(1973)classification,the

‘manipulativetype’of

thenarcissisticpersonalityischaracterizedby

manipulativenessand

propensitiesfordeception,superficialrelationships,

andcontemptfor

others.Goodmanipulatorscan‘sizeupasituation’in

orderto

influenceothers,tomovethemaroundinsuchaway

thattheirown

narcissisticneedswillbegratified(Bursten,1973).

Manipulative

personalitiesexperiencelittleguilt.Their‘modeof

narcissisticrepair’,allowingthemtoovercomeinner

feelingsofworthlessness,involvesdeception(lying)

andaggressivecompetitionaimedatdefeatingothers.

Bydefeatingothers,manipulative

personalitiesprovetheirsuperiorityandthereby

theiracceptabilityto

theomnipotentobjectwithwhichtheyseektoreunite

(Bursten,1973).

‘Phallicnarcissisticpersonalities’,bycontrast,

achievenarcissistic

repair(defenseagainstshameassociatedwithbeing

weakorinsignificant)bymeansofarrogance,

aggressivecompetitiveness,andpseudomasculinity.

Theirneedtobeadmiredsimilarlyreflects

theirwishforreunionwithanomnipotentobject.

Phallicnarcissists

arepronetotakerisks,expectingtheywillbesaved

miraculously,and

engageinactsofbraveryforthesakeofself-

glorification.

Whiletheirrelianceontheiromnipotentobjectis

hiddenin

internalizedstructures,theirgrandioseself(the

counterpartofthe

omnipotentobject)ismanifestintheirambitionand

competitiveness(Bursten,1973).Phallicnarcissists

and

manipulativenarcissistshavearelativelyfirmsense

ofself,

reflectingtheirgreaterdegreeofindividuation.

Theyhavemoresuccessfullyinternalizedtheirsources

ofapproval,

whereas‘cravingnarcissists’dependonanalmost

continuouspresenceof

theirobject(Bursten,1973).

3.5PassiveAggressiveness

Defiance,

accordingtoRothstein(1979),representsawishto

experiencevictory

overafrustratingparent,overanobjectthatdoes

notmeetthechild’s

notmeetthechild’s

narcissisticneeds.Itisanattemptbythechildto

forcetheobject

tobemorelovingandavailable,tobelikethe

gratifyingparentheremembersfromearlieryears;it

thechild’sanattempttorecapturehisoriginal

omnipotence,hislostsenseofcontroloverthe

maternalsmile,thatis,over

narcissisticsupplies(Rothstein,1979).Atthesame

time,defianceallowsthechildtoindulgein

omnipotentnarcissistic

self-preoccupation,therebypartiallyrestoringhis

narcissisticbalance

infantasy.Defianceisrelatedtostubbornness.

Stubbornness,too,isa

passivetypeofaggressiveness(Fenichel,1946,p.

279).Stubborn

personsprovokeotherstobeunjust,sothattheycan

seethemselvesas

beingtreatedunfairlyand,hence,attain“afeeling

ofmoral

superioritywhichisneededtoincreasetheirself-

esteem”

(p.279).Stubbornpersonsareforeverengagedina

“struggleforthe

maintenanceortherestorationofself-esteem”;they

are“filledwith

narcissisticneeds,whosegratificationisrequiredto

contradictsome

anxietyorguiltfeeling”(Fenichel,1946,pp.279-

280).

Hostility

canbeexpressedindirectlythroughan‘appealto

justice’(Horney,

1937,p.144).Theneuroticpersonmayuseatraumatic

experienceor

injuryhesufferedasabasisfordemandsfor

sympathetictreatment;he

“mayarousefeelingsofguiltorobligationinorder

thathisowndemandsmayseemjust”(p.144).He

mayusehisinjuryorillnessimplicitlyasan

accusation,as“akind

oflivingreproach,intendedtoarouseguiltfeeling”

inothersandto

makethemwillingtodevotealltheirattentiontohim

(p.144).

Neuroticpersonsmaybewillingtopaythepriceof

suffering,“because

inthatwaytheyareabletoexpressaccusationsand

demandswithout

beingawareofdoingso,andhenceareabletoretain

theirfeelingof

righteousness”(Horney,1937,pp.145-146).

3.6Reparation

Insufficient

receiptofappreciation,approval,orpraisefrom

othersconfirmsthe

person’ssuspicionsaboutbeinginferiorandunworthy

ofothers’

attentionandregard.Theperson,especiallythe

insecureperson,must

maintainhisexternalsourcesofnarcissistic

sustenanceandmust

controlthemassertivelyorevenaggressively.

Frustrationofneedstirs

upaggressiveimpulsesagainstthefrustratingobject,

whichisthen

regardedas‘bad’.Aggressiveimpulsesagainstthe

objectonwhoselove

thepersondepends(aconstellationknownas

‘ambivalence’)havethe

potentialto‘destroy’theobject;theycanresultin

thelossofthe

object.AsKlein(1937)observed,thechild(oradult)

isafraidof

losingtheobjectonwhomhedepends;andhe

anticipatesdamagetothis

lovedobjectassoonasangerwellsup(p.117).

Fantasizeddestruction

(moreorlessconsciously)ofthelovedobjectcauses

‘unconsciousguilt’.

Inordertopreservefeelingsofsecurity,thechild

hastodevelophis

hastodevelophis

capacitytokeeplovedobjectssafeandundamaged

(Klein,1937,p.98).

Bywayofshowingloveandcare,damagedobjectscan

be‘repaired’,

whichensuresthattheseneededobjectsarenotlost

andthatsafetyis

retained;yettheabilitytolove(andshow‘social

interest’)tendstobeimpairedpreciselyinthose

whoaremostinsecureandmost

dependentontheirobjects’loveandattention.

Reparation,themaking

goodoffantasizeddamagetheindividualhasdoneto

theobject,

assuagesunconsciousguilt.

Hostilityactuallydischarged(asopposedto

fantasized)againstthe

objectgivesrisetoamoreconsciousfeelingof

guilt,afeelingthat

engendersthe‘needforpunishment’andprompts

repentance(Flugel,1945).

Theneedtomakereparationmaybealliedwith

theneedtobepunished,inthattheprocessof

reparationmaybelaboriousandarduousandmayitself

involvesuffering

(Flugel,1945).Kleinemphasizedtheroleofuseful

workinassuaging

unconsciousfeelingsofguilt.

Reparationinvolvesnotonlytheshowingofloveor

caretowardthe

objectbutalsoworkaimedatregainingtheobject’s

approval.Thework

wecarryoutoftenaimsatgainingtheapprovalofthe

superego.

Constructiveworkearnsustheapprovalofcolleagues

and,importantly,

recognitionfromauthorityfiguresontowhomthe

internalrepresentative

oftheprimaryobjectisprojected.Asourdependence

ontheprimary

maternalobjectiscarriedovertoadependenceon

laterobjects,the

needtomakereparationtoobjectsofourearlylife

is“unconsciously

carriedovertothenewobjectsofloveandinterest”

(Klein,1937,p.

117).Weovercomeunconsciousfeelingsof

guiltconnectedwithaggressivefantasiesbybeing

considerateand

helpfultothosewhostandforearlierobjectswhich

wehadharmedin

ourunconsciousfantasy(Klein,1937).

3.7Summary

Aggression,

whenneutralizedandadaptedtoexternalreality,can

helpto

strengthentherelationshipwithanotherpersonor

keeptheselfobject

milieu,thesourceofnarcissisticnourishment,under

effectivecontrol.

Aggressioncanbemaladaptiveanddisintegrateinto

ragewhenthe

personalbondortheresponsivenessoftheselfobject

surroundcannotbe

restored.Lossofanexternalrepresentativeofthe

primaryobjectis

equivalenttolossofcontrolovertheselfobject

surround,which,in

turn,isequivalenttoadeprivationinthestateof

self.Iftheloss

ispermanent,orifeffortstoreestablishcontrol

overtheselfobject

surroundarepermanentlyfrustrated,depressioncan

arise.Itcanbedeductedthatatendencytochoose

objectsonapredominantlynarcissisticbasis(an

inabilitytomakelibidinalinvestmentsinobjects),

leadsnotonlytoweakself-esteembutalsoto

greatervulnerabilitytodepression(asnarcissistic

resourceswouldbebothmoreneededandmore

fragile).

Aggression is woven into the competitive

pursuitofpossessionsorprestigeandintothe

bettermentofone’ssocialstandingorranking

, all of which are closely related to one’s

controlofnarcissistic

resources.Aggressionisconcealedwithinthecultural

context,unless

others’encroachmentontoone’snarcissisticresources

anddisregardof

the‘rights’bywhichtheseresourcesaredefined

bringsone’sanger

moreclearlytothesurface.Overtoffensive

aggressionevolutionarily

hasthepurposeofinducingsubmissionina

challenger,wherebysubmissivebehavior(respect)

appeasesand

thusalsonarcissisticallynourishestheaggressor.

Aggression,inits

overtvariety,attainsnarcissisticsustenance

preciselybysuppressing

theother’saggressivepotentialandthereby

counteractingone’sparanoidanxiety(thecounterpart

ofnarcissisticequilibrium).Neutralizedaggression,

whichisintegraltocompetitivepursuitsandtothe

maintenanceof

one’ssocialposition,hasthesameeffect.Through

mutualinductionof

complianceandthedisplay,towardeachother,of

compliance,individualsembedded

inthehierarchicalsystemofagrouporsociety

maintaineachother’s

narcissisticbalance(andkeepeachother’sparanoid

anxietyatbay),

althoughoccasionallyperturbationswilloccurinsuch

adynamical

system.Thedegreetowhichindividuals’security

dependsonthis

interplayvaries,dependingontheirendowmentwith

socialfeelingorlibidinalinterestandonthelevel

ofsecuritytheyexperiencedintheirearliest

relationships.

Excessiveinsecurityonpartofsomeindividualswill

translateinto

occasionalchallengestotheestablishedorderand

contributeto

perturbationsinthesystem.

Overt

aggressionasameansofnarcissisticrepairmaybe

justifiedina

particularculturalcontext;orthepersonalitymay

havedevelopedways

ofmakingsuchaggressionseemjustified.Thefeeling

ofinjusticeorastronglongingforjusticecanbe

harnessedinassociationwith

moreovertlyaggressivebehaviorsthataregeared

towardsubordinating

others(inducingtheirsubmission)

andrestoringothers’respectforoneself(andthereby

ultimately

restoringone’ssafetyandprotectingoneselfagainst

paranoidfears).

Iftheculturalcontextprohibitsovertexpressionof

aggression,orif

thefearofinciting,throughone’saggression,

others’retaliationisstrong(if,inotherwords,the

security-procuringeffectsof

offensiveaggressionarelikelyoffsetbygreater

vulnerabilitytobe

attackedinreturnandpotentiallyannihilatedbythe

group),then

aggressioncanbeexpressedinindirectways.Defiance

andstubbornness

servetoprovokeotherstoengageinunjustactions,

whichwill,

firstly,provideoneselfwithasenseofmoral

superiority,which,inturn,enhancesone’ssenseof

safety(throughenhancingone’sacceptabilitytothe

superegoorleader),andwhichmayalso,secondly,

provideoneselfwithajustifiableoutlet

forone’sownaggression.Onemayuseone’sillnessor

aninjuryfor

thepurposeofaccusingothersandarousinginthem

feelingsofguilt,whichwouldthenpromptthemto

commitactsofrepentancethatcanrestoreone’sown

righteousnessandnarcissisticequilibrium.Aggressive

meansofnarcissisticrepair

arecontrastedwithcompliantandsubmissive

behaviors,pursingthesame

objective(butfromtheoppositeendoftheequation),

andalsowith

reparativebehaviorandwork,aimingtoregainthe

respectofothersand

ofthesuperego,wherebywork,too,wouldinvolve

aggressionin

neutralizedform(andmayexpress,atthesametime,

theneedfor

punishment,i.e.,tobepunished).Aggressive

subordinationofothersmayalternateincycles,

dependingonmoodandexternal

culturalfactors,withsubmissiveandreparative

effortstomaintain

oneselfinarelativelystableandthussafeposition

withinthesocialhierarchy.

Detachment

The

neuroticperson,asHorney(1937)argued,“is

excessivelyafraidofor

hypersensitivetobeingdisapprovedof,criticized,

accused,foundout”

(p.235);“hecannothelpbelievingthatotherswill

despisehim…if

theyfindoutabouthisweaknesses”(p.240).Being

criticizedbyothers

orbeingdefeatedincompetitionmeansforthe

neuroticpersonthathehastorealizeadefinite

weaknessorshortcoming,arealizationthatforhimis

unbearable.Hypersensitivitytobeingdisapprovedof

orcriticizedisassociatedwithafeelingof

‘intrinsic

weakness’,thatis,“adeepfeelingofinsignificance

orratherof

nothingness”,which,inturn,iscoveredupbya

grandiosebutfragile

façadeor‘persona’(p.267).Theneuroticpersonhas

“high-flungnotionsofhisuniqueness”(p.

265);yettheseareeasilyshattered(Horney,1937).

Kohut(1966)

suggestedthatinfantilegrandiosity(thegrandiosity

ofthe‘narcissisticself’)persistsintoadulthood

whenitservestocoveroveraprecariousself.If

infantilegrandiosity

isinsufficientlymodifiedduringpersonality

development,theperson

remainsliabletobenarcissisticallyinjuredandto

experienceshame,becauseambitionsarelikelytobe

thwartedwhentheyarebasedon

irrationaloverestimationoftheself(Kohut,1966).

When,inAdlerian

terms,the‘idealgoalofperfection’,whichisthe

‘guidingfiction’in

thepursuitofsuperiority,

isoutofreachand“toounrealistictoconstitutean

incentivetoreal

endeavour”,then“thepersontakesrefugein

phantasies,inanattempt

toregaininthiswayhissenseofworth”(Flugel,

1945,p.47).Flight

intofantasyrequiresanattitudeofdetachment,

which,initself,isadefenseagainstthefearof

beingdisapprovedofandthusforcedtofaceupto

one’sinferiority.

Hypersensitivitytobeingdisapprovedoforcriticized

canresultina

completewithdrawalofallfeelings(emotional

investments),manifesting

asemotionalunresponsivenessandcoldness(Horney,

1937,p.136).The

personhas“tobecomeemotionallydetachedfrompeople

sothatnothing

willhurtordisappoint”(Horney,1937,p.99).

Characterological detachment is an active

movementawayfromrelationshipsandafreezing

ofthe

capacityforrelatedness(Schecter,1978).

Characterologicaldetachment

resemblesdetachmentexperiencedbyinfantsin

responsetoseparation

fromthemother(activeavoidanceofthemother)

(followinginitial

stagesof‘angryprotest’and‘despair’)(Bowlby,

1973).Transitory

detachmentispartoftheprocessofmourningin

adults.Characterologicaldetachmentisastable

systemofdefenses

thatprotectsagainstpsychicpainarisingfrom

abandonmentorlossof

love(Schecter,1978).Personswithmilderformsof

detachmenthave

shallowrelationships.Theirfearofdependencyand“a

greatdreadof

thedeathofthelovedperson”(p.86)leadto

repeatedrejectionsof

theobject(“orto

stiflinganddenyinglove”)andto“therepeated

turningawayfroma

(loved)object”,whilebeing“drivenfromoneperson

toanother”

(infidelity)(Klein,1937,p.86).Schizoidpersons

maintainaparticularlysevereandenduringdetachment

.Schizoidpersonskeepthemselves“atasafe

emotionaldistancefromothers”(viaemotional

coldness),whichprotectsthem“againstthedangerof

incurringa

permanentorprotractedbreakup,enfeeblement,or

seriousdistortionof

theself”(Kohut,1977,p.192).

Characterologicaldetachmentisaccompaniedby

periodic regression to fusion with internal

objects(symbioticfantasies),aimingtofill

theextremeisolationofthedetachedperson

(Schecter,1978,p.83).

Detachmentisrelatedtotheadaptivestateof

‘aloneness’.Aloneness,asopposedtoloneliness,

presupposesthepresenceinpsychicrealityof

another,aninternalized

goodobject.Theinfant’sdevelopingcapacitytobe

‘aloneinthe

presenceofthemother’isaprecursorofthemature

capacitytobe

aloneandallbyoneself,thatis,toseekoutand

enjoyarelationship

enjoyarelationship

solelywithoneself(Winnicott,1958).Thesubjective

self,beinga

derivativeof(andremaininginherentlyconnectedto)

objectiveothers,

isneveralone,asWinnicott(1958)pointedout.Inner

life,being

playedoutinastateofaloneness,

featurestheselfinrelationshipwithgoodinternal

objects(although

thesemaybehiddenfromconsciousawareness);andit

isthroughthese

internalobjectrelationsthattheselftakesshape

andbecomes

cohesive.

5.1Omnipotence

During

thedevelopmentalphaseof‘separation-individuation’

(fromaboutfive

to24monthsofage),thechildbecomesawareofhis

limitationsandof

hisdependenceontheparents(whilealsodeveloping

pleasurein

independentfunctioning)(Mahler,1967,1972).Asa

resultof

nontraumaticfrustrationsandthreatsofobjectloss,

thechildcomesto

thechildcomesto

realizehisseparateness.Atthesametime,becoming

awareofhis

limitations,hisselfisgraduallydivestedfrom

omnipotenceandoverestimation.Hemustgraduallyand

painfullygiveupthedelusionofhisgrandeur

(Mahler,1967,1972).Hisself-esteemmayundergo

criticaldeflation,howeveridentificationwithan

emotionallyavailablemotherandinternalizationofa

goodchild-mother

relationshiphelptorestoreself-esteem.

Nevertheless,thechild

continuestolongforthelost‘idealstateofthe

self’(Joffe&

Sandler,1965),inwhichhewasmergedwiththe

mother;andthislongingcontinuestobeaspurfor

development.Afterhis

‘psychologicalbirth’(recognitionofhis

separateness),thechild

entersalife-longstruggleagainstisolation,

involvingeffortsto

returntoorapproximatethe‘idealstateofself’,

thestateoffusion

withthesymbioticmother(Mahler,1967,1972).

Relinquishing the belief in his own

omnipotence , the child tries, at first, to

participateintheperceivedomnipotenceofhis

parents. Having had to renounce his belief in

hisomnipotence,the

child“considerstheadultswhohavenowbecome

independentobjectsto

beomnipotent,andhetriesbyintrojectiontoshare

theiromnipotenceagain”(Fenichel,1946,p.40).The

childparticipatesintheiromnipotencewheneverhe

feelslovedbythem.Narcissisticfeelingsof

wellbeing,

revivedinthisway,“arefeltasareunionwithan

omnipotentforcein

theexternalworld”(Fenichel,1946,p.40).Whenthe

childhasto

realizethathecannolongerparticipateinhis

parents’omnipotence,

hedevelopsanincreasedsenseofdependencyand

increasinglysuffers

separationanxiety;

andthisprocessisinbalancewithhisresurging

strivingsfor

separatenessandautonomy.Duringthe‘rapprochement’

subphaseofthe

separation-individuationphase(secondhalfofthe

secondyear),the

childalternatesbetweendemandingorprotectinghis

autonomyand

demandingorseekinghismother’scloseness(Mahler,

1972).Mahler

(1972)suggestedthat“theentirelifecycle

[constitutes]amoreor

lesssuccessfulprocessofdistancingfromand

introjectionofthelostsymbioticmother,aneternal

longingfortheactualor

fantasized‘idealstateofself’,withthelatter

standingfora

symbioticfusionwiththe‘allgood’symbioticmother,

whowasatone

timepartoftheselfinablissfulstateof

wellbeing”(safety).

Feelings

ofomnipotencearegraduallymodifiedindevelopment

(becoming

realisticgoals),ifthechildexperiences

narcissisticinjuriesand

frustrationsofhisdemandsinthecontextofmaternal

empathyand

understanding(Rothstein,1979).Approximationofthe

‘idealstateof

self’doesnotgenerallyentailrestorationof

infantileomnipotence,providedthattheprimary

maternalobjecthasbeenintrojected

successfullyandagoodinternalobjectrelationhas

supplantedan

externalone.Thisissomewhatequivalenttostating

thatthestateof

primarynarcissismisapproachedindirectlybywayof

secondarynarcissism;thatsafety

(Sandler)isattainedthroughnarcissistically

(Sandler)isattainedthroughnarcissistically

gratifyingrelationships

withexternalandinternalobjects.Theomnipotent

child,ontheotherhand,isself-sufficient

andindependentinhisfantasy;heturnsthe‘negative

realization’of

the‘nobreast’intoafeelingthathedoesnotneed

theobjectafter

all(Bion,1962).Assignmentofomnipotencebackto

theself(afteromnipotencehadpreviouslybeen

overcomein

development,firstbyassignmentofomnipotencetothe

parents)is

defensiveinnature.Ifthechild’scapacityto

toleratefrustrationislow,thenhemayuse

omnipotenceasameansfortoleratingfrustration

(Bion,1962).

5.2HiddenGrandiosity

The

detachedperson,ashasalreadybeenpointedout,is

estrangedfrom

others;heavoidscloseandlastingrelationshipswith

them(Horney,

1945).Hehastomaintainhisdetachmentinorderto

avoidrejectionandnarcissisticinjury,buthis

detachmentenableshim,atthesametime,tohide

intolerablefeelingsofinferiorityundernotionsof

hisowngreatness.Thedetachedpersonseeshimselfas

asuperiororuniquebeing,assomeonewhoisboundto

asuperiororuniquebeing,assomeonewhoisboundto

attractothers’

approvaloradmirationwithouthavingtoreachoutto

andengagewith

them.Thedetachedpersonalsoharbors“fantasiesofa

futurewhenhe

wouldaccomplishexceptionalthings”(Horney,1945,p.

79).Feelingsand

fantasiesofsuperiorityoruniquenessallowthe

detachedpersontoupholdhisself-esteem,yetthese

feelingsandfantasiesflourishonlyinastateof

detachment.AsHorney(1945)

stated,thedetachedperson’sremotenessis“anover-

allprotectionto

whichhemusttenaciouslyclingandwhichhemust

defendatwhatever

cost”(p.92).Therearevariousbehaviorsand

attitudesthattheperson

developsforthepurposeofmaintaininghisdetachment

andtherebyprotectingnotionsofhisowngreatness

fromcrumblingorbeingexposedtoridicule.

Hemaythinkofhimselfasanindependentor

independentlyminded

personandactinaccordancewiththisnotion.The

needfor

independence,whenitamountstocharacterological

detachment,“manifestsitselfinahypersensitivity

toeverythinginanywayresemblingcoercion,

influence,obligation”(Horney,1945,p.77).The

detachedperson

avoidsanythingthatcouldjeopardizehisdetachment.

Long-term

obligationsareavoided;“thethoughtofjoiningany

movementor

professionalgroupwhererealparticipationandnot

merelypaymentof

duesisrequired”causesfeelingsofpanic(p.88).

Others’expectations

towardthedetachedperson,eventimetables,

constituteathreatand

makehimfeeluneasyandrebellious(p.78).“Hewill

conformoutwardly

inordertoavoidfriction,butinhisownmindhe

stubbornlyrejects

allconventionalrulesandstandards”(Horney,1945,

p.78).

The idealized self-image of neurotic persons

is grandiose and unrealistic and hence

associated

withpronenesstodetachment;andboththeidealized

imageand

detachmentprovidethecharacterologicalgroundfor

indecisivenessand

aninabilitytotakeresponsibility.Neuroticpersons

tendtobeunable

totakeresponsibilityforthemselves,toacknowledge

tothemselvesand

tothemselvesand

tootherstheirintentions,andtoacceptthe

consequencesoftheir

actions(Horney,1945).Theneuroticperson,when

facedwiththe

consequencesofhisactions,“oftentriestowiggle

outbydenying,

forgetting,belittling”orplacingresponsibilityon

others(p.171).

Recognizingtheconsequencesofhisactionsand

assumingresponsibility

forthemwouldshatterhishiddenfeelingof

omnipotence(p.172).Hisidealizedimage“doesnot

permitofthepossibilityofbeingwrong”,so“hemust

falsifymattersandascribetheadverseconsequences

tosomeoneelse”

(Horney,1945,p.173).Similarly,neuroticpersons

“oftencannotcommit

themselvestoafeelingoropinionaboutanother

person”;theyoften

cannottake“astandinaccordancewiththeobjective

meritsofa

person,idea,orcause”;however,they“arereadily

swayed–

unconsciouslybribed,asitwere–bythelureof

greateraffection,

greaterprestige,recognition,power”(pp.168-169).

Theyrationalizeasfairnesstheirinabilitytomake

uptheirmindortakeastand,wherebysuchfairness

caninitselfbeacompulsorypartoftheidealized

image(Horney,1945,p.169).

Even

thoughthedetachedpersonkeepshimselfatasafe

distancefrom

others,hecanreleaseandexpressavarietyof

feelings,including

creativefeelings,aslongasheexpressesthemina

mannerthatisnot

directlyconnectedwithhumanrelationships(Horney,

1945,p.83).For

theneuroticperson,wholacksspontaneityandhas

pervasiveinhibitionsinareasofaffectionatenessand

assertiveness,“detachmentwillprovidethebest

chanceofexpressingwhatcreativeabilitythereis”

(p.90).Detachmentpromotesintellectualization.

Inasmuchasemotionshavetobechecked,“emphasis

willbeplaceduponintelligence”,withanexpectation

that“everythingcanbesolved

bysheerpowerofreasoning”(Horney,1945,p.85).In

schizoidpersons,

whosecharacterologicaldetachmentisparticularly

severe,

preoccupationwiththeinnerworldcoexistswith

‘overvaluationof

thought’andatendencytosubstituteintellectualfor

practical

solutionsoftheiremotionalproblems(Fairbairn,

1952,p.20).Schizoidpersons“areoftenmore

inclinedtoconstructintellectualsystemsof

anelaboratekindthantodevelopemotional

relationshipswithotherson

ahumanbasis”(p.21).Theycircumventemotional

difficultiesby

focusingtheireffortsonattainmentsinthe

intellectualrealm

(Fairbairn,1952,p.23).Schizoidpersonsconcentrate

“theiroften

considerablelibidinalresourcesonpursuitswhich

minimizehuman

contact(suchasinterestandworkintheareaof

aesthetics;orthe

studyofabstract,theoreticaltopics)”(Kohut,1971,

p.12).

Detachment,byfacilitatingintellectualization,

reinforcesconcealedgrandiosity.

Schizoidpersonsareprone“tolookdownfromtheir

intellectual

retreatsuponcommonhumanitywithasuperior

attitude”(Fairbairn,

1952,p.21).Theyhaveasenseofinnersuperiority,

eventhoughthisisoftenlargelyunconscious(p.22).

Theirattitude

ofsuperioritymaybe“concealedunderasuperficial

attitudeof

attitudeof

inferiorityorhumility;anditmaybeconsciously

cherishedasaprecioussecret”(Fairbairn,1952,p.

7).

5.3GrandioseFantasy

Approval,

acceptance,andlovecanbesoughtnotonlyexternally

fromothers(in

thesocialcontext)butalsofromtheinternalworld,

bywithdrawing

intotheprivaterealmoffantasy(Laughlin,1970).

Daydreamsoftenhave

anarcissisticemphasis;eventsandinteractionsin

daydreams,

featuringthedaydreamerhimself,providenarcissistic

gratification

(Federn,1952;Sandler&Nagera,1963).Daydreaming

canbea

pathologicalformofself-esteemregulationwhenit

“indulgesintimelessshamevents,actually

substitutingforthepresent”(Federn,1952,p.360).

Fantasyallowsforself-absorptionandself-

glorificationandisconducivetocharacterological

detachment.Fantasyisapotentmeansforavoiding

conflictandavoidingrealisticaction(Laughlin,1970,

p.119).

The

childmayperceivehismothertobeunreliableand

becomeprofoundly

disillusionedwithherearlyon.‘Precocious

separation’fromthemother

leadstoaprecociousinternalizationoftheself,

thatis,tothe

formationofafragilesenseofselfthatneedstobe

supportedby

fantasiesofgrandiosityandomnipotence(Modell,

1975).Atthesametime,thechildmaydevelopafear

ofcloseness,whichmanifestsincharacterological

detachment,whichfacilitatesindulgenceinand

withdrawalintograndioseor

omnipotentfantasies(Modell,1975).Grandiose

fantasiesaboutoneself

revealagrandioseegoideal.

Theegoidealofnarcissisticpersons,inparticular,

hasgrandiose

proportions(Kernberg,1970).Thiswouldmakeit

difficultforthese

personstoactualizetheiridealandtomaintaintheir

narcissistic

balanceotherthaningrandiosefantasy.Thus,

narcissisticpersonsmay

withdrawfromsociallifeandintofantasyas

effectivelyasthosewithschizoidpersonality

disorder(Kernberg,1970).Itcanbearguedthatthe

schizoidcharacter

isanotherformofnarcissisticpersonality

isanotherformofnarcissisticpersonality

disturbance,oneinwhich

omnipotenceandgrandiosityarecombinedwith

hypersensitivitytorejection(orheightenedfearof

disapproval)andlackofassertiveness.Grandiose

fantasiesarethepredominantmodeofexpressionof

thegrandioseegoideal,thatis,oftheego’s

cravingforacceptanceby(andfusionwith)the

omnipotentobject(superego),ifthepersonishighly

sensitiveto

rejectionandfearfulofcloseness,andifhethus

preferstooperatein

amodeofdetachment.

There is perhaps a slight distinction to be

made between omnipotent and grandiose

fantasies.

Omnipotentfantasiesconcernillusionsofself-

sufficiencyand

independencefromtheprimaryobject,whereas

grandiosefantasies,

insofarastheycanbedistinguishedfromomnipotent

fantasies,express

theneedforacceptancebyaconcreteorabstractor

unconscious

representativeoftheprimaryobject.Themoreorless

consciousnotion

ofone’sgrandiositycounteractsdeep-seatedfeelings

ofworthlessnessandreestablishestheperson’sworth

oracceptabilityintheeyesofa

concreteorabstractderivativeoftheprimary

maternalobject,whereby

thisderivativecanbeconsciousorunconscious,with

conscious

derivativescomprisinginternalandexternal

projectionsorincarnations

ofthesuperegooromnipotentobject.Fantasies

featuringagrandiose

selfareultimatelyfantasiesaboutaninternal

omnipotentobject,

whethertheobjectfeaturesinthesefantasiesornot.

Narcissistic

personsaimtoachievereunionwiththeiromnipotent

object;andtheydo

sobyembellishingtheirselfinfantasy,ifnotby

livinguptotheir

egoidealinreality.Wheninteractingwithreality,

shortcomingsandweaknesses

ofthepersonalitybecomeapparent.Shortcomingsand

weaknesses,as

judgedagainstthevaluesthathavebeeninternalized

astheegoideal,areasourceofshameandathreat

totheobjectiveofreunionwiththeomnipotent

object

(Bursten,1973).Shortcomingandweaknessesareeasily

overlookedin

fantasy.

5.4FaithinGodandBeliefinFateGodisa

superegoprojectionparexcellence.Our

relationshipwithGodisthatofouregowith

the

superego(Flugel,1945).Godprovidesnarcissistic

sustenanceinthe

formofhigherrecognitionanddivineapproval.Godis

a‘supernatural

provider’who“mustbeappeasedbyprayerandself-

torture”(Erikson,

1950,p.225),muchasthesuperegohastobeappeased

byguiltandself-recrimination.

Religions“aboundwitheffortsatatonementwhichtry

tomakeupfor

vaguedeedsagainstamaternalmatrix”(Erikson,1950,

p.225).God

ultimatelyrepresentsourstrivingforacceptanceby

andreunionwith

theprimarymaternalobject.Adler(1938)suggested

that“theideaof

God…correspondstotheobscureyearningofhuman

beingstoreach

perfection”(p.199).Toreachperfectionandbecome

acceptabletoGod,

wehavetoliveuptotheidealprescribedbyour

religiousculture,

whichisinternalizedastheegoideal.

Theegoidealis,asFreud(1923)sawit,“a

Theegoidealis,asFreud(1923)sawit,“a

substituteforalonging

forthefather”;andassuch“itcontainsthegerm

fromwhichallreligionshaveevolved”(p.37).The

patriarchalleaderlosthissignificancewhen,inthe

courseofculturalevolution,

ancientkinshipstructuresdisintegratedandsocial

structuresbecame

morefluid.Withthedemiseofthepatriarchalleader,

whohimselfwasa

developmentalderivativeoftheprimarymaternal

object,Godbecameasubstituteanchorforsafetyand

compassforsocialconduct.

Gods are commonly portrayed as helpful and

benign beings as well as punishing and

malignant beings (Flugel, 1945, p. 187). God

has loving and protecting as well as

frustratingandpunishingaspects,muchasour

parents had, whose introjection gave rise to

the superego, the origin of God. The

ambivalence in our attitude to God is a

reflection of the ambivalence in our attitude

toourparents,who

onceactedassourcesofapprovalandassourcesof

disapprovaland

punishment.Whenreligionstrytoreconcile“theall-

powerfulnessand

all-lovingnessofGod”withtheexistenceofevil(p.

187),theypickup

onouroftenunconscious‘needforpunishment’.

Temptationbyaforbiddenimpulseorcommitmentofa

sinarousesinus

theneedtosubjectourselvestopunishment,sothat

wecanregainthe

goodwillandloveofGod,muchaswehadearlierin

ourlifetriedto

recapturetheloveofourparentsbyacceptingand

enduringtheir

punishment(Flugel,1945).Fateisanother,but“more

shadowy”

projectionofthesuperegoandultimatelyalsoa

representationofourparents(Flugel,1945,p.161).

Beingdeliveredablowbyfateisequivalenttothe

withdrawalofparentalloveandprotection.“When

fatedeliversusablow”,“wemaybeovercomebythe

samesenseof

lonelinessandhelplessnessthatweexperiencedin

earlyyearsifweimaginedourparentshad

forsakenus”(p.161).When,however,“fate‘smiles’

uponus”,wefeel

oncemoreasthoughweare“‘basking’intheapproval

oftheparents”

(Flugel,1945,p.161).

Gambling,accordingtoFenichel(1946),“isa

provocation of fate, which is forced to make

its decision for or against the individual”

(p.372).Luckingambling“meansapromiseof

protection (and of narcissistic supplies)”

(Fenichel, 1946, p. 372). Greenson (1947)

argued that the neurotic gambler has strong

yearnings for omnipotence and that, by way of

gambling,he“seeksasignfromFate”,asign

thatwouldconfirmhisomnipotence(p.7).His

gambling challenges fate or God “to calm his

grave doubts” about his omnipotence (p. 7).

Beinglucky

meanstotheneuroticgamblerthatheisomnipotent.

Alternatively,or

atthesametime,beingluckymeansthatthegambler

hasbeenaccepted

byGod,sothathecanshareinGod’somnipotence(p.

8).Winningevokeseuphoria(feelingsoftriumph)

“becauseitrepresentsreunionwiththeomnipotent

one”(Greenson,

1947,p.10).Winning,inotherwords,revivesa

derivativeofthe

‘oceanicfeeling’

experiencedbytheinfantinastateofunionwiththe

mother

(Fenichel,1946,p.39).Greenson(1947)thoughtthat

“theneurotic

gamblerhasregressedtoinfantilelongingsfor

omnipotence”

andthat“stronglongingsforomnipotenceandoceanic

feelingsare

evidenceofafailureoftheegotomaintainamature

level”(p.9).

Losing,bycontrast,meansbeingabandonedbyfateor

Godandcanleadtodepression.Greenson(1947)

pointedoutthattheneuroticgambler,who“isa

personalityonthebrinkofaseveredepression”(p.

8),hasactuallyaneedtolose,despitethe

depressionwhichlosingcan

cause.Theneedtoloseisanexpressionof

unconsciousguilt,ofanunconsciousneedfor

punishmentwithitspromiseofabsolutionor

forgiveness.

Punishmentintheformoflosing“isalesserevil

thantheterrifying

punishmentofcastrationortotallossoflove”

(Greenson,1947,p.11).

5.5SchizoidPersonalityDisorderSchizoid

personshaveanattitudeofdetachmentand

socialisolation;theykeeptheirobjectsaway

fromthemselves.

Theycannotexpresstheirfeelingsnaturallytoward

others,findingit

difficulttoactnaturallyandspontaneously

(Fairbairn,1952,p.20).

Personswithschizophrenia,

too,“hadshownsomesignsofpeculiarityfromearly

oninlifeand

wereneverabletoexpressstrongfeelings”;theyhave

alwayshad“a

tendencytoturnawayfromtheoutsideworldatthe

leastprovocation”

(Rosenfeld,1965,p.167).Schizoidpersonshave

“learnedtodistance

themselvesfromothersinordertoavoidthespecific

dangerofexposing

themselvestoanarcissisticinjury”

(p.12);theirdistancingisaconsequenceof“the

correctassessment

oftheirnarcissisticvulnerability”(Kohut,1971,p.

12).Schizoid

personsareunabletoendurenarcissisticinjuries(p.

532)andreadily

reacttofrustrationswith‘partiallossofobject

cathexes’and

withdrawalintostateof‘primaryandomnipotent

narcissism’,astatein

whichtheyseethemselvesasindependentfromothers

(Fenichel,1946,

p.531).Schizoidpersonsbecameconvincedearlyin

lifethat“their

motherdidnotreallylovethemandvaluethem”

(Fairbairn,1952,p.23).Theirmotherfailed“to

convinceherchildbyspontaneous

andgenuineexpressionsofaffectionthatsheherself

loveshimasa

person”(Fairbairn,1952,p.13).

The

schizoidperson“longsdeepdowntoloveandbe

loved”,but“hecan

onlypermithimselftoloveandbelovedfromafar

off”(Fairbairn,

1952,p.26).Theschizoidpersonhasalongingtobe

seen,known,and

recognizedbyothers,hopingtherebytopreservehis

fragileidentity

(Laing,1960).Hisfearoflossofhisself,thatis,

his“fearofbeing

invisible,ofdisappearing,iscloselyassociatedwith

thefearofhis

motherdisappearing”(p.125).Atthesametime,being

seenbyothersor

beingjustvisibletothemposesathreattohis

identityandhissense

ofrealness(i.e.,tothecohesivenessofhisself).

Theschizoid

person“feelsmore‘vulnerable’,moreliabletobe

exposedbythelook

ofanotherperson”(p.79).Whilethereisalonging

tobeseenor

known,tobeseenorknownisalsowhatismost

dreaded(p.123).The

schizoidpersonlongsforamomentofrecognition(p.

122),however“of

thisverylongingheisterrified”(Laing,1960,p.

97).Givinginto

thislongingmeansfacingthepossibilityofultimate

rejectionor

abandonment.Notonlyschizoidpersons,butalsothose

witha

schizophreniccondition,experiencea“perpetual

conflictbetweenthe

wishforhumancontact”and“thedangerofexcessive

closeness”(Reiser,

1986,p.232).Duetotheirfearofrejection,

schizoidand

schizophrenicpersonsareunabletouseselfobjectsto

maintaintheir

narcissisticbalance;“theyareforeveratriskand

foreveralone”,

however“soonerorlaterthedreadfulloneliness

catchesupanddrivestheschizophrenicpatientto

seekhumancontact,despite

therisks”(Reiser,1986,p.232).Forschizoid

persons,participation

inlifeispossible“butonlyinthefaceofintense

anxiety”(Laing,

1960,p.95).Insofarascontactcanbemade,schizoid

personstreat

theirobjects“asmeansofsatisfyingtheirown

requirementsratherthan

aspersonspossessinginherentvalue”(Fairbairn,

aspersonspossessinginherentvalue”(Fairbairn,

1952,p.13)(i.e.,

asselfobjects).Objectsthatare‘incorporatedinto

theself’butalsoperceivedtobepartofthe

externalworld(selfobjects)haveto

becontrolledcompulsively,ifthepersonisunableto

formmature

relationships(ifhehasnotprogressedto‘mature

dependence’).The

personwhoisfixatedonaninfantileattitudeof

‘taking’

(characteristicofthestageof‘infantiledependence

’)resortstoexhibitionism,masochism,orsadism

(Fairbairn,1952)inhiseffortstocompulsively

controlhis

selfobjects(‘incorporatedobjects’).Theexclusively

narcissisticuse

ofobjectsischaracteristicespeciallyfor

narcissisticpersonalityand

behaviordisorders,whichemphasizesagainthe

continuitybetween

schizoidandnarcissisticconditions.

Schizoid

personsarepreoccupiedwiththeirinnerrealityand

overvaluethought

processes(i.e.,theyintellectualize).Theyhadto

transfer,earlyin

life,theirrelationshipwithexternalobjectsinto

“therealmofinner

“therealmofinner

reality”;“theirobjectstendtobelongtotheinner

ratherthantothe

outerworld”(Fairbairn,1952,p.18).Inotherwords,

schizoidpersons

dealwiththeirlackofgratifyingexternalobject

relationshipsby

turningtointernalizedobjects.

Inasmuchasinterest(‘libido’)iswithdrawnfrom

externalobjects,it

isdirectedtowardinternalizedobjects,sothatitis

inthe“inner

realitythatthevaluesoftheschizoidindividualare

tobefound”(p.

50).Schizoidpersonsbuildupthe‘libidinal’(or

rather

‘narcissistic’)valueoftheirobjectsintheinner

world;and“they

tendtoidentifythemselvesverystronglywiththeir

internalobjects”

(Fairbairn,1952,p.18).Identificationwith

internalizedobjectsis

coupledwithasenseofsecretepossessionofthese

objects,whichresultsinanarcissisticinflationof

theego,asecretsenseofsuperiority(p.22).The

necessityofsecrecyispartly“determinedbyfearof

the

lossofinternalizedobjectswhichappearinfinitely

lossofinternalizedobjectswhichappearinfinitely

precious(evenas

preciousaslifeitself)”(p.22).Secretpossession

ofinternalized

objectscausestheperson“tofeelthatheis

‘different’fromother

people–evenifnot,asoftenhappens,actually

exceptionalorunique”

(Fairbairn,1952,p.22).Thesenseofdifferencefrom

others

(uniqueness)isalsoaconsequenceoftheneedto

offsetfeelingsof

inferioritytowardobjectsintheouterworld.

However,theattitudeofsuperiority,adoptedby

schizoidpersonsfordefensivepurposes,“isbased

uponan

orientationtowardsinternalizedobjects”(Fairbairn,

1952,pp.50-51).

Bycontrast,thesuperiorityofthosewith

narcissisticpersonality

disorder,ascommonlyunderstood,isbasedon

narcissisticsupplies

demandedanddrawnfromexternalobjects.

Schizoid

fantasiesfeatureinternalizedobjectswithwhichthe

selfidentifies,a

grandioseselfthatiselevatedtothelevelofthe

unconsciously

fantasizedomnipotentobject,oranomnipotentself

thatisindependentanddoesnotneedanyobjects.As

theschizoidpersonwithdrawsinto

fantasy,heconstructsandmaintainsan‘innerself’,

whichheseparates

fromhis‘falseself’orpersona,thelatterbeing

the‘identity-for-others’whicharisesincompliance

withothers’expectations(Laing,1960,p.105).The

innerself,

occupyingtherealmoffantasy,isomnipotent;it“can

beanyone,

anywhere,doanything,haveeverything”(p.88).The

illusionof

omnipotenceandfreedomcanbesustainedonlyin

fantasy.Toprotecttheinnerself

againstthedangerofdestructionfromoutersources,

theschizoid

personhastoeliminate“anydirectaccessfrom

withouttothis‘inner’

self”(p.152).However,“whatwasdesignedinthe

firstinstanceasa

guardorbarriertopreventdisruptiveimpingementson

theself,can

becomethewallsofaprisonfromwhichtheself

cannotescape”(Laing,

1960,p.150).

5.6Psychosis

Kohut (1977) thought that schizophrenia is a

formofpathologyofthe‘fragmentedself’(p.

243)thatarisesin

consequenceoftheemotionaldistanceofselfobjects

inchildhood

(earlyselfobjectfailures)(p.257).Federn(1952)

previouslyargued

that‘weaknessoftheego’isafundamentalproblemin

schizophreniaand

psychosis(pp.105,166).He,too,thoughtthat

mothersofpsychotic

patientstendtobeafflictedwith‘strong

narcissism’,whichopposes

the‘devotionwithouthesitation’thatispartofthe

‘instinctual

behaviorpattern’ofnormalmotherhood(Federn,1952,

pp.144-145).

Adverseexperiencesinearlylife,suchasmaternal

rejection,areoften

repressedbutcanbereactivatedlaterinlife,such

aswhentheperson

comestofeel“thatthesegmentoftheworldthatis

importanttohim

findshimunacceptable”(Arieti,1973,p.126).The

personwhoisat

riskofdevelopingschizophreniathen“seeshimselfas

totallydefeated,withoutanyworthand

possibilityofredemption”(p.127)andrealizes“that

possibilityofredemption”(p.127)andrealizes“that

aslongashe

liveshewillbeunacceptabletoothers”(p.126).He

maythenadoptnew

formsofcognition,allowinghimtotransform“the

intrapsychicdanger

intoanexternalorinterpersonalone”(Arieti,1973,

p.127).Once

psychosishasestablisheditself,aggressiveness,

whichwaspreviously

suppressed,getsclosertothethresholdof

expression,beingaimed

againstthosewhofrustratetheperson’slongingfor

humanrelatedness

andwhohaveacompetitiveadvantageinthestruggle

fornarcissistic

resources.Insteadof“adesperatelongingand

yearningforwhatothershaveandhelacks”,he

experiences“franticenvyandhatredofallthatis

theirsandnothis,oradesiretodestroyallthe

goodness,freshness,richnessintheworld”(Laing

1960,p.96).Such

hatredmaynotbetranslatedintoaggressiveactions

atfirst,thatis,

foraslongasanegosyntonicoutletforaggression

hasnotpresented

itself.

Psychosis involves severe detachment , to a

point at which the external world is

experiencedasdreamlike,

unreal,ordead(derealization).Theego,sotosay,

withdraws

narcissisticcathexesfromaworldthatrefusesto

meetitsnarcissistic

needs.Patientsmayevenexperiencethemselvesor

theirthinkingas

automaticandmechanical(Schilder,1976,p.43).Such

depersonalization(thecounterpartofderealization)

involvesexcessiveself-observation.

Throughself-observationtheegosetsitselfaboveits

narcissistic

needs.Withdrawalfromtheworldisalsocoupledwith

“anincipient

tendencytodestroytheworldandoneself”(Schilder,

1976,p.43),

whichwouldbelimitedatfirsttohatredandadesire

todestroy.Thepatient,who“nolongerdarestofully

experiencehisownbodyandtheworld”,givesthemup

but“retainshis

fullinterestinmerelyobservinghisincapacity”,

adopting,as‘the

destroyer’oftheworldandofhimself,thestanceof

a‘supremeobserver’(Schilder,1976,p.43).

Decisionscannotbemadeasthey

woulddrawthepersonbackintotheexternalworld.

woulddrawthepersonbackintotheexternalworld.

Patientswith

catatonicschizophrenia,

inparticular,findthemselvesimmobilizedwhenfaced

withadecision.

Catatonicimmobilizationorstupor“seemsspecifically

toreflecta

radicallyexaggeratedobsessionalhesitancy,

indecision,and

precautionaryconcern”(Shapiro,2000,p.149).

In

astateofisolationandnarcissisticaloofness,the

psychoticpatient

can“overcompensateallnarcissistichurtsby

developingastillhigher

opinionofhimself”(Fenichel,1946,p.421).In

narcissisticdaydreams,

heexperienceshimselfasbeingmorewonderfulthan

anyoneelse

(Fenichel,1946,p.421).Grandiosefantasiesof

psychoticandhence

severelydetachedpatientsarerelatedtothe

idealizedimageofwhichHorneyspoke.Whengrandiose

fantasiesstarttobecorroboratedbysubjective

(includinghallucinatory)experience,grandiose

delusionsdevelop(andthesecanstabilizeina

delusionalsystem).Patientsmay

notonlyhavegrandioseideasaboutthemselves,they

mayalso,astheir

mayalso,astheir

psychosisdevelops,feelandactasthoughtheyarea

personofgreat

significance.Megalomaniaisanextremeformof

pathological

overvaluationoftheself.Themegalomanicpatient,

“whoproclaimsthatheisLincoln,Christ,or

Napoleon”,“actuallyfeelshimselftobegreatestand

mostimportantofhumanspecimens”

(Hendrick,1958,p.119).Thepatientwould,atthe

sametime,actin

accordancewithdemandsandexpectationsofreality,a

seeming

contradictionthatisknownas‘doubleorientation’.

Detachment is allied with denial of reality,

or at least of part thereof. Denial is a

primitivedefense

againstconflictandanxietyandforms,alongwith

projection,thebasisofpersecutorydelusions

(Laughlin,1970).Projectionof

hostileimpulsesoperatesinmostoftheparanoidand

persecutory

delusions.Thepatientwishestoharmhisobjectsbut

cannotdosofor

fearofretaliation,

henceheexpectstobeharmedbytheminstead

(Laughlin,1970,pp.

230-232).Itisthisexpectationofbeingharmedby

230-232).Itisthisexpectationofbeingharmedby

othersthatallows

fortheprojectionofself-contempt.

Feelingdefeatedandblaminghimself,thepatient

externalizes

(projects)hisself-blameandself-accusation,so

that,insteadof

accusinghimself,hefeelsthattheaccusationcomes

fromtheexternal

world(Arieti,1973,p.127).Thisgiveshimanew

focusforhis

aggression(apotentiallyegosyntonicone).Moreover,

whenthe“accused

personnowisnotthepatientbutthepersecutor”

(“whoisaccusedof

persecutingthepatient”),“thepatientexperiencesa

riseinhis

self-esteem,oftenaccompaniedbyafeelingof

martyrdom”,givenespeciallythat“thepatientfeels

falselyaccused”(Arieti,1973,p.127).

Thepersecutedpatientseeshimselfasapersonof

greatconsequence

whenhehasbecome“thesubjectofwidespread

attention,evenifthisbe

malicious”(Storr,1968,p.95).Inacting“asthough

somesinister

deityissingling[him]outforpersecution”andas

though“allhostile

though“allhostile

powersareintentonwreakingvengeanceupon[him]”,

thepatientreveals

hisvanity,

hisneedtofeelimportant(Adler,1927,p.210).

Persecutorydelusions

areeconomicallybeneficialtotheego,asmanifested

inthephenomenon

of‘paranoidindifference’,whichpatientsshowwhen

reportingtheir

persecution(Laughlin,1970,p.234).

5.7Summary

The

senseofselfisasenseofseparatenessand,atthe

sametime,a

longingforconnectednessandforreattainmentofthe

primary

narcissisticstateoffusionwiththeobject(whereby,

inastateof

fusion,theselfdissolves).Thesecureselfisbound

(unconsciously)to

goodinternalobjects(particularlythesuperego,the

introjected

maternalobject)ortheirexternalreplicas.

Insecurityoftheself

(correspondingtoalackofsecurelyestablished

internalobjects)and

sensitivitytorejectionleadtocompensatory

grandiosityofthe(inner)selfandtodetachment

(wherebydetachmentismaintainedbothtoprevent

narcissisticinjuries

andtofosterfeelingsofgrandiosity).Theinsecure

(andprecocious)

selftendstobeomnipotentandgrandioseandto

fluctuatebetween

denialofdependenceanddependenceonanomnipotent

internalobject.

Omnipotenceisastatebothofindependencefrom

objectsandoflonging

forfusionwithanomnipotentobject(superego).This

longingexpresses

itselfingrandiosefantasiesorinambitionsguided

byagrandioseego

ideal.Fantasiesfeaturingagrandioseselfare

usuallynotcommunicatedbecauseothers’reactions

wouldproduceshame,furtherexplainingtheneedfor

detachment.Theinnerself(reflectingothers’views

ofoneself),too,wouldfeelshame,sograndiose

fantasiesareoftentoleratedonlyatthemarginsof

consciousness.Thereisabalance,struckdifferently

indifferent

personalities,betweenthetendencytopreoccupy

oneselfwithgrandiose

fantasies(inastateofdetachment)andthemoreor

lesscompulsivepursuitofself-realization

(realizationoftheegoideal,whichisthegoalof

thepersonalityconjuredupinimagery),abalance

thatdependsontheperson’sintensityofnarcissistic

need(degreeof

insecurity),hissensitivitytonarcissisticinjury,

andhisendowmentwithsocialandphysicalattributes

andadaptivecopingskills.

A sense of selfarisesininteractionwith

superegoprojectionsembeddedintheexternal

world.The‘falseself’orpersona,whichthe

person (not only the neurotic person)

maintains in compliance with the external

world, is a special aspect of this self. The

self

thatisorientatedtowardtheexternalworld,

includingthefalseself,

needstobedistinguishedfromthe‘innerself’.Itis

theinnerself

thatfeaturesingrandiosefantasiesandthatdemands

andreceives

sustenancefrominternalizedobjects.Theinnerself,

beingsustainedin

andbytheinnerworld,hastobeinsulatedfromthe

outerworld.Theinnerselflivesinastateof

fantasy,whereastheegoidealbrieflyfeaturesin

imageryandincentivizesreality-orientedpursuits.On

theonehand,grandiosefantasiesfulfill

aprotectivefunction,preventingdisintegration

anxietiesorshameconcerninganinsufficientlysecure

self.Ontheotherhand,excessive

engagementingrandiosefantasiesfurtherisolatesthe

personand

therebyaddstohisvulnerabilitytoridiculeandto

hisinferiority(senseofvulnerability).Although

detachmentisasourceofvulnerability,ithastobe

heldfirmlyinplaceby

schizoidpersons,asitisapreconditionfor

defenses,apartfrombeing

adefenseinitsownright.Theneurotic(and

especiallytheschizoid)

personmaintainshisdetachment(andtherebyprotects

hisomnipotenceorgrandiosity)byentertaining,and

actinginaccordancewith,viewsofhimselfas

someonewhoisparticularlyindependentlymindedor

objectiveinhis

dealingswiththeworld.Intellectualization

strengthensgrandiositybut

dependsonadegreeofdetachment.Intellectualization

canbeadaptive,

whenemployedaspartofabstractpursuits,butitcan

alsobeusedto

builddelusionalsystems,whichareultimately

concernedwithjustifying

one’sgrandiosity(asaconditionofsafety).In

psychosis,detachmentiscarriedtotheextreme

(althoughevenpsychosiscanbe

adaptiveinthecontextofmodernmentalhealth

systems).Notonly

grandiosebutalsopersecutorydelusions

grandiosebutalsopersecutorydelusions

(substantiatedinpartby

hallucinatoryexperiences)enhanceself-esteem,but

persecutorydelusionsbecomethemainfeatureof

psychosisiffrustrationandenvyariseandcanno

longerbecontainedinself-contemptandself-blame,

thatis,ifself-contemptandself-blamearechanneled

awayfromtheselfandjustifiableexternaltargets

foraggressionare

required.

Idealizationand

Identification

Children

haveapropensitytoadmireandidealizetheirobject

(aselfobject)

andtherebytomergewithit.Idealizationofthe

selfobjectflowsinto

identificationwithit.Earlyinthechild’slife,the

mother’s“holding

andcarryingallowsmerger-experienceswiththe

selfobject’sidealized

omnipotence”

(Kohut,1977,p.179).Mergercantakeplacewithan

“empathic

omnipotentidealizedselfobject”(p.85),arole

playedfirstbythe

motherandthenthefather.Theemphatically

responsivefatherhasto

“allowhimselftoenjoybeingidealizedbyhisson”

(p.12).

Idealizationcausesenhancementofself-esteem“via

thetemporaryparticipationintheomnipotenceofthe

idealizedselfobject”(p.13).Thechild’s“relation

tothe

empathicallyrespondingselfobjectparentwhopermits

andindeedenjoys

thechild’sidealizationofhimandmergerwithhim”

establishesthechild’scohesive‘idealized

parentimago’(p.185).The‘idealizedparentimago’,

representingthe

wishtomergewithanidealizedselfobject,isoneof

thetwopolar

areasofthe‘nuclearself’,theotheronebeingthe

‘grandiose-exhibitionisticself’(Kohut,1977,p.49)

(‘narcissistic

self’[Kohut,1966]).Thechild’sarchaicwishto

mergewithan

omnipotentselfobjectistransformed,inthecourseof

development,into

‘attainableideals’,which,alongwith‘realistic

ambitions’(derived

fromthegrandiose-exhibitionisticself),underpin

capacitiestoobtain

narcissisticsustenancefromtherealisticselfobject

surroundandto

therebymaintainself-esteem(Kohut,1977,p.82).As

developmentproceeds,thechild’s

idealizations(investmentsof‘idealizingnarcissistic

libido’),which

retaintheirnarcissisticcharacter,willnormally

coexistandbecome

integratedwithobject-instinctualcathexes,namely

love(‘object

libido’)andhate.‘Idealizingnarcissisticlibido’

(whichisinvested

inselfobjects)“playsasignificantroleinmature

object

relationships,whereitisamalgamatedwithtrue

objectlibido”(Kohut,

1971,p.40).

The

child,whenidentifiedwiththeparent,“feelsnot

onlyfearlessand

protected,butalsoofincreasedbodilysizeandfreed

fromthe

experienceoftheweaknessofhisego”(Federn,1952,

p.350).By

identifyingwiththeidealizedparent,thechildcan

harness

narcissisticsuppliesavailabletothatobjectand

therebyenhancehis

ownself-esteemandwellbeing(Sandler,1960b).When

thechild,asaresultof

identificationwiththeobject,feels“thesameasthe

admiredand

idealizedobject”,“someofthelibidinalcathexisof

theobjectis

transferredtotheself”;“thechildfeelslovedand

transferredtotheself”;“thechildfeelslovedand

obtainsaninner

stateofwellbeing”(p.36).Inotherwords,thechild

feelslikedinasmuchastheobjectislikedand

admired;“theesteeminwhichthe

omnipotentandadmiredobjectisheldisduplicatedin

theselfand

givesrisetoself-esteem”(Sandler,1960b,p.36).

Thechild’sarchaicidealizationofhisparent(the

‘idealizedparentimago’)isdevelopmentally

continuouswithidealizationsoftheparentalobjects

inthelate

preoedipalperiodandtheoedipalperiod(Kohut,1971,

p.40).Duringtheoedipalperiod,identificationwith

thesame-sexparentallowsthechildtosatisfyhis

desireforattention

fromtheopposite-sexparent.Furthermore,

idealizationoftheparental

selfobjectallowsthechild“toacquire(i.e.,to

integrateintohis

ownself)certainofhisfather’sabilities”(Kohut,

1977,p.11).

Attributesoftheidealizedobjectare“attractiveand

appealing,and

thusarefarmorereadilyemulatedortakenover”

(Laughlin,1970,p.

130).Whenadoptingtraits,mannerisms,goals,or

attitudesofthe

idealizedobject,thechildlearnstoactout

idealizedobject,thechildlearnstoactout

“derivativesofhis

grandioseandexhibitionisticstrivings”“inanaim-

inhibited,socially

acceptableway”(Kohut,1977,p.11).Idealizationand

identification

thusimportantlycontributetocharacterformation,to

theformationof

psychicstructuresthathelptoregulatethe

narcissisticbalanceon

increasinglyabstractlevels.Identificationwiththe

parentand,later

inlife,withaleaderorculturalidealentails

enactmentoftheseidealsandleadstotheacquisition

ofparentallyandthensociallyapprovedbehaviors.

Throughidentificationwiththeparentor,laterin

life,

withapersonofhighsocialstanding,thechildor

adultgains

acceptance,recognition,andapproval(narcissistic

supplies)andhence

security(safety)(Laughlin,1970);“theacquisition

ofcivilizedhabits

bestowsafeelingofheightenedself-esteem”(Kohut,

1977,p.112).

In

fantasiesaboutoneself,butalsoininteractionswith

thesocial

surround,weoftenplayanadoptedrole.Weidentify

withouregoideal,whichinitselfisaproductof

identifications.Furthermore,weidentifywithothers

whenobservingtheirinteractions.Money-Kyrle(1961)

recognizedthat“oureverydayreasoningaboutour

fellowsisanthropomorphicandbasedon

identification”(p.17).Inferencesaboutothers’

behaviorsandintentionsrestultimatelyonoursense

ofbeingpartiallyidentifiedwiththem(pp.22-23).

Thecapacitytoobservetheself,thatis,tobeself-

conscious,isfoundedon“thepowertoidentifywith

otherpeopleandsotoperceivetheworld,withthe

selfinit,fromtheirpointofview”(Money-Kyrle,

1961,p.78).Thereisonlyasmallstepfrom

observingormonitoringothersintheexternalworld

whilebeingidentifiedwiththemtoobservingtheself

initsinteractions(withimaginarycompetitorsand

superegoreplicas)ininternalimagery.Instatesof

introspection,wecanbeidentifiedwithanother(such

asasuccessfulcompetitorfortheattentionofan

internalsuperegoprojection)and,atthesametime,

seeourselvesthroughtheeyesofyetanother(the

superego).Weenacttheegoidealoridealizedself-

image(theproductofpreviousidentifications)and,

atthesametime,judge

ourselvesfromahigherperspective,fromthestance

oftheintrojected

parent.

6.1IdentificationinObjectRelationships

Identificationwithanotherpersonmaybea

meansofattractingandbindingathirdperson,

ashappensintheOedipalscenario.By

identifyingwithanother

personandassumingsomecharacteristicsofthis

person(“becauseone

wishestobelikethisperson”),onecan“potentially

receivewhatever

theotherpersondoes”(Schilder,1951,p.273).This

relatesespecially

tonarcissisticsuppliesattainablefromtheprimary

objectorfromone

ofitsderivatives(superegoreplicas).Identification

isgenerally

“motivatedbydeepbasicneedsforacceptance,

approval,andlove”(p.

135)andbythedesirefor“acceptanceorlovefrom

theobject”

(Laughlin,1970,p.146).Onecangratifyone’s

exhibitionisticimpulses

(andrealizeone’sambitions)bybeingliketheother

personand

becomingasapprovableandpraiseworthy(orloveable)

astheother

person.Theidealizedpersonwouldusuallybe

introjectedandintegrated

intotheegoideal,

sothathenceforththeidentificationwillbeonewith

theegoideal.

Theegoidealthenactsastheattractiveandlove-

Theegoidealthenactsastheattractiveandlove-

worthyperson,but

whattheegotriestoattractistheloveofthe

superego(the

introjectedprimaryobject).Identificationisalso

partofthemore

primitivescenariothatinvolvesidealizationdirectly

oftheprimaryobjectorofoneofitsderivatives.

Personalitydevelopmentmayarrestatthelevelof

admirationofand

identificationwithaconcretepersontakingtheplace

oftheprimary

object.‘Ideal-hungrypersonalities’searchfor

selfobjectswhosewealth

orprestigetheycanadmireorwhomtheycanadmire

fortheirpoweror

attractiveness(Kohut&Wolf,1978).Ideal-hungry

personalitiesneed

“selfobjectstowhomtheycanlookupandbywhomthey

canfeel

accepted”(Wolf,1988,p.73).Ideal-hungry

personalitiesfeel

worthwhileonlyiftheyareinthecompanyof

idealizableselfobjects

(Kohut&Wolf,1978).

Instinctual,includingexhibitionistic,wishes

can be gratified via a proxy, a person with

whom one identifies. In a form of altruism ,

forbiddeninstinctualwishesareprojectedonto

apersonwithwhomthe

altruistidentifies(A.Freud,1937).Thealtruist

takesafriendly

interestinsomeonewhoseinstinctualwishesrepresent

hisownwishes

andthen,bywayofidentification,gratifieshis

wishespassively

throughthatperson.Thepersonwithwhom

thealtruistidentifies,andwhocanbetterfulfilthe

altruist’s

wishes,wouldoncehavebeenenviedbythealtruist.

Altruismthus

providesadefenseagainstenvy(A.Freud,1937).

Wishesthataregratifiedinthiswayareoften

derivedfromexhibitionisticimpulses;theyrepresent

thealtruist’sown

ambitions.Whenidentifiedwiththepreviouslyenvied

person,the

altruistcangratifyhisexhibitionisticimpulsesand

ambitionsby

witnessingtheperson,whoisnowsubjectto

altruisticinvestments,

beinginreceiptofapprovalandpraise.Thealtruist

mayuseaggression

tocontrolthepersonwithwhomheidentifies;and

thereinhemayfinda

thereinhemayfinda

justifiedoutletforhisaggressiveimpulses.

‘Identification

withtheaggressor’isanotherdefensemechanismin

which

identificationplaysaprominentrole(A.Freud,

1937).Byidentifying

withandimpersonatingapowerfulauthorityfigure,

andtakingonthe

authority’saggressiveattitudes,thesubjugated

personcanbolsterhis

selfanddefendhimselfagainstfeelingsof

helplessnessorimpotence.

Themechanismofidentificationwiththeaggressor

contributesto

superegoformation,inthatthechildidentifieswith

thepunishing

aspectoftheparentalauthorityandthereby

internalizes

parentalcriticism(A.Freud,1937).Thechildlearns

tocriticize

himself,orindeedtocriticizeanotherwhotakeson

theroleofthe

self.Whenthechildidentifieswiththecritical

aspectsofhis

superego,hecanproject,atthesametime,hisself-

imageontoanother

imageontoanother

(Sandler,1960b,p.41).Byidentifyingwith

thesuperegointroject(theintrojectedparental

authority),thechild

(oradult)canadoptacriticalandmoralizing

attitudetowardanother

person.Thismechanismeffectsadefenseagainst

feelingsofguiltassociatedwithunacceptablewishes

andexplainswhy“thosewhomost

vocallyproclaimmoralpreceptsareoftenthosewho

feelmostguilty

abouttheirownunconsciouswishtodowhatthey

criticizeinothers”

(Sandler,1960b,p.41).

6.2IdentificationwiththeGrouporLeader

Membersofagroupshowheightened

suggestibilityandreadinessforidentification

withtheirleaderandwitheachother(Freud,

1921).Identificationwiththeleaderflows

fromadmirationandadorationoftheleader.The

leaderofthegroupis

theobjectofeachgroupmember’sidealization.

Atthesametime,eachgroupmemberbelievesthathe

isindividually

lovedbytheleader(Freud,1921).Thegroupderives

itscohesionin

partfromtheidea,heldmoreorlessconsciouslyby

eachmember,that

eachmember,that

heisindividuallylovedbytheleader,whoisan

omnipotentobjectstandingindevelopmental

continuitywiththeprimarymaternalobject.The

leader(likeoriginally

theparent)notonlyallowsparticipationinhis

omnipotence(viaidealization)butalsoprovides

narcissisticnourishmentinthe

formofmirroringresponsesandsignsofacceptance.A

common‘basic

assumption’sharedbymembersofagroupisthat“the

groupexistsin

ordertobesustainedbyaleaderonwhomitdepends

fornourishment,

materialandspiritual,andprotection”(Bion,1952,

p.78).Theleader

inthebasic-assumptiongroupof‘dependency’isa

symbolofthe

protectingandsustainingparent.Membersbehaveasif

theyare

inadequate,immature,andhelpless.Theirbehavior

(reminiscentofthe

infant’scare-seekingbehavior)isdesignedtoinduce

theleadertomeettheirdependencyneeds(Bion,

1952).Intheprocessofgroup

formation,asScheidlinger(1968)confirmed,thereis

commonlyan

initialdependencyphase,involving“aregressionof

thegroupmemberstoadependentstateinrelationto

aleader”(p.

241).Duringthisphase,“groupmembersinashared

fantasyappearto

seeknurtureandsupportfromamagicalparent-leader

”(p.245).Fantasizedgratificationofthewishfor

unionwiththeleadergenerateseuphoriaand

contentmentineachgroupmember(Scheidlinger,1968).

The common tie of group members with their

leaderallowsthemtoidentifywitheachother

and to feel united, to have a group identity

(Freud, 1921). Identification of members with

the group as a whole counterbalances

competition between members for exclusive

attentionfromtheleader.Being

identifiedwiththegroup,membersovercometheir

rivalrieswitheach

otherandtheirenviousattitudestowardeachother.

Eachgroupmember,whenidentifyingwiththegroup,

“reactstothe

attributesofthegroupasiftheseattributeswere

alsohisown”

(Scheidlinger,1964,p.223).Identificationwiththe

groupentityis

associatedwithidealizationofthegroup.Thegroup

ororganizationtowhichonebelongs“canserveasan

idealizableselfobject–asourceofpridein

belongingtoit–andmayalsoprovideaself-

confirmingselfobject

experience”(Wolf,1988,pp.47-48).Thefeeling

aspectofidealizationisaremnantoftheprimary

narcissisticexperience.Identificationwithagroup

(extensionofeachmember’segoboundariestoacommon

identification)representsapartialreversaltothe

stateofprimarynarcissism;thatis,“theprimary

narcissisticcathexisunity…mayberenewedatthe

occasionoftheexpansionoftheego

boundariesintothegroupego”(Federn,1952,p.350).

Accordingto

Scheidlinger(1964),thegroup,satisfyingeach

member’sneedsfor

belongingandprotection,is,onadeeplevel,“the

symbolic

representationofanurturingmother”(p.218).The

needforgroup

membershipis,onadeeplevel,“thewishforreunion

withanurturing

mother”(p.229).Theneedtobelongtoandidentify

withagroup

“representsacovertwishforrestoringanearlier

stateofunconflicted

wellbeinginherentintheexclusiveunionwithmother”

(p.218),“the

originalstateofunconflictedwellbeingrepresented

intheearliest

infant-mothertie”(Scheidlinger,1964,p.224).

Identification(union)withthemother,implyinga

stateof‘unconflictedwellbeing’(safety),

developmentallyprecedestheformationofa

relationshipwiththemother,arelationshipthatis

basedonrecognitionofthe

separatenessoftheobjectandtheself.Freud(1921)

proposedthat,in

groupformation,theretakesplacearegressionfrom

objectchoicetonarcissisticidentification.Inother

words,the

relationshipbetweenselfandobject,thatis,between

selfandleaderorbetweenegoandsuperego,reverts

backto,orratherapproximates,thestateofprimary

narcissisticunion.

In a cohesive group, the self becomes

obsolete; group members merge their selves

within the group. Self, ego ideal , and

superego are psychological structures that

regulatetheperson’s

narcissisticbalanceoutsideprimitivegroup

processes.Theself(ego),

formingoutsidethecontextofacohesivegroup,isa

historicallymore

recentsafetydevise,amoderndetourtothestateof

safety

(wellbeing).Egoidentity,egodefenses(i.e.,

mechanismsthatpreservetheself),andinteractions

between

selfandsuperegorequireandbind‘energy’.Energy

boundinthe

internalworldcanbereleasedandpassedontothe

cohesivegroup.The

satisfactionofbreakingthroughthe‘shellof

individuality’(p.274)

andlosingoneselfinsomethinggreaterisillustrated

bythephenomenon

ofenthusiasmforacause(andcanalsobediscerned

inloveandthemasochisticattitude)(Horney,1937,

p.272).Enthusiasm,whichischaracterizedby

elationinassociationwithincreasedactivity,“makes

theego’s

defensesunnecessary”,sothat“[t]heenergywhichhas

beenusedfor

defensecannowbeutilizedforenthusiasm”(Greenson,

1962,p.180).

Thepersonfilledwithenthusiasmisgenerousandhas

urgentor

compelling“wishtosharewithothers”(p.172).

Enthusiasmis

contagious.Whenenthusiasmspreads,“thereisthe

feelingofjoiningandbeingamemberofagroup–a

feelingofbelonging”(p.172).Thosewhodo

notshareinthegroup’senthusiasm“oftenhavea

feelingofbeingleft

out,cheated–ofnotbelonging”;andtheymaybecome

envious(p.172).

Thosewhocanevokeenthusiasmamongstothersoften

becomeleaders,theabilitytoinciteenthusiasm

beinganimportantcharacteristicofleaders

(Greenson,1962).

The individual can overcome his limitations

andsenseofisolationbysurrenderingtheself

toacommoncause,“[b]ydissolvingtheself

insomethinggreater,bybecomingpartofagreater

entity”(Horney,

1937,p.273).Themergingoftheindividualwiththe

groupis

accompaniedbylossofthesenseofindividual

separatenessor

distinctiveness(Freud,1921).Individualslack

distinctiveness

especiallywhentheyaremembersofagroupthat

operatesinlinewith

oneofthe‘basicassumptions’(Bion,1952).Whenthe

group

differentiatesoutofabasic-assumptionsstate,the

selfemerges,

separatingitselffromthegroupidentityandresuming

itsdistinctiveness.Self-experiencewouldatfirstbe

partialandwouldremainlinkedtotheleaderofthe

group,ratherthanthesuperego.Theterm‘ego

identity’

(Erikson)perhapsbestdescribesthisintermediate

state,whentheself

hasalreadyformedbutisnotyetisolated,whenthe

selfisstill

dependentontheleader,asanexternalobject,but

notyetonthe

superego,asaninternalstructure.Egoidentity,as

Eriksonemphasized,

isagrouppsychologicalphenomenon,whichimplies

coexistenceof

individualidentityandidentificationwiththegroup.

Identification

withthegroupentity“promotesanindividualsenseof

belonging,of

enhancedself-esteem,andofegoidentity”

(Scheidlinger,1964,p.226).Belongingtothegroup

means“givingup

ofsomeaspectoftheindividual’sself”andgivingit

overtothegroup(Scheidlinger,1964,p.220);itdoes

notnecessarilymeancomplete

surrenderanddissolutionoftheself.Inprinciple,

however,itcanbe

maintainedthattheself,asadefensivestructure(as

ameansfor

restoringthenarcissistichomeostasis),dissolvesas

egoboundariesextendacrossthegroup.

6.3IdentificationwithGodGod,asFlugel

(1945)explained,representsourparentsand

oursuperego(p.167).Thesuperego,having

beenformedbyintrojectionofourparents,can

beprojectedoutagain.Weprojectthesuperego

ontotheexternalfigureofGod,who“isinsomeways

themostsuitable

ofallfiguresforprojectionofthesuperego”(p.

186).Godis“theperfectlovingparent”(p.

187),“adivineparentofwhosepowerand

infallibility”wecanbe

assured(p.186).Religiongratifiesour“wishfora

protecting,kindly,

omnipotent,andomniscientparent”(p.225).Wefeel

safeinthe

presenceof“anomnipotentCreatorwhowatchesoverus

lovingly”(p.

268).InourrelationshipwithGod,

wecan“enjoyacontinuationoftheprotectionand

guidancethatwas

giventousbyourparentsinourinfancy”(p.268).

Flugel(1945)

suggestedthat“intheideaofGodweareableto

recapturethatsense

ofrelianceonanall-good,all-wiseparentwhichwe

enjoyedinour

earlyyearsandwhich,wehadregretfullycometo

realize,couldnotbe

permanentlyandcompletelysatisfiedinreferenceto

anypurelyhumanfigure”(p.262).Sufferingand

helplessnessincreasetheneedforGod;“menhavemost

needofGodwhentheyfeel

themselvesmosthelplessinthefaceofevil”,even

though“thevery

existenceofthisevilmightseemtobeliethedivine

existenceofthisevilmightseemtobeliethedivine

love”(p.268).

Evilandsufferingcreate“sogreataneedfor

superhuman

helpthatmenwillclingallthemoredesperatelyto

thebeliefinsuch

alove”(pp.268-269).Thehelplessnessthatis

associatedwith

sufferingandhardship“naturallyinducesatendency

toregressiontotheinfantilepositionwhenwewere

dependentuponourearlyparents”(Flugel,1945,p.

269).

The sense of safety provided by God can

increase at times and take the form of

religious exaltation, much as healthy self-

esteem is on a continuum with manic elation.

Religiousexaltation,asFlugel

(1945)recognized,arises“fromasenseofunitywith

thedivine,a

unitythatseemstocorrespondpsychologicallytosome

conditionof

fusionbetweentheegoandthesuperego”(p.262).The

raisingofthe

worshippertothelevelofhisGodinstatesof

religiousexaltation

correspondsto“theegobeingsomehowraisedtothe

positionofthe

superego,thechildtothatoftheparent”(p.270).

Inecstatic

religiousexperience,theegolosesits‘petty

individuality’asit

mergeswiththedivinerepresentativeofthesuperego.

Whenthe

worshipperis‘intunewiththeinfinite’,his

separationanxietyiscompletelyalleviated,andhe

canenjoyafeelingofblissand

harmony(Flugel,1945,p.186).Thesenseofsafety

andwellbeingis

transientlyrestoredinthefullestmeasure;the

oceanicfeelingassociatedwithprimarynarcissismis

closelyapproximated.

6.4Infatuation

The

loverexperiencesexaltationinthepresenceofhis

belovedobject.The

loverisinastateofjoyfulsurrenderand

experiencesanexpansionof

hispersonality(Flugel,1945).Thebelovedobject

narcissistically

nourishesthelover,similarlytohowthechildfeels

safeandjoyfulin

thepresenceofthelovingandcaringparent.Flugel

(1945)suggested

that,inthestateoflove,thelovingaspectofthe

superego(the

derivativeofthelovingparent)isprojectedontothe

belovedobject.

belovedobject.

Workingthroughthebelovedobject,thesuperegoacts

“toembrace,attract,andelevatetheego”(p.179).

Theprojected

superegohasthepower“toexerciseasthenicand

elevatingeffectupon

theego,toraisetheegotoitsownlevelandthere

toundergoinsome

respectsafusionwithit”(p.180).Inhibitionsare

reducedand

conflictsareovercomeinthepresenceoftheexternal

figureontowhom

thelovingandcaringaspectsofthesuperegohave

beenprojected

(Flugel,1945).Energythatwashithertoinvestedinto

the

maintenanceoftheegoisfreed.Whenfusionwiththe

superegohasbeen

achieved,energeticeffortsaimedatsolicitingthe

approvalofthe

superegoandattractingthelovingattentionofthe

superegobecome

superfluous.Thus,inthepresenceofabelovedobject

(whonotonly

actsasanexternalrepresentativeofthesuperegobut

whoalsogivesloveunconditionallyandisreceptive

to

idealizations),theloverexperiences“greaterfreedom

idealizations),theloverexperiences“greaterfreedom

andavailability

ofmentalenergy”(Flugel,1945,p.180).

Patients with borderline personality disorder

have an intense hunger for objects. Unlike

narcissistic

patients,theydonotattempttomaintainanillusion

of

self-sufficiency(Modell,1975).Borderlinepatients

meetnarcissistic

needsbyidealizationofanexternalobjectand

participationintheomnipotenceoftheidealized

object,whereasnarcissisticpatientsrely

predominantlyontheirgrandioseself(ascounterpart

oftheunconscious

omnipotentobject[Bursten,1973]),maintainingthe

grandioseselfby

self-deceptionandinfantasyorbyforcingmirroring

responsesfromtheirselfobject

milieu.AnnieReich(1953)describedfemalepatients

whouseda

primitiveformofidentification(‘primary

identification’)asawayof

relatingtotheirexternalobjects.Idealizationof

theirobjectwas

associatedwithadoptionoftheobject’spersonality

traitsand

interests(identificationwiththeobject).Having

interests(identificationwiththeobject).Having

idealizedand

identifiedwiththeirobject,thewomendescribedby

AnnieReich(1953)

wereabletoshareintheirobject’sgrandeur,

allowingthemtofeel

greatandwonderfulthemselves.Theseprimary

identifications(involving

superficialimitations)servedasasubstitutefor

realobjectloveand

realobjectrelations.AnnieReich’spatients(1953)

readilyglorified

andidentifiedwithanyonewhoseworthwasrecognized

byotherpeople.

Anyminorcriticismoftheirobjectbyathirdperson

causedthe

narcissisticovervaluationoftheobjecttobreakdown

andthe

identificationtoberelinquished,leadingtoasudden

dropin

self-esteemandhostilitytowardtheabandonedobject.

Thesewomenthenturnedtoa

newobject,whichwasagainrapidlyidealizedand

identifiedwith.

AnnieReich(1953)suggestedthatsuchrapid

identificationsoffer

narcissisticcompensationfornarcissisticinjuries

sustainedinchildhoodandprovidea

temporarysubstituteforlackingrealobject

relationships.Verysimilar

rapidalternationsbetweenidealizationand

vilificationwithassociatedfluctuationsinself-

esteemandmoodcanbeseeninpatientswith

borderlinepersonalitydisorder.

6.5Summary

Idealization of an object entails

identification with the object and

participationinitsperceivedomnipotence.

Whenidealizinganobject,theegomergeswiththe

object;theego

becomesidentifiedwithit.Primaryidentification,in

thesenseof

mergerwiththeobject,isaprimitiveprocess,

characteristicof

preoedipalstagesofdevelopment(andofcohesive

groupscenteredaroundapatriarchalleader).By

contrast,identificationwithanadmiredorenvied

thirdobjectinatriadic(oedipal)constellation

strengthensanddevelopstheego.Theegohere

emulates(identifieswith)thethirdobject(which

actsasan

ideal)and,indoingso,unconsciouslyseekstomerge

(identify)with

theprimaryobject(oradevelopmentalderivative

thereof).Theego

idealistheprecipitateofsuchoedipal

identifications,asFreud

recognized.Theegocanidentifywithitsidealin

deedorfantasy.Ego

identity(Erikson)describestheegoeffortlessly

actinginaccordancewiththeseidentifications,in

theknowledgeofbeingassuredtheapprovalofthe

grouporleader.Whenidentifyingitselfwithits

idealinfantasy,theegodefinesitselfinformofa

subjective(inner)selfand

positionsitselfintotheviewofthesuperego,giving

risetothe

phenomenonofself-observation.

Self-observationaccentuatestheseparatenessofthe

selfbutwould

occurwiththeaim(unconsciously)ofpreparingmerger

withthe

superego.Ego(self),egoideal,

andsuperegoregulatetheperson’snarcissistic

balanceoutside

primitivegroupprocesses.Theself,asasubjective

andintrospective

phenomenon,isanadaptationtocomplexandfluid

socialstructures;it

aidsorientationinsocialprocessesthatarenot

clearlycenteredona

singleandunambiguousheiroftheprimaryobject.

Psychological

processesbetweenselfandsuperego,includingego

defenses,consumeenergy,theenergythatisreleased

instatesofenthusiasmandmaniaandcanbeutilized

whenthecohesivegroupactsinunison.Outside

primitivegroupprocesses,energyhastobeexpended

toelevatetheself

tothelevelofthesuperegointhehopeof

replicatingthe

safety-procuringbondbetweeninfantandmotheror

betweengroupmember

andleader.

Owingtothemultilayered,changeable,anduncertain

natureofthe

socialworldinwhichwelive,thereality-oriented

selfcannotmaintain

itselfforlongatalevelatwhichfusionwithany

superegoreplicais

possible,butwheneverthisfusionisbriefly

achieved,energetic

efforts(includingegodefenses)aimedatgainingthe

approvalofthesuperegoaresuperfluous.

Conclusions

Narcissistic

sustenancecan,firstly,besolicitedfromtheobject

intheformof

recognition,respect,orapprovaland,secondly,be

obtainedby

participationintheobject’somnipotence.

Thesetwoprinciplewaysofregulatingthe

narcissisticequilibrium

correspondtotwoarchaicnarcissisticconfigurations,

thenarcissistic

(grandiose-exhibitionistic)self(seekingmirroring

responsesfrom

selfobjects)andtheidealizedparentimago(Kohut).

Narcissistic

(approval-seeking)behaviorinvolvesgrandioseand

exhibitionistic

displays(whichmaybeinterwovenwithappeasement

signals).Theobject’smirroringresponses(approval,

praise),actively

solicitedbythesubject’sgrandioseand

exhibitionisticdisplays,

replicatethe‘gleaminthemother’seye’(associated

withthemother’s

lovingdevotiontotheinfant)andtherebyrestorethe

subject’s

subject’s

narcissisticequilibrium(Kohut).Thesecondformof

narcissismseeksto

reinstatetheprimarynarcissisticunionwiththe

mother(orwitha

laterrepresentativeofthemother)inamoredirect

manner.When

idealizinganobject,theunderlyingunconscious

fantasyisthatself

andobjectaremerged.Idealizationoftheobject

entailsidentification

withtheobject.Gratificationofnarcissisticneeds

(ineitherform)

renewsthefeelingofsafety(Sandler),counteracting

thedangerof

beingaggressedbythemotherorthegroup(withthe

potential

consequenceofannihilation).Thediscussionshallnow

belimitedto

behaviorsandpsychologicalmechanismsthatseekto

generatesafetyby

inviting(orexpecting)mirroring(approving,

admiring,recognizing)

responsesfromtheselfobjectsurround(includingthe

motherasits

earliestrepresentative).Therecurrentmovement,

acrossthesocial

landscape,fromastateofanxiety(signalingdanger)

landscape,fromastateofanxiety(signalingdanger)

toastateof

safety,takingintoaccountculturalandsituational

factorsand

adjustingtimeandagaintonaturallyoccurring

perturbationsinthe

selfobjectsurround,iswhatfuelsdefensiveand

characterstructures

andimpartsonthepersonalityitsapparent

intentionalityand

goal-directedness(Adler).Narcissisticbehaviors,

whichintheir

habituallyusedconstellationcharacterizea

particularpersonality

type,recreateandmaintaintheself(ego)asan

encapsulationofthe

person’srelativesafetyandofhispotentialto

obtainnarcissisticsustenanceinanuncertainand

inherentlydangeroussocialworld.

Narcissistic

behavior,thatis,theseekingofpositiveattention

(approvaland

recognition)fromothersisprobablyanevolutionary

derivativeof

attachmentbehavior.Proximity-seekingbehavior,that

is,attachment

behaviorinthenarrowsense(Bowlby),canbe

regarded,alongwith

regarded,alongwith

narcissisticbehavior(Behrendt,2015),asan

expressionofthe

self-preservativedrive(Silverman,1991;Goodman,

2002).Separation

anxiety(Bowlby)wouldbeonacontinuumwith(andthe

evolutionary

precursorof)thetypeofanxietythatisariseswhen

onedoesnot

receivepositiveattentionfromthesocialsurroundor

whenonerealizes

one’sseparateness(distinctiveness)fromtheobject

(withoutthere

beingspatialseparationfromtheobject)(Rothstein,

1979).Thisform

ofanxiety,beingprobablyidenticalwithKohut’s

‘disintegrationanxiety’andHorney’s‘basicanxiety

’,iscounterbalancedbyself-experience,representing

one’sconnectedness

tothesocialsurroundandone’sclosenesstothe

superegothat

unconsciouslystructuresthissurround.Egodefenses

maintainthe

integrityoftheself(or‘ego’);theycantherefore

besaidtooperate

intheinterestoftheself-preservativedrive(in

accordancewith

classicalpsychoanalytictheory).Preservationand

integrityoftheself

integrityoftheself

meanthattheindividualissafeina(mostly

latently)hostilesocial

world,whichisequivalenttotheindividualbeing

acknowledged,

recognized,andapprovedbyothers(astheseare

attitudesthatsignal

theinhibitionofothers’aggressiveness).

Disintegrationanxietyarises

whenneedednarcissisticsustenanceisnotreceived

(despitebeing

sought)(Kohut)orwhenegodefensesbreakdown.

Self-preservation

canhavetwomeanings,relatingtointer-and

intraspecificaggression.

Firstly,withregardstotheneedtoavoidbecoming

thevictimof

interspecific(predatory)aggression,theinfant’s

movementstowardthe

motherandeffortstostayintheproximityofthe

mothercomplements

theinfant’sattemptstoattractthemother’s

attention.Separation

anxietyiscoupledwithattention-seekingbehavior.

Thesecondmeaning

ofself-preservationrelatestotheinherent

aggressivenessofthe

mother(asrecognizedbyStorr[1968]andothers).The

infanthasto

employbehaviorsaimedatappeasingthemother.In

specieswith

pronouncedintraspecificaggression,obtainingthe

mother’sattention

wouldnotbeenough;heraggressivepotentialwould

havetobe

inhibited,too.Likewise,itisnotenoughtobein

thefocusofthe

group’sortheleader’sattention;theaggressive

potentialofconspecificshastobeinhibited,andit

isconstantlybeinginhibitedbyappeasementgestures

wovenintothefabricofsocialbehavior(Lorenz,

1963;Hass,

1968;Storr,1968;Eibl-Eibesfeldt,1970;Moynihan,

1998).The

individual,inotherwords,hastokeepparanoid

anxiety(whichKleinunderstoodformsasubstratumof

psychicorganization)or

fearsofannihilation(Fenichel)atbay(bywayof

situationally

appropriatenarcissisticbehaviors,including

appeasementgestures).

Paranoidanxietyanddisintegrationanxietyare

probablycloselyrelatedtoeachother(althoughthe

formerrefers

moretheexternalworldandthelattermoretothe

self).Paranoid

anxietywouldbeanevolutionaryderivativeof

separationanxiety,muchaspredatory(interspecific)

aggression(towhichtheinfant

exposeshimselfwhenbecomingseparatedfromhis

mother)wasthelikely

evolutionarypredecessorofintraspecificaggression.

Developmentally,

separationanxietyprecedesstrangeranxiety,the

firstmanifestationofparanoidorsocialanxiety.The

seekingof

others’attention,originallyborneoutofseparation

anxiety,remainsanintegralpartofthespectrumof

behaviorsusedtoappeaseothersandinhibittheir

aggressivepotential.

Compliancewithsocialnormsinhibitsothers’

offensiveaggressiveness,becauseitsignalsto

them

acceptanceoftheirsocialpositionorrank.

Compliancealsoappeases

thesuperegoandsafeguardsthesuperego’slove,much

ascomplianceappeasedtheparentsandensured

continuationoftheirlovingcare.

Assertivenessisanothermethodofretainingthe

parents’orobject’sloveandensuringtheirongoing

commitmenttooneself.Assertiveness,

anaim-inhibitedformofintraspecific(offensive)

aggression,canalso

protectaccesstonarcissisticsuppliesfromthewider

selfobject

surround;itcanhelptoensurethatabstractsuperego

projectscontinue

toprovidesuppliesofapproval,respect,and

recognition,whichare

neededtomaintainone’ssafety(vis-à-visthegroup’s

orleader’saggressivepotential).Accessto

narcissisticresourcesiscontrolled

inamannerthatisnotdissimilartothewayinwhich

territorial

boundariesareprotected.Territorialaggressionisa

formof

intraspecificaggression;butintraspecificaggression

canalsobeused

toprotectone’srankingpositioninthesocialorder

(abstractly,one’sproximitytothe

representativeoftheprimaryobject),whichmore

clearlydefinesone’s

accesstonarcissisticresourcesandone’ssafetyin

anenvironmentof

latentorovertmutualaggressiveness.Assertive

controloftheobject,

forthesakeofensuringtheobject’scommitment,can

spilloverinto

overtaggressionagainsttheobject.Ina

relationship,aggressioncan

inducesubmissive(respectful)behavior(which

providesaformof

narcissisticsustenance)intheobjectandbindthe

narcissisticsustenance)intheobjectandbindthe

objecttooneself

moretightly(throughitsaversiveandpunishing

effectsontheobject),

therebymaintainingthecontextinwhichsafetycanbe

experienced.The

principleofsubordinatingothersforthepurposeof

attainingsafety

isstarklyillustratedbysadisticattitudesand

behaviors.Masochistic

attitudesandbehaviors,too,haveastheiraimthe

bindingofthe

objecttooneself,againforthesakeofapproximating

thesenseof

safetythatwasfirstexperiencedinthestateof

primarynarcissism(theundifferentiatedunionof

motherandinfant).Sadisticandmasochisticbehaviors

servethepurposeofmaintainingtheobject’s

availabilityandresponsiveness.Submissiontoothers

orconformitywithnormsaswellasassertionof

dominanceorsubordinationofothersgenerateasafe

contextfortheexpressionofexhibitionistic

andaffectionateimpulses,whicharemoredirectly

concernedwiththe

solicitationofnarcissisticsustenance.

In

arelationship,partnersunconsciouslyassignrolesto

eachotherand

induceeachothertorespondincertainways,

induceeachothertorespondincertainways,

replicatingpatternsof

interactionestablishedinchildhood.These‘role

relationships’area

vehiclefortheattainmentofsafety(Sandler&

Sandler,1978).The

wayinwhichtheindividualrelatestothegroupisa

reflectionof

earlyobjectrelations,too(Scheidlinger,1964,

1968).Social

situationsaregeneratedindailylifewiththe

objective,

unconsciously,ofattainingorpreservingthegoodwill

and

responsivenessofaprojectedversionofthesuperego

(especiallythe

‘dominantother’[Arieti,1973]).Interactionswithin

agroupare

competitiveandcollaborative(pursuingacommongoal

definedbythe

leader)

andservetoconfirmorchallengehierarchical

(dominance)patternsand

alliances,allofwhichdefinetheindividual’s

proximitytotheleader

(ordominantother)orhisacceptancebythegroupas

awhole(either

ofwhichisarepresentativeoftheprimaryobject).

ofwhichisarepresentativeoftheprimaryobject).

Thewayinwhich

thesocialenvironmentatlargeisperceivedand

shapediscontinuous

withtheinfant’sattemptstoovercometheanxiety

associatedwiththe

realizationofhisseparatenessfromtheobjectand

thefearoftheobject’spotentialaggressiveness

(Klein’s‘paranoid-schizoid’developmentalposition)

(aswellasthe

anxietyassociatedwithrealizingthedependenceon

theobject

[‘depressiveposition’]).

Thesocialenvironmentispatternedbytheprojected

superego(the

representativeoftheprimaryobject)andperceived

withreferenceto

theindividual’sconcernsabouthissafety(whichis

guaranteedbythe

projectedsuperegobutisalsounderthreatfromthe

projectedsuperego

andthegroup).Itisalsofromthesocial

environment,thatthe

individualextricateshissenseofself;the

environmentisperceivedas

asetofreferencestotheself.Whiletheself(ego)

reflectsthe

individual’sconnectednesstothesocialsurround,

individual’sconnectednesstothesocialsurround,

thatis,his

acceptanceandpotentialtobeapprovedbyothers

(especiallythe

‘dominantother’andothersuperegoprojects)aswell

asthe

effectivenessofhisattitudesandbehaviorsgeared

towardinhibiting

others’aggressivepotential(ultimatelythe

aggressivenessofthe

primaryobjectandhencethesuperego),theegoideal

(idealself)relatestotheindividual’sdesiredstate

ofsafety.Theegoidealisconstitutedandreshaped

bywayof

imitatingsuccessfulpersonsencounteredinthecourse

ofdevelopment,

personswhoareattractiveforandreadilyapprovedby

thedominant

other.Theindividualidentifieswithrolemodelsand

emulateshisego

idealinordertopleaseauthorityfiguresandthusto

feelsafe.

The self as an internal image of oneself

dependsonapprobationreceivedfromimaginary

objects

(representativesofinternalobjects).Theselfasan

internalimageis

visibletoandthereforeapprovablebyanimaginary

audience(Cashdan,

audience(Cashdan,

1988)(whichisusuallynotconsciously

elaborated).Whenthinkingaboutoneself,one

intermittentlyadopts

someoneelse’sperspective.Byvirtueofthis

identificationwithan

other,theselfislookingatitself;theselfisan

objecttoitself

(Federn).Thesuperegorepresentsthisaudienceand

thisobservingself.

Theobservingselfis,inotherwords,theself

identifiedwiththe

superego,whichisalsotheinnerrepresentativeof

theprimaryobject.

Feelingtheneedtobeacceptedandapprovedbythe

superego,one

adoptstheperspectiveofthesuperego,soasto

considerfromthis

perspectiveone’s(theego’s)worthinessofapproval.

Inastateof

detachment,whenconsciousfantasyisprolonged,the

selfcantransformitselfintoitsideal(self-

glorification)andthusreachtheheightofthe

superego(andpotentiallyreunitewith

it)withouttheneedtoengagewiththeexternal

socialworld.Theego

ideal,

whentheegoidentifieswithitinconsciousfantasy,

whentheegoidentifieswithitinconsciousfantasy,

entailsan

expectationofapprovalfromthesuperego

(narcissisticexpectation).

Forthisreason,theegoidealcanactasanincentive

goalforbehavior

concernedwithenhancingone’sapprovability(inthe

eyesofexternal

superegoprojects).Theegoidealsetsagoaltobe

realizedbyambitions,thederivativeoftheinfant’s

exhibitionism(Kohut).Theidealself(conscious

instatementoftheegoideal,

accordingtoSandler,iftheegoidealweretobe

regardedasan

unconsciousconstruct)guidesexhibitionisticand

ambitiousbehaviors

aimedatreengagingtheleader(oranothersuperego

project).Otherformsofself-imagery(Horney’s

‘idealizedimage’)servesimilarends.Imageryofa

contemptuousandguiltyselfleadstobehaviorthat

invites

punishmentfromtheleader(oranyothersuperego

project)withthe

objectiveofestablishingtheleader’sforgiveness.

Imageryofavictimizedself,inassociationwith

self-punishmentandinjusticecollection(Bergler),

leadstoeffortstoinduceguiltyandreparative

behaviorstowardoneself.Thehelplessandinfantile

selfgivesriseto

behavioralexpressionsthatattractcareandthereby

behavioralexpressionsthatattractcareandthereby

neutralizethe

object’shostilityandthatofthewidersocial

surround.Thus,the

innerselfpicturesitselfinoneoranothersafe

position,whichwould

incentivizetheself’seffortstoengageanexternal

derivativeofthe

primaryobject,toattainthisobject’srecognition

andassurances(seeFigurebelow).

Exhibitionistic behaviors (and hence also

ambition)mayberelatedtoseparationcalls,

given that the purpose of exhibitionism is to

attract attention (specifically from the

primary object). Once separation anxiety has

been superseded, developmentally and

evolutionarily,bytheanxiety

thatisassociatedwiththerealizationofone’s

separateness,a

separatenessthatisaversivebecauseitbearswithin

itasenseof

vulnerabilitytobeingattackedandannihilatedby

others,thetaskset

beforetheindividualistoattractpositiveattention

(narcissisticallynourishingattention).Attention

fromandapproachbytheobjectcalmsseparation

anxiety;and,ifanxietyisintense,negative

attentionfromtheobjectwouldbe

preferabletonoattention,inwhichcasetherecould

besaidtobea

besaidtobea

regressiontoastatewhenattentionreceivedbythe

infantwasnotdifferentiatedintopositiveand

negativeattention.Suchregression,manifestingas

primitiveattention-seekingbehaviors,mayoccurwhen

anxietyisintense(andself-disintegration[Kohut]is

imminent).When

anxietyislessintense,thecapacityofforesight

(anticipation)canbe

engaged,whereintheselfisviewedinadesiredsafe

position

(‘idealizedimage’),soastoprovideguidancefor

adaptivegoal-directedbehavior.Whenthegroupisnot

clearlycenteredonaleaderandthegroup’s

aggressivepotentialisnotclearlyboundtoan

externalobjective,theneedincreasestoappease

otherswithinthe

groupandtoensureoneselfofthebenevolenceof

whatevertransiently

occupiestheroleoftheprimaryobject.Itisthen

thattheself(the

innerself)emergesasadefensiveentitythatguides

effortstoenhance

theindividual’sacceptabilityandapprovabilityin

theeyesofthe

superegointernallyorexternally.Beingintegrated

intoacohesive

groupandidentifiedwithacommoncause,ontheother

hand,is

hand,is

associatedwithregressioninsuperegodevelopment

(Freud)anddissolutionoftheself(lossof

one’sawarenessofoneselfasanindividual).Ina

cohesivegroup,the

narcissisticbalanceofeachindividualwouldbe

upheldbythe

occupation(anddefense)ofarelativelystable

positioninthesocial

hierarchy(centeredonaleader),throughthe

exchangeofsignalsofsubmissionanddominancewith

othersinthegroup.Therewillbeanequilibriumin

thegroupbetweenexpressionsofdominancebysomeand

expressionsof

submissionorsubserviencebyothers,affordingeach

individualwithadegreeof

security(protectionagainstothers’innatehostility)

andmaximizing

theamountofsafetydistributedacrossthegroup(and

hencestabilizingthegroup).Dominancepositions,

being

dynamicallymaintainedinsuchanetwork,areofvital

importanceto

eachmemberbecausetheydefineeachmember’s

closenesstotheleader,theultimatesourceof

narcissisticgratificationandproviderofsafety.

Aggression, compliance , and the ability to

channel narcissistic demands (demands for

attention)

intorealisticdirectionsareemployedinshapingthe

selfobject

surround(representingtheavailabilityofselfobject

responses,i.e.ofnarcissisticsupplies).Aggression

andcompliance,inparticular,areusedtocontrol

narcissisticresources(theselfobjectsurround),

whicharedevelopmentallycontinuouswiththe

availabilityandresponsivenessofthemother,inmuch

thesamewayasterritorialanimalsmanagetheir

territory.The

exhibitionisticcomponentofbehaviorismoredirectly

concernedwith

attainingpositiveattention(narcissisticsupplies)

fromanexternal

representativeoftheprimaryobject(whichis,atthe

sametime,a

projectionofthesuperego).

Narcissistic

homeostasis(self-cohesion)isupheldproximallyby

solicitingapproval

andadmirationfromtherepresentativeoftheprimary

objectand

distally(ormoreabstractly)bydefendingone’s

socialposition(using

aggressionandsubmission)orbyenhancingone’s

approvabilitywithinthegroupandintheeyesofthe

leader(soastocontrolaccesstonarcissistic

resourcesandtheirresponsivenesstonarcissistic

demands).Theselfofthe‘reality’-orientedsocial

actorandobserver

servesasapointofreferencetonarcissistic

resourcesand

encapsulatesrightsofaccesstothem,wherebyself-

esteemistheconfidentexpectationofothers’self-

confirmingresponsesto

one’sexhibitionisticandcare-seekingdisplays.The

selfcanalsobe

saidtobeadistillateofreceivednarcissistic

feedbackandof

feedbackandof

environmentalcuesrelatingtotheavailabilityof

suchfeedback(cues

whichinturnarecontrolledbythesocialactor,in

partthrough

acquisitionofprestigeandpossessions).

Whiletheself(or‘ego’,forthepurposeofthis

book)issituatedon

themarginsofconsciousexperienceoftheexternal

world,theegoideal(idealself)canbefoundinthe

marginsofinternalimagery.Theego

ideal(idealself)canadoptvariousforms,anyof

whichcanbeused,in

statesofdetachment,

tosolicitnarcissisticsuppliesfromanimaginary

internalaudience

(thesuperego)or,in‘reality’-orientedstates,to

setgoalsfor

actions,actionsthatinthemselvesexpressvarious

combinationsof

assertive,compliant,exhibitionistic,andcare-

seekingimpulses.Thus,

whiletheegoidealissituatedvis-à-visthesuperego

intherealmofimagery,theselfis

situatedvis-à-visthesuperegoprojectinthe‘real’

world;andwhile

theegoidealservesanticipatoryfunctions,theself

theegoidealservesanticipatoryfunctions,theself

servesfunctions

relatedtoself-localizationinthesociallandscape

(emphasizingthe

suggestedderivationofgoal-directedsocialbehavior

from

evolutionarilyoldergoal-directedlocomotorbehavior

[Behrendt,2015]).

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Index

A

alexithymia,alexithymia

aloneness,aloneness

altruism

ambition, ambition, ambition, ambition, ambition,

ambition,ambition,ambition

appeasement, appeasement, appeasement, appeasement,

appeasement,appeasement,appeasement

assertiveness, assertiveness, assertiveness,

assertiveness,assertiveness,assertiveness

B

basic anxiety, basic anxiety, basic anxiety, basic

anxiety,basicanxiety,basicanxiety,basicanxiety,

basicanxiety

bereavement

borderline personality, borderline personality,

borderlinepersonality

C

coercion,coercion

compensation,compensation,compensation

competitiveness, competitiveness, competitiveness,

competitiveness,competitiveness,competitiveness

compliance, compliance, compliance, compliance,

compliance, compliance, compliance, compliance,

compliance, compliance, compliance, compliance,

compliance, compliance, compliance, compliance,

compliance, compliance, compliance, compliance,

compliance,compliance,compliance

conformity,conformity,conformity

conversion,conversion

D

defiance

denial,denial,denial,denial,denial

depersonalization

depression, depression, depression, depression,

depression, depression, depression, depression,

depression, depression, depression, depression,

depression, depression, depression, depression,

depression, depression, depression, depression,

depression

depressive position, depressive position, depressive

position

detachment, detachment, detachment, detachment,

detachment, detachment, detachment, detachment,

detachment, detachment, detachment, detachment,

detachment, detachment, detachment, detachment,

detachment, detachment, detachment, detachment,

detachment,detachment

disappointment, disappointment, disappointment,

disappointment,disappointment

disintegration anxiety, disintegration anxiety,

disintegrationanxiety,disintegrationanxiety

disrespect

dominance hierarchy, dominance hierarchy, dominance

hierarchy

E

egoboundary,egoboundary,egoboundary

ego defenses, ego defenses, ego defenses, ego

defenses,egodefenses

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,egoideal,

egoideal,egoideal

ego identity, ego identity, ego identity, ego

identity,egoidentity

egoinstinct

egorestriction,egorestriction

embarrassment,embarrassment,embarrassment

empathyfailure,empathyfailure

enthusiasm, enthusiasm, enthusiasm, enthusiasm,

enthusiasm,enthusiasm,enthusiasm

entitlement, entitlement, entitlement, entitlement,

entitlement,entitlement,entitlement

envy,envy,envy,envy,envy,envy,envy,envy,envy,

envy,envy,envy,envy,envy,envy

euphoria,euphoria

exhibitionism, exhibitionism, exhibitionism,

exhibitionism, exhibitionism, exhibitionism,

exhibitionism, exhibitionism, exhibitionism,

exhibitionism, exhibitionism, exhibitionism,

exhibitionism, exhibitionism, exhibitionism,

exhibitionism, exhibitionism, exhibitionism,

exhibitionism,exhibitionism

expiatory behavior, expiatory behavior, expiatory

behavior,expiatorybehavior

F

falseself,falseself,falseself,falseself,false

self,falseself,falseself,falseself

fate,fate,fate,fate,fate,fate

fear of punishment, fear of punishment, fear of

punishment, fear of punishment, fear of punishment,

fearofpunishment,fearofpunishment

fearofstrangers

forgiveness, forgiveness, forgiveness, forgiveness,

forgiveness, forgiveness, forgiveness, forgiveness,

forgiveness,forgiveness

G

gambling,gambling

genuineness,genuineness,genuineness,genuineness

glory,glory,glory,glory,glory,glory

God,God,God,God,God,God,God,God,God,God,God,

God,God,God,God

grandiosedelusions

grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity,

grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity,

grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity,

grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity, grandiosity,

grandiosity

greed,greed,greed

groupcohesion,groupcohesion

guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt,

guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt,

guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt, guilt,

guilt,guilt,guilt,guilt,guilt,guilt

H

hatred,hatred,hatred,hatred,hatred

helplessness, helplessness, helplessness,

helplessness, helplessness, helplessness,

helplessness, helplessness, helplessness,

helplessness,helplessness,helplessness

hopelessness,hopelessness

humiliation, humiliation, humiliation, humiliation,

humiliation,humiliation,humiliation,humiliation

humility

hypnosis

hypochondria

hypomania

I

idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,ideal

self,idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,

idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,ideal

self,idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,

idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,ideal

self,idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,

idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,ideal

self,idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,

idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,ideal

self,idealself,idealself,idealself,idealself,

idealself,idealself

idealization, idealization, idealization,

idealization, idealization, idealization,

idealization,idealization,idealization,idealization

idealizedself-image,idealizedself-image,idealized

self-image, idealized self-image, idealized self-

image, idealized self-image, idealized self-image,

idealizedself-image,idealizedself-image,idealized

self-image, idealized self-image, idealized self-

image, idealized self-image, idealized self-image,

idealizedself-image,idealizedself-image,idealized

self-image, idealized self-image, idealized self-

image, idealized self-image, idealized self-image,

idealizedself-image,idealizedself-image

illnessbehavior

infantiledependency,infantiledependency

infantilisms

inferiority, inferiority, inferiority, inferiority,

inferiority, inferiority, inferiority, inferiority,

inferiority, inferiority, inferiority, inferiority,

inferiority, inferiority, inferiority, inferiority,

inferiority,inferiority

infidelity

ingratiation,ingratiation,ingratiation

injustice,injustice,injustice,injustice

innercoercion,innercoercion,innercoercion

intellectualization,intellectualization

introjection, introjection, introjection,

introjection,introjection

J

jealousy,jealousy,jealousy

L

leader, leader, leader, leader, leader, leader,

leader, leader, leader, leader, leader, leader,

leader, leader, leader, leader, leader, leader,

leader, leader, leader, leader, leader, leader,

leader, leader, leader, leader, leader, leader,

leader,leader,leader,leader,leader,leader

loneliness,loneliness,loneliness,loneliness

M

mania,mania,mania

manicdefense

masochism,masochism,masochism,masochism,masochism,

masochism,masochism,masochism,masochism,masochism,

masochism,masochism,masochism,masochism,masochism,

masochism,masochism,masochism

mechanisms of defense, mechanisms of defense,

mechanisms of defense, mechanisms of defense,

mechanismsofdefense

megalomania,megalomania

melancholia, melancholia, melancholia, melancholia,

melancholia, melancholia, melancholia, melancholia,

melancholia, melancholia, melancholia, melancholia,

melancholia, melancholia, melancholia, melancholia,

melancholia, melancholia, melancholia, melancholia,

melancholia

modesty,modesty,modesty

mourning,mourning,mourning

N

narcissisticcathexis,narcissisticcathexis

narcissisticinjury,narcissisticinjury,narcissistic

injury, narcissistic injury, narcissistic injury,

narcissisticinjury,narcissisticinjury,narcissistic

injury

need for punishment, need for punishment, need for

punishment,needforpunishment,needforpunishment,

need for punishment, need for punishment, need for

punishment,needforpunishment,needforpunishment,

needforpunishment,needforpunishment

neurotic claims, neurotic claims, neurotic claims,

neurotic claims, neurotic claims, neurotic claims,

neuroticclaims

neurotictrends,neurotictrends,neurotictrends

neutralization,neutralization

O

obedience,obedience,obedience,obedience

obsessions,obsessions

oceanicfeeling,oceanicfeeling

oedipalperiod

omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence,

omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence,

omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence,

omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence,

omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence,

omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence,

omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence, omnipotence,

omnipotence,omnipotence,omnipotence

P

paranoidanxiety,paranoidanxiety,paranoidanxiety,

paranoidanxiety,paranoidanxiety

paranoid-schizoidposition

persona,persona,persona,persona,persona

pleasureprinciple

possessions, possessions, possessions, possessions,

possessions, possessions, possessions, possessions,

possessions, possessions, possessions, possessions,

possessions,possessions,possessions,possessions

prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige,

prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige,

prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige,

prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige, prestige,

prestige,prestige,prestige

pride,pride,pride,pride,pride,pride,pride,pride

primary narcissism, primary narcissism, primary

narcissism,primarynarcissism,primarynarcissism

projection, projection, projection, projection,

projection, projection, projection, projection,

projection, projection, projection, projection,

projection, projection, projection, projection,

projection

projective identification, projective identification,

projectiveidentification,projectiveidentification

psychosis,psychosis,psychosis,psychosis,psychosis,

psychosis,psychosis,psychosis

R

reaction formation, reaction formation, reaction

formation, reaction formation, reaction formation,

reaction formation, reaction formation, reaction

formation,reactionformation

regression, regression, regression, regression,

regression, regression, regression, regression,

regression, regression, regression, regression,

regression,regression

reparation

repentance, repentance, repentance, repentance,

repentance

repression, repression, repression, repression,

repression,repression,repression

revenge,revenge,revenge,revenge

ridicule, ridicule, ridicule, ridicule, ridicule,

ridicule, ridicule, ridicule, ridicule, ridicule,

ridicule, ridicule, ridicule, ridicule, ridicule,

ridicule,ridicule,ridicule

righteousness, righteousness, righteousness,

righteousness,righteousness

S

sadism,sadism,sadism,sadism

schizoidpersonality,schizoidpersonality

schizophrenia, schizophrenia, schizophrenia,

schizophrenia

secondarygain,secondarygain

self-absorption

self-actualization, self-actualization, self-

actualization,self-actualization,self-actualization,

self-actualization

self-contempt, self-contempt, self-contempt, self-

contempt,self-contempt,self-contempt,self-contempt

self-deception, self-deception, self-deception, self-

deception

self-defeatingbehavior,self-defeatingbehavior

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem,

self-esteem

self-glorification, self-glorification, self-

glorification,self-glorification

self-observation, self-observation, self-observation,

self-observation

self-pity,self-pity,self-pity,self-pity,self-pity,

self-pity

self-recrimination, self-recrimination, self-

recrimination,self-recrimination,self-recrimination,

self-recrimination, self-recrimination, self-

recrimination,self-recrimination

self-restraint,self-restraint

selfishness

separation anxiety, separation anxiety, separation

anxiety, separation anxiety, separation anxiety,

separation anxiety, separation anxiety, separation

anxiety,separationanxiety

shame, shame, shame, shame, shame, shame, shame,

shame, shame, shame, shame, shame, shame, shame,

shame,shame,shame,shame,shame,shame,shame,shame

Slights,Slights

slights,slights,slights

Slights

socialfeeling,socialfeeling,socialfeeling,social

feeling, social feeling, social feeling, social

feeling,socialfeeling,socialfeeling

socialnorms,socialnorms,socialnorms

socialstatus,socialstatus,socialstatus

somatization, somatization, somatization,

somatization,somatization

spontaneity,spontaneity,spontaneity,spontaneity

sublimation, sublimation, sublimation, sublimation,

sublimation

submission, submission, submission, submission,

submission, submission, submission, submission,

submission, submission, submission, submission,

submission,submission,submission

subordination,subordination

superiority, superiority, superiority, superiority,

superiority, superiority, superiority, superiority,

superiority, superiority, superiority, superiority,

superiority, superiority, superiority, superiority,

superiority, superiority, superiority, superiority,

superiority, superiority, superiority, superiority,

superiority,superiority,superiority,superiority

T

tradition

triumph,triumph,triumph,triumph,triumph,triumph

trueself,trueself,trueself,trueself,trueself

trust,trust

V

vanity, vanity, vanity, vanity, vanity, vanity,

vanity,vanity,vanity

vindictiveness,vindictiveness,vindictiveness

W

worthlessness, worthlessness, worthlessness,

worthlessness, worthlessness, worthlessness,

worthlessness,worthlessness