Self-Expression Through The String Quartet: An Analysis of

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Self-Expression Through The String Quartet: AnAnalysis of Shostakovich's String Quartets No. 1,No. 8, and No. 15Ariane C. GushueScripps College

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Recommended CitationGushue, Ariane C., "Self-Expression Through The String Quartet: An Analysis of Shostakovich's String Quartets No. 1, No. 8, and No.15" (2015). Scripps Senior Theses. 710.http://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/710

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SELF-EXPRESSION THROUGH THE STRING QUARTET: AN ANALYSIS OF

SHOSTAKOVICH’S STRING QUARTETS NO. 1, NO. 8, AND NO. 15

by

ARIANE C. GUSHUE

SUBMITTED TO SCRIPPS COLLEGE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS

PROFESSOR YOUYOUNG KANG

PROFESSOR GAYLE BLANKENBURG

APRIL 24, 2015

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iii

Acknowledgments

Thank you to Professor YouYoung Kang and Professor Gayle Blankenburg for their

guidance throughout the research and writing process. Thank you for reviewing countless

drafts and sharing invaluable insights. Thank you to the Scripps College Music

Department faculty for overseeing the construction of my thesis research in the fall of

2014. Finally, thank you to Holly Gardinier of Honnold Mudd Library for her assistance

in the research process.

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Abstract As a little boy, Dmitri• Dmitrievich Shostakovich pressed his ear against the wall

to hear his neighbors play chamber music. He matured into one of the most prominent Soviet era composers. While the majority of academic interest Shostakovich centers on his symphonic works, his string quartets provide a window into a more intimate facet of Shostakovich’s life. This thesis explores first, why Shostakovich turned to the string quartet after some of the most fearful years of his life: his demise and rise after the scathing Pravda letter that all but threatened his life. Second, this thesis analyzes three of Shostakovich’s String Quartets: No. 1, No. 8, and No. 15. String Quartet No. 1, despite its simplicity, illuminates tender expressivity. Following years of intense artistic and personal scrutiny, Shostakovich sought an escape into an aural world of innocence. However, the quartet proves more complex than its surface suggests. Obscured harmonic complexities, intimate dialogue between instruments, and subtle recollection of prior movements lend the quartet a deeper meaning than its aural simplicity suggests.

Decades later, amidst personal crisis, Shostakovich turned to the quartet, again. Composed in 1960, the year of his invocation into the communist party, String Quartet No. 8 demonstrates how Shostakovich utilized the string quartet as an avenue for personal self-expression. The intertwining of his musical signature with constant self-quotations and allusions confirms the deep, personal reflection the quartet provided Shostakovich. This study recounts the quotations previously uncovered by David Fanning, but goes beyond identification and relates the content of the quotations to Shostakovich’s emotional turmoil at the time of his party invocation. Finally, enduring anguishing physical pain and facing death, Shostakovich turned to the string quartet at the end of his life. String Quartet No. 15 provided Shostakovich an external outlet for his internal dialogue on death. Sentiments of meditation, fury, resistance, anguish, and resignation musically intertwine during Shostakovich’s longest and most painful string quartet. This study demonstrates how Shostakovich used the string quartet as a medium for deeper self-expression.

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Table of Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..1

Chapter I: Success and Censure……………………………………………….…………..3

Chapter II: Shostakovich’s Turn to the String Quartet ……………………………...…..13

Chapter III: String Quartet No. 1 …………………………………………...……….…..23

Chapter IV: String Quartet No. 8 ………………………………………………………..40

Chapter V: String Quartet No 15………………………………………………...............62

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….79

Literature…………………………………………………………………………………81

1

Introduction

Both heralded as a national hero and criticized as a dissident, Dmitri• Dmitrievich

Shostakovich (1906 – 1975) is most famous for his Fifth Symphony. Following the

infamous criticism of his opera Lady MacBeth entitled “Muddle Instead of Music,” the

Fifth Symphony re-established his public eminence and his acceptance by the threatening

Soviet regime. Interestingly, less than a year following the warm embrace of his Fifth,

Shostakovich composed his first of fifteen quartets. Though the quartets have not

received the attention as the symphony has, there exists a growing body of scholarship

that aims to understand these quartets as a personal and artistic outlet for Shostakovich.

In her recent book Music for Silenced Voices: Shostakovich and his Fifteen Quartets,

Wendy Lesser argues that Shostakovich composed quartets to seek out an “ideal” and

“impractical” context that could never exist in the outside world.1 Kenneth Gloag, who

proposes that the quartet medium allowed Shostakovich “the construction and articulation

of his own personal world,”2 corroborates Lesser’s idea. Not all scholars embrace this

stance. Some link his move to quartets as a function of a musical trend rather than the

socio-political climate.3 In my thesis, I analyze his quartets and assess how the quartets

could be understood as an outlet for more liberal expression.

I examine his quartets with a three-pronged approach. First, I address the climate in

which he composed. I delve into relevant biographical content such as his early chamber

1 Wendy Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices: Shostakovich and his Fifteen Quartets (New

Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 42-43. 2 Robin Stowell, edit., The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) 300. 3 Katarina Clark, “Shostakovich’s Turn to the string Quartets and the Debates about Socialist Realism in Music,” Slavic Review 72 (2013): 573-589.

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compositions’ personal significance and the criticism he faced in the years leading up to

the composition of his String Quartet No. 1. Second, I discuss the genre of the quartet

within the Soviet context and present the existing and diverging scholarship about the

timing of Shostakovich’s turn to quartets and what that indicates about their meaning.

Against this contextual background, I analyze three of the quartets, No. 1, No. 8, and No.

15, composed by Shostakovich in 1938, 1960, and 1974, respectively. These quartets

provide a longitudinal survey of Shostakovich’s compositional practice in his quartets

and reflect his artistic development. These analyses attempt to clarify the possible self-

expressive function of the quartets in context of Shostakovich’s precarious position in the

Soviet Union.

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Chapter I: Success and Censure

Dmitri• Dmitrievich Shostakovich was born on September 26th, 1906 in St.

Petersburg.4 Mitya, Shostakovich’s childhood nickname, grew up in a musical home.

5 His

parents regularly hosted casual music-making gatherings. His father sang tenor and his

mother played piano, an instrument she formally studied at conservatory prior to devoting

her life to her husband and children. As a child, Mitya initially shied away from musical

training. However, he indulged in hours of listening to music when his parents hosted

informal domestic concerts. His mother recalled how Mitya hid beneath the piano to

conceal himself, stay up past his bedtime, and listen to music.

When Mitya was eight years old, his mother gave him his first piano lesson. 6

According to Fay, Mitya’s “musical gift commanded notice.” Classmates gossiped about

his talents, both as a performer and composer. His parents, musicians themselves,

validated his talent and encouraged his formal training at Petrograd Conservatory. After

personally bearing witness to Mitya’s talents, Alexander Glazunov, the director of the

conservatory, insisted on his immediate enrollment. He relayed to Mitya’s mother, “ I

cannot remember ever having had such gifted children as your son within the walls of the

Conservatory.”7 In 1919, Dmitry Shostakovich enrolled as a student of piano and

composition. Shostakovich formally studied at the Leningrad Conservatoryuntil 1926. 8

He then continued his studies as a graduate student. Shostakovich distinguished himself

early in his training. His composition teacher, Maximilian Steinberg, described

4 Laurel Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 8.

5 Fay, Shostakovich: A Life, 8.



8 The Petrograd Conservatory was renamed Leningrad Conservatory in 1924, the year of Vladimir Lenin’s death, when St. Petersburg was renamed Leningrad.

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Shostakovich as “unquestionably the most talented representative of Leningrad

Conservatory’s young composers.”9

In mid-February of 1922, Shostakovich’s father unexpectedly fell ill. His sudden

death two weeks later deeply affected Shostakovich. Laurel Fay describes Shostakovich’s

reaction:

Dmitri’s mourning was expressed in music. In March, he completed Suite for Two Pianos, op. 6, which he dedicated to the memory of his father. The four-movement work, a memorial of affecting dignity and solemnity, was designed to be performed with his sister Mariya. They played the work together at private soirees in Petrograd musical circles and later at Dmitri’s debut at the Circle of Friends of Chamber Music, on 22 June 1923.

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Fay highlights three critical ideas: first, Shostakovich turned to a chamber genre for self-

expression; second, the work had detectable personal significance; and last, Shostakovich

initially intended this work for intimate gatherings. Thus, Shostakovich, early in his

career, utilized the self-expressive and emotional capacity of chamber music to cope with

challenges in his personal life. Moreover, this was not an isolated incident. In 1925, he

dedicated an Octet in the memory of his friend Volodiyaa Kurchavov, who died in the

Crimea in June of that year.11

In fact, Shostakovich’s dedications were a hallmark of his more intimate chamber

works throughout his career. For example, the first work Shostakovich composed after

suffering from a heart attack in 1966 was the Seven Romances on Poems by Alexander

Blok for soprano and piano trio, completed in 1967. He dedicated this piece to Galina

Vishnevskaya, a soprano and the wife of his cellist friend Mstislav Rostropovich.

According to Elizabeth Wilson, this work “occupies a special place in the vocal output


10 Fay, Shostakovich: A Life, 20-21.


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for its quality of personal confession, ranging from the intimacy of ‘Ophelia Song,’ an

involvement of Shostakovich’s native city of St. Petersburg, stormy premonitions of

destruction and concluding with a hymn to the therapeutic power of music.”12 Wilson

points to a relation between Shostakovich’s dedications and the personal expression of

the pieces of themselves. Interestingly, in later, formally printed editions, the work was

dedicated to the fiftieth anniversary of the 1917 Revolution instead of Galina. This

altered dedication demonstrates how even works characterized by “personal confession”

could be reframed to serve the Soviet regime’s agenda.

By contrast, his First Symphony lacked the emotional depth of some of his early

chamber works. Although the 1926 premiere of his First Symphony received positive

feedback, a number of critics found fault with its slow movement. Its superficial

consciousness disappointed music critic N.N. Strelnikov. Other critics echoed

Strelnikov’s appraisal of the third movement. Addressing the movement, critic M.M.

Sokolsky wrote, “Lyricism is not yet Shostakovich’s domain.”13 The critics of the third

movement found fault with the inexperience of an amateur. However, their criticism also

suggests that Shostakovich did not exercise self-expression in the symphonic setting.

Shostakovich’s dedications of his early symphonies reflect their impersonal,

propagandistic character. In comparison to his early chamber works that he intimately

dedicated to lost loved ones and dear friends, Shostakovich impersonally dedicated his

early symphonies to the Soviet regime. For example, in 1927, Shostakovich agreed to

compose a symphonic (Symphony No. 2) work in honor of the ten-year anniversary of

the 1917 Revolution for the Agitotdel (Propaganda Division) of the State Publishers’

12 Elizabeth Wilson, Shostakovich: A Life Remembered, (Princeton: Princeton University Press: 1994), 445.


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Music Section.14 Shostakovich published the work in 1927 under the title To October, a

Symphonic Dedication, op 14. Biographer Michael Mishra notes, “Despite a structure

that owes more to the proletarian mass spectacle than to the symphony, aspects of

traditional symphonism can be detected, albeit modified to serve the work’s dramatic

purpose.”15 Likewise, Shostakovich described the Third Symphony, subtitled “The First

of May” as expressing the “mood of a public holiday of peaceful construction” and

honoring the international day of laborers.16 Thus, from the start of his career,

Shostakovich utilized he symphonic genre to express the values of the Soviet regime.

In the fall of 1930, Shostakovich embarked upon the opera that first propelled him

into national stardom, but, eventually, plunged him into a chasm of ridicule. On choosing

a libretto, Shostakovich wrote, “One shouldn’t write ‘in general’ about the Five Year

Plan, ‘in general’ about socialist construction, one should write about living people, about

the builders of the Five-Year-Plan.”17 Here, Shostakovich acknowledged the importance

of reconciling the drama of the opera with the regime’s vision of Soviet people. Aware of

the publicity the work would receive, Shostakovich recognized the importance of paying

homage to Stalin’s recent, 1928 Five-Year-Plan, his first of many initiatives to

collectivize industry and agriculture. Eventually, Shostakovich selected a libretto based

on Nikolai Leskov’s 1864 story, Lady MacBeth of the Mtsensk District.

Because of the success enjoyed by Shostakovich as a consequence of his first

opera The Nose, Lady MacBeth was met with high expectations. According to Fay, “Well

before its premiere, extensive coverage in the press promoted the significance of the

event for the Soviet opera.” Nikolai Myaskovsky, contemporary composer and oft


15 Michael Mishra, A Shostakovich Companion, (Westport: Preager Publishers, 2008), 56.

16 Mishra, A Shostakovich Companion, 64. 17 Fay, Shostakovich: A Life, 67.

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opponent of Shostakovich’s work described the opera “stunningly wonderful”18 after

previewing an audition. Lady MacBeth of the Mtseksk District premiered on 22 January

1934 at the Malïy Opera Theater in Leningrad. The reception of Lady MacBeth was

overwhelming celebratory. The Krasnaya gazeta predicted Lady MacBeth to become

“one of the most beloved of the mass viewer.” 19

The reception was so enthusiastic that Shostakovich planned to expand the work.

He intended for this opera to serve as the first installation of a tetralogy akin to Wagner’s

Ring of Nibelungs. Shostakovich wrote that the final installation would portray a “Soviet

heroine, embracing collected features of women from the present and the future, from

Larisa Reysner to Zhenya Romanko, the best female concrete worker on the Dneprostroy

Project.20 Thus, Shostakovich, fueled by the praise and glory the opera received, believed

Lady MacBeth presented an opportunity to fulfill Soviet propaganda goals. However,

Shostakovich never realized his vision.

In January of 1936, Stalin attended Shostakovich’s Lady Macbeth.21 Shortly after,

on January 28, the Pravda published the article “Muddle Instead of Music.”22 One

particularly infamous excerpt read as follows:

The young composer, instead of hearing serious criticism, which could have helped him in his future work, hears only enthusiastic compliments…To follow this "music" is most difficult; to remember it, impossible…The music quacks, grunts, and growls, and suffocates itself…The talented acting deserves gratitude, the wasted efforts – regret.

23




21 Peter Gutmann,”Shostakovich’s Fifth Symphony—finding the cost of freedom.”

Goldmine 28.19 (2002): 61. 22 Fay, Laurel, Shostakovich: A Life, 78.

23 C.H. Loh, Muddle Instead of Music, in the Geo Cities Archives,

http://www.oocities.org/kuala_bear/articles/muddle.html.

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The article menaced Shostakovich with cruel references to “grunts” and “quacks,” and

explicitly attacked his character when suggesting Shostakovich was too arrogant to hear

beyond compliments. The phrase “could have helped him in his future work” suggested

that Shostakovich might no longer have a compositional career. Moreover, the article was

more than a critique; it was an indictment. The article later stated that Shostakovich made

a “petty-bourgeois, formalist attempt to create originality through cheap clowning. It is a

game of clever ingenuity that may end very badly.”24 At the time of the article’s

publication, the Soviet regime considered imperialism and formalism its two greatest

enemies.25 If one considers that the publication of the article was at the start of the Great

Terror, the phrase “may end very badly” implicitly threatened Shostakovich’s life. The

article charged him with crimes worthy of fatal penalization.

The Pravda publication greatly slowed the progress of his Fourth Symphony,

which was well underway by 1936. According to Fay, “For Shostakovich, who was cast

down overnight from the summit as the brightest star among young Soviet composers to

the abyss as pernicious purveyor of cultural depravity, things would never be the same

again.”26 In 1936, the same year as the birth of his daughter, Shostakovich matched only a

sixth of his usual earnings, likely a consequence of the Pravda article.27 It is not

coincidental that in January of 1936, the regime established an All-Union Committee for

Artistic Affairs (eventually the USSR Ministry of Culture) to oversee all artistic

organizations. At the time of its establishment, Kerzhenstev, a cultural official, publicly

scolded Shostakovich. He suggested Shostakovich turn to the Soviet people for repertoire

24 Geo Cities Archives.

25 Volkov, Solomon, Shostakovich and Stalin: the extraordinary relationship between the

great composer and the brutal dictator, 134. 26 Fay, Shostakovich: A Life, 85.

27 Fay, Shostakovich: A Life 88.

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and encouraged him to abandon “sorry excuses for critics as Sollerinsky.” 28

The public

singling out of Shostakovich demonstrates how closely the regime monitored him.

Shostakovich, already a target of the regime, was in a doubly perilous position:

his music put him a precarious position and the Soviet Union viewed many of his friends

and family as potential enemies of the state. In 1936, the regime arrested Shostakovich’s

close friend Galina Serevryakova and a former lover Yelena Konstaninovskaya. By 1937,

the Great Terror reached its peak. The arrest of his uncle and his brother-in-law, the exile

of his sister, Mariya, the sentencing of his mother-in-law to hard labor, and the execution

of his dear friend Marshal Mikhail all occurred during 1937.29 The number of close

friends and family targeted by the regime demonstrates both his visibility and

vulnerability. Although seemingly unrelated to Shostakovich and his music, the targeting

of close friends and family made Shostakovich more visible in a highly policed society.

In this atmosphere of censure, the premiere of his Fourth Symphony, scheduled

for December 11, 1936, never occurred. Isaak Gilkman, a close friend of Shostakovich,

attended several rehearsals. He recounted how “rumors had been circulating in musical

and more importantly, fringe circles, that, disregarding criticism, Shostakovich had

written a devilishly difficult symphony, jam-packed with formalism.”30 These rumors

prompted Shostakovich to move directly to composing his Fifth, his restorative

symphony.


29 Michael Mishra, A Shostakovich Companion, (Westport: Preager Publishers, 2008),

104-105. 30 Fay, Shostakovich: A Life 89.

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Thus, Shostakovich’s Fifth Symphony did not only save his career, but also, perhaps,

his life.31 The Fifth Symphony premiered in November of 1937 in Leningrad.

32 The Fifth

received exceptional reviews and propaganda-inspired interpretation, but Shostakovich—

at least initially—did and said little to enlighten his audience as to the meaning of his

work. Alexey Tolstoy, an honored recipient of three Stalin awards and a faithful member

of the Communist party,33 wrote the most significant review of the Fifth.

34 Tolstoy’s

review played a critical role in restoring not only Shostakovich’s popularity, but also his

safety.

Tolstoy popularized the term “formation of a personality” to explicate the

symphony’s social significance and drama.35 The most telling passage of his review reads

as follows:

Here we have the ‘Symphony of Socialism.’ It begins with the Largo of the masses working underground, an accelerando corresponds to the subway system; the Allegro in turn symbolizes gigantic factory machinery and its victory over nature. The Adagio represents the synthesis of Soviet culture, science, and art. The Scherzo reflects the athletic life of happy inhabitants of the Union. As for the Finale, it is the image of the gratitude and the enthusiasm of the masses.

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Tolstoy’s “Symphony of Socialism” interpretation protected Shostakovich from ridicule

and made the Fifth impervious to regime targeting. His celebration of the work as an apt

glorification of Socialism suggested Shostakovich freed himself of his Western, formalist

tendencies. After breaking his silence, Shostakovich embraced Tolstoy’s comprehension

31 Richard Taruskin, “‘Public lies and unspeakable truths: Interpreting Shostakovich’s

Fifth Symphony” in Shostakovich Studies, ed. David Fanning (University of Manchester, 2006), 29-30. 32 Ian MacDonald, The New Shostakovich, (Boston: Northeastern University Press), 1990,

123. 33 Liukkonen, P & Pesonen, A, “Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoi (1883-1945)” Books and

Writers, http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/atolstoi.htm (accessed May 6, 2013). 34 Stravinsky, Igor, Poetics of Music, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press: 1970), 153.

35 Fay, 95.

36 Stravinsky, Poetics of Music, 153.

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of the work and subtitled the work “My Creative Answer” for the Moscow premiere.37

According to Taruskin, Tolstoy’s review was “almost immediately bolstered by the

composer’s public testimony, amounting to a plea—not to say a demand—that the

symphony be read as autobiography.”38 Although interpreting the symphony as

autobiographical seems reasonable, Tolstoy’s analysis seems ludicrous when considering

the state of the Soviet Union. Between 1936 and 1938, the Soviet regime executed 1,000

people per day and sentenced anywhere from three to twelve million more Soviets to hard

labor.39 Thus, attributing “gratitude” or “enthusiasm” to “the masses” as Tolstoy did is

farcical.

In 1939, Igor Stravinsky, a staunch anti-Soviet Russian living in America, ridiculed

Tolstoy’s review. He considered the review “a consummate masterpiece of bad taste,

mental infirmity, and complete disorientation in the recognition of the fundamental

values of life.”40 Today, there exists a great deal of scholarship on the Fifth and its

meaning. Scholars continue to debate whether or not Shostakovich highly coded the Fifth

with insurgency. Regardless of possible dual meanings, the Fifth Symphony and

Tolstoy’s interpretation restored Shostakovich’s career and safety. Interestingly, during

his year of reprieve following the Fifth’s warm embrace, Shostakovich turned to the

string quartet.


38 Taruskin, "Public lies and unspeakable truth: Interpreting Shostakovich's fifth

symphony," 29. 39 Ekaterina Gracheva,, “Of Russian origin: Stalin’s Purges” Russiapedia,

http://russiapedia.rt.com/of-russian-origin/stalins-purges/accessed April 20, 2013). 40 Stravinsky, Poetics of Music, 155.

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Chapter II: Shostakovich’s Turn to The String Quartet

The string quartet, like other chamber music, originates from domestic music

making. Its emergence in the latter half of the eighteenth century originated from an

amateur music making tradition dating back to consort ensembles and madrigals printed

in part books in the sixteenth century.41 String quartets, composed for two violins, viola,

and cello, initially had a number of names such as “serenade,” “divertimento,” and

“quartetto.” This instrumentation was likely a consequence of the string quartets closely

related predecessor, a string consort.

According to musicologist Christine Bashford, the string quartet represented the

“quintessential music of friends.” She writes that chamber music was intended “to be

performed for its own sake and the enjoyment of its players(…) perhaps in the presence

of a few listeners, perhaps not.”42 Early depictions testify to the intimacy of early string

quartet performance. Early portrayals depict musicians playing in a circle, with few, if

any, audience members outside the intimate circle. Although it is clear that the quartet

had an intimate social function among the elite, Christina Bashford notes,

41 Christine Bashford, “The string quartet and society,” “The String Quartet in the

Twentieth Century,” in The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet. edit by Robin Stowell, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 3. 42 Bashford, “The string quartet and society,” 3.

13

“Reconstructing this musical world is not easy” because of the “essentially private nature

of quartet playing.”43 Accordingly, the earliest string quartet performances lack

documentation.

Initially, wealth, education, and leisure characterized the social context of the

quartet. Most often, the performers were men from aristocratic classes. Quartet

performances were informal, intimate, concerts among friends. Though many amateur

musicians performed the works, patrons also called upon professionally trained

musicians. Quartets were not only popular for their enjoyment; they played an important

social function. According to an anonymous article published in 1810 in the Allgemeine

musikalische Zeitung (General Music Journal), “It is impossible to hate someone with

whom you have once seriously made music; and those who in some winter season have

of their own will freely joined together in playing quartets are good friends for the rest of

their lives.”44 Thus, string quartet performers perceived quartets as bearing great social

worth.

The genre itself widely varied in its infancy. The number of movements, style and

texture differed from composer to composer, work to work.45 Eighteenth-century

composers regularly included fugal movements, complex polyphonic movements, and

homophonic, gallant style movements. Though at the time of its conception, the genre

varied musically, its context remained constant. According to Cliff Eisen, there is no

evidence of public performance in Europe outside of London before the 19th century.

46

43 Bashford, “The string quartet and society,” 4.

44 Cliff Eisen, "String quartet," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, accessed November 30, 2014, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ccl.idm.oclc.org/subscriber/article/grove/music/40899. 45 Eisen, "String quartet," Grove Music Online.

46 Eisen, "String quartet," Grove Music Online.

14

The genre quickly became popular, and the string quartet transitioned from

intimate private performances to public spaces. By the end of the eighteenth century,

chamber concerts emerged in great numbers. Initially, these public concerts welcomed

amateur musicians performing a variety of chamber music, including, of course, the

popular string quartet.47 In Vienna, Berlin, and Paris, initiatives headed by Ignaz

Schuppanzigh, Karl Möser, and Pierre Baillot Séances, respectively, resulted in the

regular performance of quartet concerts. However, by the mid nineteenth-century, the

public performance of chamber music reached formal concert halls. From 1830 onwards,

the professionalization of the quartet resulted in countless quartet groups, including, but

not limited to, the Quatuor Armingaud, the Gewandhaus Quartet, the Dresden String

Quartet, the Hellmesberger Quartet, the Müller Quartet, the Trieste String Quartet, the

Florentine String Quartet, the Joachim Quartet, and the Russian quartet ensembles

attached to local branches of the imperial music societies.48 However, aesthetic and

contextual contradictions riddled the transfer to formal concert halls. To accommodate

the changed context, sometimes, concert hall directors sometimes rearranged the

audience members’ chairs in hopes of recreating a sense of intimacy. In some instances,

they placed the musicians in the center of the hall and the audience members around

them.

Composers adapted as public performances of string quartets in large concert

halls became more common. According to Bashford, to accommodate these public

performances, composers fused “richly resonant writing, thicker textures, and bold

gestures –vocabulary for larger spaces” with the subtle complexities that only performers


48 Eisen, "String quartet," Grove Music Online.

15

may appreciate.49 Haydn’s string quartet op. 74 demonstrates these musical developments

with its bold character and richer, more orchestral-like sonorities.50 Beethoven continued

and expanded this style. His middle-period string quartets op. 59, demonstrate the

increased scale incorporating elements such as expanded first movements, and

augmented and slowed opening ideas recalled the style he cultivated beginning with his

“Eroica” symphony.51

Interestingly, despite the nineteenth century being the “Age of Beethoven,”

composers who followed Beethoven departed from his distinct quartet style. Rather, they

ensured the string quartet retained its sense of intimacy despite its public performance.

According to Antonio Baldassarre, “Even after 1830, intimacy remained a defining

characteristic of chamber music, and to no branch did that apply more forcibly than the

string quartet.”52 Prolific quartet composers, such as Felix Mendelsohn, Ferdinand Ries,

Bernhard Romberg, Carl Reissiger, and Louis Spohr, desired to move away from the

Beethovian quartet and re-establish the intimate character of the earlier string quartets.

Their compositions departed from the dramatic symphonic gestures and instead catered to

the small recital rooms of the middle-class.

In Russia, composers integrated elements of folk music into quartets.53 Mikhail

Glinka composed two quartets in 1824 and 1830. While in the classical tradition, these

quartets recalled folk traditions. Anton Rubinstein composed ten quartets in the latter half

of the nineteenth century. In his later quartets, Russian folk music more apparently


50 Eisen, et al. "String quartet," Grove Music Online. 51 Antonio Baldassarre, "String quartet," Grove Music Online.

52 Baldassarre, "String quartet." Grove Music Online. 53 Paul Griffiths, "String quartet." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.

16

influenced the form. Likewise, Nikolay Afanas’yev’s twelve quartets incorporated

national influences, with one even entitled “Volga” in A minor.

The most important nineteenth century quartet composer in Russia was Alexander

Borodin.54 Borodin reconciled Beethoven’s heavier, symphonic influences with the

nationalistic style popular in Russian quartets. Two other influential figures, Alexander

Glazunov and Sergei Taneyev, straddled the Tsarist and Soviet eras. According to Alan

George, their string quartets “perhaps more than those of their illustrious predecessors

(…) exerted the greater influence on the quartet writing of the Soviet period, through

their demonstration of how to write idiomatically and resourcefully for four string

instruments.”55 The next prolific quartet composer to come from Russia, or at the time,

the Soviet Union, was Shostakovich.

At only seven years of age, Shostakovich regularly listened to chamber music

sounding from his neighbor’s home. Young Mitya sat for hours listening to the trios and

quartets by Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Borodin and Tchaikovsky.56 As an adult,

Shostakovich lamented the lack of chamber works in the Soviet canon.57 However, his

chamber repertoire was relatively limited. By 1932, at thirty-two years of age, his

chamber repertoire consisted only of student compositions: a single piano trio, three cello

and piano works, two string octets, and two string quartets.58

Shostakovich acknowledged this gap in his repertoire on more than one occasion.

In 1934, before the premier of Lady MacBeth, Shostakovich recognized: “I have a great

gap in the area of concerto and chamber-oriented music…At the present time, I am

54 George, “The Soviet and Russian Quartet,” 72. 55 George, “The Soviet and Russian Quartet,” 72. 56 Fay, Shostakovich: A Life, 9.


58 George, “The Soviet and Russian Quartet,” 74.

17

focusing my creative energy precisely on these genres.”59 For a composer as

accomplished and acclaimed as Shostakovich, it is unusual that he lacked chamber work.

Perhaps a consequence of his early praise as a symphonist, he seemingly abandoned

chamber music after his formal training. Following the premier of his Fifth symphony in

1937, Shostakovich echoed himself: “And this is what I want to do —and I absolutely

will do it—to write for our performers a series of chamber music.”60 A year later,

Shostakovich fulfilled his promise to contribute to the Soviet chamber repertoire and

composed String Quartet No. 1 in C, Op. 49.

Upon the String Quartet No. 1’s completion, Shostakovich offered one

explanation for the gap in his repertoire. On composing his String Quartet No. 1, he

wrote, “The quartet is one of the most difficult musical genres.”61 It is striking that

Shostakovich, an accomplished composer of five symphonies, two operas, and three

ballets, found the quartet to be of the most challenging. Although he did not expand on

why he found the genre so challenging, interestingly, he confronted the challenge only

after his reprieve following the Fifth. Shostakovich’s turn to quartets coincided with his

renewed sense of security within the Soviet Union, both political and personal. As

discussed in the previous chapter, the regime’s embrace of his Fifth Symphony saved

Shostakovich’s reputation and, quite possibly, his life. Thus, an opportune time arose for

Shostakovich to devote his creative and emotive energy into a genre that promised less

scrutiny and more intimacy. The genre of the string quartet, intimate and egalitarian, was

his escape.

59 Kuhn, Shostakovich in Dialogue, 16.



18

Shostakovich’s turn to the string quartets is fascinating when considering his

personal affairs and the oppressive climate in which he lived. According to Fay, “the

success of his Fifth Symphony earned Shostakovich a creative reprieve, a respite from

enormous pressure and stress.”62 Seemingly, his turn to the quartets, coinciding with a

time of reprieve, suggests that Shostakovich saw the medium as an artistic outlet. During

an era in which composers were so policed by the Soviet socialist regime, the symphony

was the obvious avenue to pay proper tribute to the masses. By turning to the string

quartet, it is possible Shostakovich was seeking a less scrutinized realm for creative

expression.

In his article, “The String Quartet in the Twentieth Century,” Kenneth Gloag

expands on this point, articulating, “Whatever political connotations, it is clear

Shostakovich viewed the string quartet as a viable medium for the construction and

articulation of his own personal sound-world.”63 Gloag suggests that the quartets, unlike

the symphonic arena, offer a more secure sonic environment for self-expression.

Especially within the Soviet context, this is likely a consequence of the symphony

representing the masses. Accordingly, the regime monitored this public and highly

symbolic sphere. The quartet offered some immunity from scrutiny because it did not

bear the same symbolic weight and was, consequently, of less importance to the regime.

The musical dynamic between the instruments is particularly interesting when

considering the socio-political climate of the Soviet Union. The conversation between the


63 Kennth Gloag, “The String Quartet in the Twentieth Century,” in The Cambridge

Companion to the String Quartet, ed., by Robin Stowell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 300.

19

instruments of the quartet lends to a sense of equality, democracy even. In her novel,

Music for Silenced Voices64, Wendy Lesser expands on this metaphor:

If the full orchestra can be seen as a mass society in which the performers risk losing their individuality, while the solo recital represents an essentially narcissistic arrangement, then the string quartet might be viewed as an ideal society in which the musicians looks to each other for guidance (…) And if the Athenian democracy represented by the string quartet was an impractical model that could never exist in the real world of politics… well so much the more reason for Shostakovich to seek it out in his private life and, and in his music.

65

Lesser suggests that the string quartet’s musical dynamic equates to a greater socio-

political dynamic. Lesser proposes that the quartet genre offered more than an intimate

space for composition; it also represented an idealized social realm that Shostakovich

could not otherwise realize.

Not all scholars attribute his turn to the quartets to any biographical significance.

For example, Alan George refutes the legitimacy of the quartets functioning as a

reflection of Shostakovich’s private persona. In fact, he claims Shostakovich “strongly

opposed”66 the idea that the symphonies and quartets represented a public and private

persona, respectively. Katerina Clark, refers to Lesser’s argument as a “cruder version of

general tendency when writing about Shostakovich,”67 the tendency to romanticize

Shostakovich and assign meanings to works without, in Clark’s opinion, legitimate

64 Lesser’s monograph is entirely devoted to the subject of Shostakovich’s quartets’ significant relation to the life of Shostakovich. Lesser, who identifies as a “non-musician,” writes poetically about the quartets and their relation to his life. Despite Lesser’s lack of musicological background, some critics have embraced the book. Lindsay Hansen concluded her positive review of the work stating, “Although this book does not serve as a single source of information about Shostakovich’s life, it provides a strong framework for the quartets.” Thus, the book may serve as useful tool in this investigation. Lindsay Hansen, "Music for Silenced Voices: Shostakovich and His Fifteen Quartets by Wendy Lesser," Music Reference Services Quarterly 4 (2011): 267. 65 Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 42-43.


67 Clark, “Shostakovich’s Turn to the String Quartet,” 573.

20

evidence. In her article, “Shostakovich’s Turn to the String Quartet and Debates about

Social Realism,” Clark argues that his turn to the quartet cannot be understood as

anything more than an attempt to compose new material within the loosely defined style

of Socialist Realism. However, in the same breath, Clark concedes that the quartet was in

fact a curious genre for Socialist Realism because the string quartet was not a genre that

represented the masses. Rather, string quartets represent elitism that the communist

revolution supplanted. Though this is seemingly contradictory to quartets’ symbolic

egalitarianism, the elitism they represent stems from the affluent circles that originally

played and enjoyed quartets. While the symphony represents a mass spectacle

orchestrated by a czar, the string quartet represents a small group of more autonomous

and affluent individuals.

Clark supports her argument not with the content of the music, nor the content of

Shostakovich’s private life. Instead, she uses only his public statements about the

quartets. In an era marked by its oppressive surveillance, however, public statements

were constructed to place the composer within an acceptable political framework.

Therefore, using his public statements about the quartets only serves to show how

Shostakovich represented himself in the public sphere. As Fay notes, “Shostakovich

made a point of speaking through his music, not about it. He was an intensely private

person who guarded his personal life and feelings jealously.”68 Following Fay’s

argument, if the quartets are in fact a window into Shostakovich’s personal life, it is

unlikely he would publicly confirm their autobiographic function.

Rather than argue for a perfect divide between the symphonic and chamber

works’ functions, this investigation assesses the significance of his turn to the quartets


21

and how the genre’s context allowed for liberal self-expression. Even scholars skeptical

of the deeper meaning beneath the quartets do not deny their intimacy. For example, Alan

George writes, “Yet the dedications on the quartets’ scores do testify to an intimacy that

is very much in the spirit of chamber music, since all are dedicated to personal

acquaintances including his two wives.”69 Paralleling the dedications of his chamber

works as a student at the Conservatory, his string quartet dedications to loved ones

suggest their personal meaning for him.

Chapter III: String Quartet No. 1


22

Soon after the birth of his son in 1938, Shostakovich began composing String

Quartet No. 1. At this time in the Soviet Union, ensemble performances were rare and

had few listeners.70 Despite the lack of public attention chamber music received, the

Glazunov Quartet pestered Shostakovich to compose for them, so much so that when

Shostakovich saw members of the Quartet, he would shout, “I will write it! I will write

it!” and run away. 71

Although the Glazunov Quartet applied external pressure,

Shostakovich’s desire to compose String Quartet No. 1 arose internally. Upon the

quartet’s completion, he wrote, “I began to write it without special ideas and feelings, I

thought that nothing would come of it (…) but then work on the quartet captivated me

and I finished it rather quickly.”72 Shostakovich’s reflections on the compositional

process suggest he composed the quartet for personal fulfillment during his time of

reprieve from the Soviet regime’s disdain.

Although Shostakovich’s Fifth Symphony temporarily absolved him from the

regime’s disdain, he approached the public performance of String Quartet No. 1 with

caution. He acknowledged the proximity of the quartet’s premiere to his celebrated Fifth

Symphony and discouraged comparison, writing, “Don’t expect to find special depth in

this, my first quartet opus. In mood it is joyful, merry, lyrical. I would call it ‘spring-

like.’”73

Thus, Shostakovich preempted critical attack by undermining the quartet’s

content. Further, he explicitly discouraged close listening by noting its lack of “special

depth.”


71 As quoted by Kuhn, Shostakovich in Dialogue, 17.

72 As quoted by Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 40.

73 As quoted by Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 112.

23

The attention the First Quartet received testified to the spotlight Shostakovich

endured following his Fifth Symphony. However, critical reception failed to actualize

Shostakovich’s concerns of ridicule. Following its Leningrad premiere by the Glazunov

Quartet in October 1938, Leonard Entelis’s review in newspaper Sovetskoe iskusstvo,

(Soviet Art), contended that Shostakovich continued, “along the path noted in his

Symphony and (…) the first movement’s tonal development is perfectly regular.”74 After

the November Moscow premiere performed by the Beethoven Quartet, Mikhail Pekelis’s

review reaffirmed the positive reception. Pekelis ventured further and projected a

program onto the work, understanding the quartet as “coming from childhood, even

perhaps a children’s fairy tale.” He celebrated the finale, which demonstrated

“cheerfulness,” establishing a “living reality, free from fantastic errors.”75

Other critics suggested a program more reflective of recent events in

Shostakovich’s career. In March, 1939, Yosif Rïshkin proposed an alternative program to

the quartet in Sovetskya muzïka, a Soviet musical journal. Rïshkin felt the work

represented a wandering pilgrim. He wrote, “The images of wandering are

conventional—in their poetic aspect they represent the inner creative path of

Shostakovich: rest, achieved after lengthy travels, the pure joy of consciousness after a

mighty struggle with himself.”76

Viktor Bobrovsky, a Soviet scholar of the

Shostakovich’s quartets, suggested a similar understanding. He described the quartet as a

“kind of creative intermezzo, a respite after the agitation experienced in the sphere of

heroic dramatic imagery.”77





24

Interestingly, after repeated performances, Entelis recanted his original, glowing

review. He highlighted a number of troubling aspects of the quartet including the lack of

a “a clearly formulated ending” to the first movement. He also noted the “sincere

tunefulness of the music is destroyed by troubled intonations, recalling the character of

the first movement of the Fifth Symphony.” However, he maintained that these troubling

areas are redeemed by the finale’s “radiant optimism.”78 Likewise, in a 1939 Sovetskya

muzïka article, Yuly Kremlyov found fault with the harmonies of the work. For example,

he cited mm. 9-10 (Example 1) as the “sharpest, driest, most futile dissonances” and

claimed the “[dissonances] are not only unprepared by the theme…they clearly oppose

it…An appalling gap develops between the melody, the harmony and the overall unity of

the work [creating] a liquidation of harmonic logic.”79 Despite these critiques, the quartet

failed to damage the sanctity of Shostakovich’s position within the Soviet Union

following the Fifth Symphony. Perhaps because the genre of the string quartet generally

received less interest, no severe repercussion resulted from the critiques. Seemingly, the

initial heightened interest in the quartet stemmed more from his recent redemptive Fifth

Symphony than in the quartet itself.

Example 1. i. Moderato, mm. 9-10. Yuly Kremlyov referred to these bars as the “sharpest, driest, most futile dissonances,” most likely in reference to the minor seconds.



Years later, Shostakovich provided insight into the quartet’s meaning. He wrote,

“I tried to convey in it images of childhood, so

moods.”80

His suggested program supports monographer belief that the birth of his son

and his professional reprieve colored the content of the quartet. She suggests that the

birth of his son brought Shostakovich back to a s

Ivan Sollertinsky, Shostakovich wrote, “It didn’t turn out particularly well. But you

know it is hard to compose well. One has to know how.”

supports the claim that he “purposel

(…) If the string quartet gave Shostakovich a route back to his childhood, it also offered

him an escape from his previous musical history.”

Lesser’s musings prove c

simplicity of the work, and the sweet impression with which the quartet leaves its

listeners does suggest Shostakovich immersed himself in a genre in which he felt a sense

of naiveté. In the following

quartet that suggest greater self

initial exploration of the genre.

i. Moderato

80

As quoted by Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 81

As quoted by Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 82

Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices,


“I tried to convey in it images of childhood, somewhat naïve, bright, spring



birth of his son brought Shostakovich back to a state of youth. Furthermore, in a letter to


know it is hard to compose well. One has to know how.”81

According to Lesser, this letter

supports the claim that he “purposely returned himself to a condition of not knowing how


him an escape from his previous musical history.”82

Upon closer inspection of the music,

Lesser’s musings prove compelling. In many ways, the key he chose, the relative



of naiveté. In the following analysis, I will point to elements of Shostakovich’s first string

quartet that suggest greater self-expression and reflection, his first quartet fulfilling a

initial exploration of the genre.

, Shostakovich: A life, 112. Music for Silenced Voices, 40.

Music for Silenced Voices, 40-41.

25


mewhat naïve, bright, spring-like



tate of youth. Furthermore, in a letter to


According to Lesser, this letter

y returned himself to a condition of not knowing how


Upon closer inspection of the music,

ompelling. In many ways, the key he chose, the relative



analysis, I will point to elements of Shostakovich’s first string

expression and reflection, his first quartet fulfilling an

Upon first listening, the opening

quartet of a composer delving into a new genre. In C major, with regular rhythms and

repetitive melodic gestures, the

unassuming quartet. However, as critic Kremlyov discov

movement lies in harmonic interest that the movement’s sweet sound obscures

citing mm. 9-10, most likely for the minor seconds. Shostakovich also deviates from

standard form (Table 3.1). The structure of the fir

form. However, the structure dissolves as described below. Even the coda lacks a strong

authentic cadence in the home key, a compositional device employed through the quartet.

Table 3.1: i. Moderato Exposition

A

Measures 1-36

Key Areas C

The opening theme is chorale

predominantly step-wise, a simple melodic contour that allows for modulation via linear

motion. For example, one notes the ascending parallel 6/3 chords in bar 6, and again in

the opening theme’s restatement in

sweetness to this gesture, and its repetition distracts from the increasingly disparate

harmonies at which the gesture arrives. In the first theme’s variation in

repetitive duplet figure from section B (second theme) seeps into the

20 (Ex. 3.3). This not only previews the second theme, but also previews the texture that

pervades much of the quartet’s third movement. The self

helps create a sense of intimacy. Not only does the repeition of certain musical tropes

lend a sense of familiarity, the reiterations confirm

Example 3.2. Rising 6/3 Chords

m. 6

Upon first listening, the opening Moderato movement sounds like the simple


repetitive melodic gestures, the Moderato movement sets the stage for the seemingly

unassuming quartet. However, as critic Kremlyov discovered, the complexity of the first

movement lies in harmonic interest that the movement’s sweet sound obscures

10, most likely for the minor seconds. Shostakovich also deviates from

1). The structure of the first movement loosely adheres to sonata



Exposition Development Recapitulation

B A’ A’’ B’

36-74 75-88 89-97 98-111

E♭ No tonal center C A♭

The opening theme is chorale-like in structure and sound. Motion

wise, a simple melodic contour that allows for modulation via linear


the opening theme’s restatement in measures 16 and 18 (Ex. 3.2). There i


harmonies at which the gesture arrives. In the first theme’s variation in mm.

repetitive duplet figure from section B (second theme) seeps into the internal lines at

3). This not only previews the second theme, but also previews the texture that

pervades much of the quartet’s third movement. The self-referential quality of the quartet


lend a sense of familiarity, the reiterations confirm the quartet’s distinct voice.

Rising 6/3 Chords

mm.16-18

26

movement sounds like the simple


movement sets the stage for the seemingly

ered, the complexity of the first

movement lies in harmonic interest that the movement’s sweet sound obscures (Ex. 3.1),

10, most likely for the minor seconds. Shostakovich also deviates from

st movement loosely adheres to sonata



Recapitulation Coda

B’

111 112-123

♭, f C

Motion occurs

wise, a simple melodic contour that allows for modulation via linear


2). There is a simple


mm. 15-28, a

internal lines at m.

3). This not only previews the second theme, but also previews the texture that

referential quality of the quartet


t voice.

The second theme (B) varies from the first in character, style, and texture. Unlike

the full chorale texture of the first theme, B presents a thinner texture in which only three

instruments sound simultaneously throughout most of the section. The ostinato du

pattern revealed in A persists throughout much of B. However, its return lends it new

meaning. The playful glissandos in the cello and light accompaniment in the violin makes

the repetitive, staccato duplets bouncy and light, not persistent and ground

Section B begins firmly in its tonal center E

section alternating between I and V (mm. 37

scales destabilize the tonal center starting at m. 50 (Ex. 3.4

major scale and F-minor scale deviate from the firm tonal center established in the

previous passage. Similar scales appear throughout the quartet, recurring in the second

and fourth movements (Ex. 3.4b and Ex 3.4c). Although the var

distinct from one another, the familiarity of the scales fosters the quartet’s sense of

intimacy.

Example 3.3. Recurring duplet figure

mm. 20-21

second theme (B) varies from the first in character, style, and texture. Unlike


instruments sound simultaneously throughout most of the section. The ostinato du



the repetitive, staccato duplets bouncy and light, not persistent and ground

firmly in its tonal center E-flat major with the first ten measures of the

section alternating between I and V (mm. 37-46). However, overlapping, discordant

scales destabilize the tonal center starting at m. 50 (Ex. 3.4a). The overlapping E

minor scale deviate from the firm tonal center established in the


and fourth movements (Ex. 3.4b and Ex 3.4c). Although the variations of the idea are


duplet figure

mm. 37-38

27

second theme (B) varies from the first in character, style, and texture. Unlike


instruments sound simultaneously throughout most of the section. The ostinato duplet



the repetitive, staccato duplets bouncy and light, not persistent and grounding as in A.

flat major with the first ten measures of the

46). However, overlapping, discordant

The overlapping E-flat

minor scale deviate from the firm tonal center established in the


iations of the idea are


28

a. i. Moderato mm. 50-53, incomplete E-flat major scale and F minor scale

i. +

b. ii. Moderato mm. 52-53, E-major scales, offset by a third

ii. +

c. iv. Allegro mm. 75-77, D major scales, offset by a third

iii. +

Example 3.4. Overlapping Scales throughout String Quartet No. 1

The ambiguous development and hasty recapitulation dissolve the sonata

structure. First, harmonic irregularities obscure the re-transition from the development to

the recapitulation. The harmonic instability beginning in the development persists

through the beginning of the recapitulation (Ex 3.5). Throughout the development, linear

chromaticism, specifically the linear movement of thirds created by the second violin and

viola, destabilizes the E minor tonal center. The same linear chromaticism continues into

the recapitulation. Linear motion in thirds almost immediately follows the arrival at C,

29

obfuscating the arrival at the home-key. Further, at the onset of the recapitulation, the

meter is still in that of the developmental section rather than the original ¾.

By m. 98, the C major material from the opening transforms into material from B

in the key of A-flat major. Shostakovich returns to the home-key C major by first

modulating to its relative minor, F minor in m. 104. The modulation back to C major

occurs subtly: the V of f minor is C. The movement’s sense of dissipation, rather than

conclusion, stems from an ending that resonates almost as an extended half cadence in f

minor. Shostakovich prolongs this fading: the twelve-bar coda lacks a cadence and

instead reiterates the tonic, C major with decreasing dynamic volume. The final morendo

marking underlines this slow dissolution.

Originally, this movement served as the Quartet’s finale. In a letter to his friend

Ivan Sollertinsky, Shostakovich wrote, “ In the process of composition I regrouped mid-

stream (…) the first movement became the last, the last the first.”83 Considering the

critical acclaim the last movement received and the positive storyline it enabled, it is

particularly interesting that Shostakovich originally composed the finale as the opening

movement and vice versa. Would the critical reception have varied significantly had the

inconclusive first movement served as the finale? Though it is impossible to know for

certain, perhaps when Shostakovich realized the work would no longer be only for his

own personal and artistic growth, he felt obligated to alter the quartet to construct a more

appropriate story line. Whether or not this was his intention cannot be certain; however,

had Shostakovich kept this movement as his last, the celebratory storyline of a lost

wanderer finding his way could not have been imposed by critics. Conversely, a

pessimistic storyline could have been imposed about a hero straying from greatness and

83 A quoted by Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 40.

wandering alone had Shostakovich kept the celebratory finale as his first movement and

this movement as his last.

ii. Moderato

The second movement is a

The movement’s form suits its personal character as it enables individual voices to

engage in dialogue. In many ways, the second movement serves as a foi

the key of A minor, it lacks t

Unlike the first movement, particularly in stark contrast to the opening theme, the second

movement showcases individual voices with great clarity by featuring solos and moments

of imitation.

Table 3.2: ii. Moderato

79

Example 3.5 Liner reduction of

Recapitulation

Development

75

83

89


this movement as his last.

The second movement is a twentieth-century style fugue in the key of a minor.


engage in dialogue. In many ways, the second movement serves as a foil for the first. In

minor, it lacks the sweet, yet nostalgic temperament of the first movement.



87 94

Liner reduction of i. Moderato, mm. 75-98

79

87

94

30


century style fugue in the key of a minor.


l for the first. In

temperament of the first movement.



31

Exposition Development (B) Counter-Exposition

Measures 1-41 41-62 63-85

Key Areas a, b♭ E a

The viola begins the movement with a solo revealing the subject. When the cello

enters, it does so with caution playing pizzicato descending fourths, a pattern that appears

repetitively throughout the movement. When the first violin begins “an answer” in the

key of B-flat minor, the second violin enters a beat later, establishing a fugal relationship

between the two violins, with the countersubject in the second violin. The sense of

intimate instrumental dialogue in this quartet is the strongest in this movement. Often,

instrumental dialogue progress towards exciting phrases of thicker texture and building

dynamics that seem to suggest concordance among the instruments. For example, mm.

33-34 and m. 55, both fortissimo with three instruments in the same rhythm, suggest the

prior dialogues concluded in agreement.

The transition from B-flat minor to E major marks the arrival at the episode.

Shostakovich accomplishes this modulation between disparate keys via linear motion

(Ex. 3.6). The change in character at the onset of the development cannot be attributed to

the modal change alone. The triplet figure revitalizes the fugue. It is playful and

responsive. The figure encourages liveliness between the instruments, as the figure

bounces between instruments. Irregular glissandos within the triplet figure reinforce its

lighthearted character. The episode recalls the rising, overlapping, and discordant scale

figure from the exposition from the first movement (See Ex. 3.4b above). However,

unlike the figure in the first movement that destabilizes the tonal center, the scales in the

second movement underscores the tonal center of E major, preparing the natural return to

A minor.

32

Example 3.6. Modulation to at the E Major, End of the Exposition, m. 41

The final entries of the subject are firmly in A minor. The texture is sparse

throughout the counter-exposition. The subject is first in the viola, then restated in the

first violin. The echoing, first between the cello and second violin and then between the

cello and viola, demonstrates how Shostakovich harnesses the intimate character the

genre enables. Played with pizzicato, the echoing is gentle, subtly bolstering the stark and

somewhat dreary theme. Similar to the ending of the first movement, there is a sense of

dissolution rather than conclusion. The lack of a leading tone in the final cadence

weakens the ending, and the final pizzicato chord at the end seems like an afterthought.

Rather than forceful or assertive, the movement’s gentle closure lends a quality of

innocence. The timbre of the four string instruments enables the exploration of emotions

and ideas ranging from intense to docile. In this movement, Shostakovich explores the

softer emotive powers of the ensemble. This may be a reflection of his professional

reprieve or the reflections on his own youth brought on by the birth of his son.

iii. Allegro molto

The third movement is a scherzo in the key of C-sharp minor. Despite the jovial

implications of its form, the scherzo movement sounds far from good-humored. The

movement is dark in character, muted in sound, broody in temperament, and like the two

movements prior, ultimately unresolved.

Table 3.3: iii. Allegro molto

Scherzo

Measures 1-72

Key Areas c ♯

There is a nearly menacing quality about the scherzo. The repetitive duplet figure

that appeared in the first movement returns.

figure’s persistence lends the movement a sense of aimless rampancy. Driving the

accelerated tempo, the duplet figure imparts a quality of tense breathlessness. Traveling

from voice to voice, the continuity of the

keys with abandon. Melodic gestures that surround the menacing duplet pattern recall,

but deform, melodic gestures from prior movements, particularly those of the first

movement.

Abandoning the duplet figur

smooth transition into the starkly contrasting trio section in F

recalls a texture similar to that of the chorale

Though the trio remains primari

tonal center. Here, the melody transfers between instruments while

by linear motion in the other voices destabilizes the tonal center

Example 3.7. Linear reduction of

105


movements prior, ultimately unresolved.

Allegro molto

Scherzo Trio Scherzo

72 73-157 158-202

♯ F♯, g♯ c♯, F♯, g♯


that appeared in the first movement returns. However, it is not playful; instead, the



from voice to voice, the continuity of the figure allows the scherzo to traverse several



Abandoning the duplet figure and using the common tone of C♯

smooth transition into the starkly contrasting trio section in F-sharp major. The trio

recalls a texture similar to that of the chorale-like opening theme in the first movement.

Though the trio remains primarily in F-sharp major, mm. 105-130 depart from the strict

tonal center. Here, the melody transfers between instruments while chords moving

linear motion in the other voices destabilizes the tonal center. (Ex. 3.7).

Linear reduction of iii. Allegro molto, mm. 105-130,

Viola Solo

112

33


♯


However, it is not playful; instead, the



figure allows the scherzo to traverse several



allows for a

sharp major. The trio

ng theme in the first movement.

130 depart from the strict

chords moving slowly

7).

iola Solo

34

The return to the scherzo occurs in a manner similar to the transition into the trio:

layers of the trio peal away, exposing the common tone g♯, which immediately

reestablishes the duplet figure. However, following the trio, it somehow lacks its

menacing power of the first scherzo section. Its muteness now sounds more weak than

haunting. The final scherzo mirrors the structure of the overall piece, with a miniature

ABA spanning just over fifty bars of rapidly played music. The return to the trio texture

is brief (mm. 179-189). This compositional device lends the ending of the movement an

intimate character of playfulness. However, the movement ends abruptly. The minor

second figure that re-establishes the scherzo section at m. 190 dwindles. The dynamic

marking sinks to pianissimo and rests of two and sometimes three beats separate the

minor second duplet. Despite being the only movement thus far to incorporate a strong

dominant seventh chord prior to the final chord at m. 197, the texture is so thin and the

melody so sparse that the end sounds inconclusive. The detached minor second in the

cello that ends the movement is a fittingly playful link between the third movement and

the celebratory finale.

iv. Allegro

Cello Solo

Cello Solo

123 130 117

35

For the final movement, elements from the three prior movements combine to

form an entirely new character. The final movement sounds self-assured, even

rambunctious. In contrast to the nostalgic character of the first movement, the final

movement expresses optimism.

Table 3.4: iv. Allegro Exposition Development Recapitulation Coda

A B A’ B’

Measures 1-48 53-74 74-144 145-159 160-203 204-218

Key Areas C E♭ f♯ C E, F, f♯ C

The exposition reintroduces elements from each preceding movement. For

example, the bass line in the very first measure recalls the playful descending fourths

from the second movement (Ex. 3.8). Here, rather than supporting a bare fugal subject,

the fourths underlay a rapid, cheerful duplet figure. The end of the exposition

incorporates major sixth glissandos recalling the second theme in the first movement (Ex.

3.9). Like their function in the opening movement, the glissandos underline moments of

playfulness. The descending staccato notes follow the rising glissandos, lending the

musical trope liveliness.

The development opens with a variation of the overlapping scale figure from the

first and second movements (See Ex. 3.4 above). The variation of the idea here, with the

repeated notes, lends the musical trope a sense of liveliness, and the clarity of the

animated rising figure demonstrates a subtle playfulness. Later in the development, the

second violin echoes the first in the same lighthearted way the viola echoed the violin in

the development from the second movement (Ex. 3.10). This reference affirms how

Shostakovich selectively recalls moments of cheer from even the more solemn

movement. Further, repetitive minor second duplets in the development are reminiscent

of the same pattern from the scherzo (Ex.

once menacing figure as spirited. These instances of recoll

provide not only continuity to the quartet, but also

of the prior movements.

Example 3.8. Descending Fourths Recalled from the Second

Example 3.9. Glissandos Recalled from the First Movement

Example 3.10. Imitation

i. Moderato, mm. 37-38

iv. Allegro, mm. 71-74

ii. Moderato, mm. 11-12

iv. Allegro, m. 1-2

ii. Moderato, m. 50, Violin I and Viola

attern from the scherzo (Ex. 3.11). However, the new context redefines the

once menacing figure as spirited. These instances of recollection of past musical ideas

continuity to the quartet, but also highlight the most optimistic moments

Descending Fourths Recalled from the Second Movement

Glissandos Recalled from the First Movement

Imitation Recalled from the Second Movement,

38

74

12

m. 50, Violin I and Viola iv. Allegro, mm. 106

36

3.11). However, the new context redefines the

ection of past musical ideas

highlight the most optimistic moments

mm. 106-107, Violin I and II

37

Example 3.11. Minor Second Duplets Recalled from the Third Movement

This celebratory finale ostensibly negates any sorrow of the prior movements. In

examining the arc of the quartet, one notes how cheerful reflections on youth in the first

movement gave way to more serious reflections in the following two. Because of its

quasi fugal form, the second movement resonates as a serious dialogue. The third

movement sounds tempestuous, in comparison, because of its high speed and intense

redundancy. However, in the fourth movement, by re-contextualizing musical tropes

from previous movements, Shostakovich ends on a note of celebration. In his First String

Quartet, Shostakovich seemingly only scratches at the surface of the great depth of

emotions his later quartets convey. However, in his First Quartet, despite the unavoidable

spotlight he endured following his Fifth Symphony, Shostakovich explores an intimate

realm of music through playful dialogues and solemn reflections on youth.

iv. Allegro, m. 119 iii. Allegro molto, m. 190

38

Chapter IV: String Quartet No. 8

In the half-century since its premiere in 1960, String Quartet No. 8 has been one

of the most frequently programmed pieces of chamber music.84 The popularity of the

quartet only partially explains the extensive scholarship dedicated to it. More so than any

other composition by Shostakovich, the quartet is self-referential. In public, Shostakovich

dedicated this quartet, “To the memory of the victims of fascism and war.” In an

interview two weeks prior to the quartet’s premiere, he expanded on this dedication,

saying, “The terrors of the bombardment that the inhabitants of Dresden lived through,

which we heard about in the words of the victims suggested the theme for the

composition of the my Eighth quartet (…) I wrote the score of my new quartet in the

space of a few days.”85 The time Shostakovich spent in Dresden just prior to composing

84 Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 142. 85 Quoted in Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 218.

39

the quartet and its tragic character made this program logical. In private, however,

Shostakovich dedicated the quartet to himself.

The same summer he composed his Eight Quartet, Shostakovich joined the

communist party.86 Two different tales explain the arbitrary timing of his invocation into

the party. In one version, Shostakovich told Gilkman the invocation was a requisite for

Shostakovich to assume the post of the head of the Union of Composers of the Russian

Federation. However, friend and musicologist Lev Lebedinsky claims no such scheme

existed and that actually, low-level party members obliged Shostakovich to sign the

application while he was under the influence of alcohol. Regardless of which story is

true, his invocation was the product of coercion, and both stories end with Shostakovich

amidst mental meltdown.

Thus, when Shostakovich composed String Quartet No. 8, he was in a state of

anguish. In a letter written in July of 1960, Shostakovich wrote, “I wrote this

ideologically flawed quartet, which is of no use to anybody. I start thinking that if some

day I die, nobody is likely to write a work in memory of me, so I had better write one

myself. The title page could carry the dedication ‘To the memory of the composer of this

quartet’ (…) When I got home, I tried a couple of times to play through, but always

ended up in tears.”87 The readings of this letter vary. In Lesser’s opinion, there is a

“dourly playful, complicatedly self-mocking, Samuel Beckett-like tone” in the letter.88

She cites “if some day I die” as evidence for such a reading. Though there is dark humor

in the letter, Shostakovich undeniably faced great distress at this time in his life.

Lebedinsky has insisted the quartet was a suicide note, claiming that he had to confiscate

86 Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 216.

87 Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 150.


40

sleeping pills from Shostakovich and hand them to Shostakovich’s son Maxim.89 Maxim

has repetitively denied this story, but does not deny the anguish his father endured. He

recalls his father weeping when he was forced to join the party, this instance being only

the second time he witnessed his father crying, the first following the death of

Shostakovich’s wife, Nina.90

In his monograph devoted to the Eighth Quartet, David Fanning argues, “when he

came to compose the Eighth String Quartet Shostakovich was for a variety of personal

and cultural reasons in urgent need of redefining and reasserting himself as an artist with

an independent voice.”91 Persistent self-suggestion dominates the quartet through

quotation, allusion, and the DSCH motive (Ex. 4.1), a personal signature.92 In an

interview with Lesser, Conductor Kurt Sanderling reaffirmed this understanding decades

after his relationship with Shostakovich. When Lesser asked him if he believed the public

dedication could be sincere, he laughed and responded, “Ridiculous! What would the

quotes and allusions to his earlier works be doing in a quartet dedicated to the victims of

fascism?(...) the quotations emphasize that all this is dealing with himself.”93 He also

distinguished musical monograms like that of Bach’s and Schumann’s from the musical

monogram Shostakovich used. Sanderling claimed that unlike other composers who use

monograms as mere signatures, Shostakovich uses the monogram to signify the work is


90 Interestingly, just earlier that year, Shostakovich composed his seventh quartet in her memory. This testifies to the personal outlet the quartets provided Shostakovich. Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 147. 91 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8, 46.

92 The notes D, E-flat, C, B in German musical notation are D, Es, C, H, pronounced "De-Es-Ce-Ha." These four notes correspond to the bolded letters in

Dmitri Schostakowitsch, the German transliteration of his name. 93 Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 149.

“dealing with himself. The D

him.”94

Example 4.1 D-S-C-H Motive

Despite the pervasive self

quartet within the anti-fascism framework Shostakovich provided. In an

titled ‘A Bitter Reminiscence,’ published just after the work’s premiere in Moscow in

October 1960, critic Matias Sokolsky praised the work. First, he ass

which Shostakovich composed the work was “because its concept evidently had long

since matured and lived in the composer’s creative consciousness, in whose art the theme

against Fascism and war has always been pre

quartet’s “depth and passion of experience” and its “fiery hatred for those who are guilty

of the death of millions and millions of wholly innocent people, an anxiety for the fate of

the world.” 95

With a Soviet

that ensured its celebration and regular programming. Critic Nikolay Martïnov, in his

Sovetskaya kul’tura article “The Voice of the Heart,”

“deep sincerity.”96

Modern critical reception

connect the quartet with Shostakovich’s induction into the party, celebrated the work not

just for its biographical intrigue, but also its inherent quality. Taruskin,

94

Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices95

As quoted by Fanning, 96

As quoted by Fanning,

The D-S-C-H is more important to him, has more content for

H Motive

Despite the pervasive self-suggestion in the work, critics initially

fascism framework Shostakovich provided. In an Izvestiya


October 1960, critic Matias Sokolsky praised the work. First, he asserted the speed with



against Fascism and war has always been pre-eminent and general.” He wrote about the


and millions of wholly innocent people, an anxiety for the fate of

With a Soviet-approved message, the quartet received the stamp of approval


article “The Voice of the Heart,” also celebrated the work and its

Modern critical reception varies. Ian MacDonald, the first Western scholar to


just for its biographical intrigue, but also its inherent quality. Taruskin, who

Music for Silenced Voices, 149. As quoted by Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8, 152. As quoted by Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8, 154.

41

H is more important to him, has more content for

initially embraced the

Izvestiya article


erted the speed with



He wrote about the


and millions of wholly innocent people, an anxiety for the fate of

rtet received the stamp of approval


celebrated the work and its

varies. Ian MacDonald, the first Western scholar to


who as Fanning

42

notes “otherwise delights in stigmatizing”97 the opinions of MacDonald, agrees the

content of the work is related to the induction. However, he disagrees about the quality of

the work: “What it shows is that the need to communicate urgently and with specificity in

an atmosphere of threat did shrink Shostakovich’s creative options.”98 Here, Taruskin

claims the quotations and obsessive use of the D-S-C-H motive indicate a lack of

creativity. Considering immense productivity as a composer, however, it is unlikely that

he relied on self-references solely because he was low on creative options. In addition,

although the quartet does employ a mass of self-suggestive material, the manner in which

Shostakovich crafts the quartet is unique. Shostakovich thoughtfully weaves reflections

and intense personal expression into a quartet that relates private yet explicable and

relatable sorrow. With the invaluable aid of David Fanning’s extensive research on the

quotations and allusions in the quartet, the following analysis will focus on the

significance of self-expression and self-reflection in the String Quartet No. 8.

Largo: i, v

The first and final movements of the quartet affirm the cyclic nature of the work:

the arrival at the fifth movement nearly sounds like the return to the first. The

movements’ similarity extends beyond the character suggested by the soft dynamics and

Largo tempo. Both movements utilize the same material. Further, both the first and fifth

movements toy with expectation. The movements initially sound fugal but both dissolve

into amorphousness. Amorphous in form but self-suggestive in content, they provide the

self-asserting and cyclic framework for the Quartet as whole. The first and final

movements of the Eighth Quartet serve as musical bookends.

97 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8, 21.

98 As quoted by Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8, 21.

43

This quartet marks only the second time Shostakovich begins with an entirely

slow movement.99 The first time was the Largo opening movement of his Sixth

Symphony. The opening presents a fugal treatment of the DSCH motive. However, the

most proximate classical form of the work is a Rondo, though the recurrences of the A

refrain (see Table 4.1) sound unconvincing. The first quotation of the quartet appears in

the opening, a reiteration of the opening from his First Symphony, identified by Fanning

(Ex. 4.2)100

. Quoting this symphonic first movement in a decelerated tempo allows

Shostakovich to reveal the intimacy of the instrumental dialogue in the string quartet. The

transfer of melodic line from the second violin to the first in mm. 18-19 is nearly

seamless. In contrast to the symphonic setting of this passage, it resonates more as an

individual’s personal expression. Additionally, by beginning the quartet with a quotation

from his First Symphony, Shostakovich suggests the quartet may chronologically survey

his life and works.

Table 4.1: i. Largo Overview

A B A’ C A’’ B’ A’’’

mm. 1-27 mm. 28-45 mm. 46-49 mm. 50-78 mm. 79-86 mm. 87-103 mm. 104-126

c C c c, f c c, f#, g# c

Example 4.2 Allusion to Symphony No. 1 in i. Largo


100 Musical examples in this chapter are adapted from Fanning’s monograph on the String

Quartet No. 8.

i. Largo, mm. 16-23

Symphony No. 1, first movement, opening

Section B alludes

Sixth Symphony Pathetique

Gilkman (Ex. 4.3).101

Although the allusion is not obvious when looking at the score, the

two passages are aurally similar.

the subject, Shostakovich’s treatment exposes the violin’s line with greater clarity. Pedal

points on c in the other three voices traverse the entire section and support the violin

without overpowering. Tchaikovsky died just nine days after the premiere of

Pathetique Symphony. In choosing to quote this symphony, perhaps Shostakovich

suggests the passage reflects on mortality and how his own art could memorialize him.

Example 4.3 Allusion to Tchaikovsky’s

Section C reveals another motive that recurs in the movement. Interestingly,

Fanning notes, both the section as a whole but also, specifically, this prominent motive

alludes to Shostakovich’s F

of his Fifth Symphony, Shostakovich

security as an artist in the Soviet Union. However, the context of the allusion is not

101

Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8

i. Largo, mm. 28-42

Pathetique Symphony,

alludes to the second subject of the first movement in Tchaikovsky’s

Pathetique, an allusion Shostakovich himself identified in a letter to


two passages are aurally similar. However, in comparison to Tchaikovsky’s treatment of

ovich’s treatment exposes the violin’s line with greater clarity. Pedal


without overpowering. Tchaikovsky died just nine days after the premiere of

In choosing to quote this symphony, perhaps Shostakovich


Allusion to Tchaikovsky’s Pathetique Symphony in i. Largo

Section C reveals another motive that recurs in the movement. Interestingly,


to Shostakovich’s Fifth Symphony (Ex. 4.4). Drawing from the first movement

of his Fifth Symphony, Shostakovich alludes to the symphony that re-established his


Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8, 145.

Pathetique Symphony, first movement, second subject

44

Tchaikovsky’s

, an allusion Shostakovich himself identified in a letter to


However, in comparison to Tchaikovsky’s treatment of

ovich’s treatment exposes the violin’s line with greater clarity. Pedal


without overpowering. Tchaikovsky died just nine days after the premiere of his

In choosing to quote this symphony, perhaps Shostakovich


i. Largo

Section C reveals another motive that recurs in the movement. Interestingly, as


). Drawing from the first movement

established his


optimistic. Rather, the numero

obsession. The A section that links C and B’ is brief, only eight bars in length. First, it

(momentarily) re-establishes the home

DSCH motive derivatives in all four voices (

material.

Example 4.4 Allusion to Fifth Symphony

Beginning with the

unravel. The B’ section is the least harmonically stable portion of the movement, sliding

between A minor and F-sharp minor, until arriving at the final recurrence of the A section

at m. 104. The final recurrence still quotes his First Symphony, but also incorporates the

motive from section C. Thus, in the final A section, Shostakovich combines

of his personal monogram with allusions to two of his symphonies.

the artist with his art. In doing so, Shostakovich redefines the material not just in

reference to their original contexts, but also their first appearances in this movement. The

final statement of the Fifth Symphony motive ends

spelling of A♭of the recurring motive (Ex. 4.4)

second movement, which is in the key of G

i. Largo, mm. 55-62

Fifth Symphony, first movement, first subject

optimistic. Rather, the numerous statements of the motive convey a sense of injurious

The A section that links C and B’ is brief, only eight bars in length. First, it

establishes the home-key C minor. Further, its unison statement of the

ves in all four voices (mm. 79-82) firmly recalls the opening

Allusion to Fifth Symphony in i. Largo

Beginning with the truncated A refrain at mm. 79-86, the movement seems to

is the least harmonically stable portion of the movement, sliding

sharp minor, until arriving at the final recurrence of the A section

104. The final recurrence still quotes his First Symphony, but also incorporates the

C. Thus, in the final A section, Shostakovich combines

of his personal monogram with allusions to two of his symphonies. Thus, he intertwines

In doing so, Shostakovich redefines the material not just in

eference to their original contexts, but also their first appearances in this movement. The

final statement of the Fifth Symphony motive ends with a prolonged G#, t

of the recurring motive (Ex. 4.4). This enables the attacca

, which is in the key of G-sharp minor.

Fifth Symphony, first movement, first subject Recurring motive

45

a sense of injurious

The A section that links C and B’ is brief, only eight bars in length. First, it

on statement of the

82) firmly recalls the opening

, the movement seems to

is the least harmonically stable portion of the movement, sliding

sharp minor, until arriving at the final recurrence of the A section

104. The final recurrence still quotes his First Symphony, but also incorporates the

C. Thus, in the final A section, Shostakovich combines the iteration

Thus, he intertwines

In doing so, Shostakovich redefines the material not just in

eference to their original contexts, but also their first appearances in this movement. The

, the enharmonic

attacca transition to the

Recurring motive

46

Like the first movement, the final movement begins in a fugal-like form.

However, Shostakovich maintains a quasi fugue form rather than moving to a form akin

to the first movement’s pseudo-rondo. The thematic material present in the first

movement pervades the final: the DSCH reiterated even more numerously, the Fifth

symphony allusion peppering the movement, and the First Symphony quotation stated

clearly. Interestingly, an element absent in the first movement that permeates the final is

an allusion to a figure that appears in The Lady MacBeth of Mtsenk District associated

with sleeplessness, as identified by Fanning (Ex. 4.5).102

Shostakovich seamlessly

incorporates the allusion into the countersubject. By reusing the material from Lady

MacBeth as the countersubject to the subject based on his personal monogram, perhaps

Shostakovich conveys the conflicts he personally faced because of his craft. It is as if

Shostakovich recreated the intense conflict that ensued following his opera Lady

MacBeth by having his personal monogram and an allusion to the opera conflicting as

subject and countersubject.

Example 4.5 Allusion to Lady MacBeth in v. Largo

ii. Allegro molto


v. Largo countersubject, mm. 8-11

The Lady MacBeth of Mtsensk District, opening of Act 4,

47

The second movement, furious in motion and brutal in dynamics, retroactively

characterizes the first movement as an introduction. In a loose sonata form (Table 4.2),

the movement contrasts the introductory movement in tenacity and strength. As the

movement builds in intensity, the DSCH motive marks points of renewal. When the

motive appears, an accompanying increase in dynamics and energy also ensues. Each

peak in energy corresponds to a new section of the quartet. The effect is cumulative.

Instead of the movement exhausting itself, it renews and grows in strength each time the

DSCH motive appears.

Table 4.2: ii. Allegro molto

The opening phrase sets the stage for the rest of the movement. The jarring

sforzando chords produce a percussive assault that, along with the speed, redefines the

dactylic motif from the first movement. These erratic, percussive jolts recall similar

content from his Eighth Symphony (Ex. 4.6). Not only does this allusion continue the

chronological survey of his works, it also reflects the conflicts Shostakovich faced as a

Soviet composer. The tepid reception of Shostakovich’s Eight Symphony eventually

evolved into an eight-year ban. In explaining the cold reception, Fay quotes Soviet critic

N.A. Timofeyev: “What is the reason for the somewhat chilly reception of Shostakovich

Eighth Symphony? I think it is because these tremendous experiences, these suffering

brought about by evil are not overcome, not vanquished. Instead they are, as it were,

Exposition Development Recapitulation

A Trans. B Primarily DSCH

A’ Trans. B’

mm. 1-125

mm. 76-125

mm. 126-155

mm. 156-232 mm. 233-288

mm. 289- 323

mm. 334-349

g# , a f#

c Unstable g# Unstable c, c#

48

replaced by a passacaglia and a pastorale.” 103

Thus, by quoting this symphony,

Shostakovich alludes to another instance in his career when his work failed to align with

the Soviet Agenda and negative repercussions ensued.

Example 4.6 Allusion to the Eighth Symphony in ii. Allegro Molto

Harmonically, section A spends most of its time in G-sharp minor. However, an

emphasis on A minor destabilizes the harmony. According to Fanning, this harmonic

gesture was a favorite of Shostakovich’s and often emblematic of his appreciation and

integration of Jewish folk music traditions.104

In section A, and throughout the movement,

the appearance of DSCH marks a point of renewal. Its first occurrence in m. 32 precedes

a change in texture as well as change in key. Beginning at m. 95, the motive only

sporadically reappears, but eventually the motive transforms into an ostinato pattern from

mm. 118-125. The increased use of the monogram correlates with an increase in intensity

and energy, culminating in the arrival at B. Interestingly, Fanning notes here, this

103

As quoted by Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 138. 104 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8, 75.

ii. Allegro molto, mm. 1-4

Eighth Symphony, third movement, opening

transition recalls Shostakovic

the sporadic chords, accented chords

Quartet just earlier that year and dedicated the work to the memory of his wife. The

incorporation of an allusion

Shostakovich’s recent struggles with change, familial and political.

Example 4.7 Allusion to Quartet No. 7 in

The entrance of section

of the increasing intensity.

Trio No. 2 (Ex,. 4.8).105

Shostakovich dedicated his 1944 trio to the death of his close

friend, Ivan Sollerinsky. His consecutive references to chamber works memorializing the

most significant people in his life attests to the personal expression the Eighth Quartet.

Interestingly, though contrasting in sonic character, this section mimics the structure of

the B section from the first movement in that th

chord in the lower two voices

Example 4.8 Allusion to Piano Trio No. 2 in

105 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8

ii. Allegro molto, mm. 114

Quartet No. 7, third movement

ii. Allegro molto, mm. 126

transition recalls Shostakovich’s Seventh Quartet because of the similar aural quality of

the sporadic chords, accented chords (Ex. 4.7). Shostakovich composed his Seventh


incorporation of an allusion to the Seventh Quartet in transition material parallels

Shostakovich’s recent struggles with change, familial and political.

Allusion to Quartet No. 7 in ii. Allegro Molto

section B, marked fff and in the key of C minor is the

the increasing intensity. In section B, Shostakovich references the finale of his Piano




though contrasting in sonic character, this section mimics the structure of

the B section from the first movement in that the repetition of the arpeggiated C

chord in the lower two voices functions as a pedal on c.

Allusion to Piano Trio No. 2 in ii. Allegro molto


mm. 114-115

Quartet No. 7, third movement

mm. 126-129

49

because of the similar aural quality of

). Shostakovich composed his Seventh


to the Seventh Quartet in transition material parallels

minor is the arrival point

finale of his Piano




though contrasting in sonic character, this section mimics the structure of

e repetition of the arpeggiated C minor

The development initially recalls material from A, but chromatically devolves

into a harmonically unstable obsession with the DSCH motif. Amidst arguably the most

turbulent passage in the entirety of the quartet, Shostakovich dwells on his monogram.

Perhaps, the fury displayed in this section depicts the fury Shostakovich internalized over

his party entrance. Also in the development,

note figure (Ex. 4.9). The high register and repeti

development as even more frantic than the exposition.

recapitulation does not relieve listeners.

intertwining material from the development

listeners the expected relief of the recapitulation. Instead, he conveys the inescapability

of his own personal torment since his invocation

Piano Trio No. 2, finale, second theme



in the entirety of the quartet, Shostakovich dwells on his monogram.

s, the fury displayed in this section depicts the fury Shostakovich internalized over

Also in the development, Shostakovich introduces a menacing

The high register and repetition of the figure characterize

development as even more frantic than the exposition. However, the arrival at the

recapitulation does not relieve listeners. The A’ section, too, incorporates this figure.

intertwining material from the development and the recapitulation, Shostako


of his own personal torment since his invocation by reiterating the menacing triplet

Piano Trio No. 2, finale, second theme

50



in the entirety of the quartet, Shostakovich dwells on his monogram.

s, the fury displayed in this section depicts the fury Shostakovich internalized over

introduces a menacing four-

tion of the figure characterize the

However, the arrival at the

incorporates this figure. By

the recapitulation, Shostakovich denies


by reiterating the menacing triplet

51

figure. Further, this blending of thematic material underlines the cyclical construction of

the quartet.

Example 4.9 Recurring triplet figure in ii. Allegro molto, m. 182 and m. 311, violins I

and II

The end of the movement confirms its erratic character. Linear movement to C-

sharp minor recalls the half-step harmonic relationship at the beginning of the movement

between G-sharp minor and A minor. The emphasis on C-sharp minor suggests the final

theme either will return to the key in which the movement began, or prepare for the next

movement’s harmony. However, the modulation serves neither purpose. The pattern

abruptly ends at the height of a crescendo. After a bar of rest with a fermata, the third

movement begins in the key of G minor, a tritone away from the previous harmony.

While a sense of incompleteness may be expected considering the attaca style, the

movement’s ending extends beyond inconclusive. It is disjoint. The lack of a cadence

followed by the only bar of rest in the entire movement suits the erratic temperament of

the movement.

iii. Allegretto

The third movement is a Scherzo in the key of G minor. The sixteen-bar

introduction, almost exclusively in the first violin, foreshadows the barren texture of the

third movement. The waltz bass line created by the dialogue between the cello and viola

52

is often so quiet it is nearly undetectable. The third movement is not flagrant or abrasive

like the second. Instead, the movement draws the listener in, encouraging a closer

listening.

Table 4.3: iii. Allegretto

Scherzo Trio 1 Trans. Scherzo Trio 1

A B A mm. 117-150

mm. 151-189

A B A mm. 260-301

mm. 1-66

mm. 67-101

mm.102-116

mm. 190-225

mm. 226-243

mm. 244-259

Though the movement opens with a fff marking, the Scherzo that follows the

introduction is decidedly subtle. Throughout the movement, the DSCH motif reappears

slightly altered to DDSCH, the additional D now accounting for Dmitriyevich in his full

name, Dmitri• Dmitrievich Shostakovich (Ex. 4.10). Section A of Scherzo 1 remains

firmly in g minor with an emphasis on the flat super-tonic, recalling the melody of the A

section in the second movement. Likewise, in the B section of Scherzo 1, in the key of C

minor, D-flat is equally emphasized. Here, again, the cyclical nature of the quartet

surfaces. Additionally, as Fanning indicated, the Scherzo’s main theme alludes to Saint-

Saën’s Danse macabre (Ex. 4.11). By alluding to this work, Shostakovich seemingly

satirizes his own depressive state of aguish. In his frantic letter to Gilkman in the summer

of 1960, Shostakovich referred to the quartet as a “pseudo-tragedy” but, as mentioned

earlier, he also confessed he could not get through the work without breaking down into

tears.106

Thus, Shostakovich felt conflicted, seemingly both distressed and mocking his

own distress. In an essay on Gogol’s dark satires on society, Pushkin coined the idea


“laughter through tears.” Perhaps, elements of Shostakovich’s Eighth String Quartet

channel this Russian literary style.

Example 4.10 D-D-S-C-H Motive

Example 4.11 Allusion to Saint

The subsequent trio has a foreboding quality. Statements of the original DSCH

motif pepper the trio, their

another self-reference: mm.

quotes the opening of Shostakovich’s First Cello Concerto (Ex

longtime friend Rostropovich,

critical reception after its 1959 premiere. Interestingly,

107 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8

iii. Allegretto, mm. 20

Danse macabre main theme


channel this Russian literary style.

H Motive, iii. Allegretto, mm. 1-2

Allusion to Saint-Saën’s Danse macabre in iii. Allegretto


motif pepper the trio, their appearance without accompaniment. Here, Fanning identifies

reference: mm. 140-146 leading up to the transition material at

quotes the opening of Shostakovich’s First Cello Concerto (Ex. 4.12).107

longtime friend Rostropovich, the First Cello Concerto enjoyed tremendous international

critical reception after its 1959 premiere. Interestingly, as biographer Fay notes, few


mm. 20-24

main theme

53



niment. Here, Fanning identifies

leading up to the transition material at m. 152

Written for

the First Cello Concerto enjoyed tremendous international

biographer Fay notes, few

celebratory critics noticed the source of the motive that dominates the concerto’s first

movement: a quotation of “Procession to Execution”

Guard.108

Thus, in this very dark quartet, such an

Example 4.12 Allusion to Cello Concert

iv. Largo

Imposing a structure onto the fourth movement seems arbitrary. Fanning

proposed a series of what he referred to as “outbursts” and ariosos

separating different quotations. As the majority of this movement is self

material or allusions to others works, I have reconstructed an outline of the movement

similar Fanning’s (Table

and allusions he identified.

Table 4.4: Reconstruction of Fanning’s Fourth Movement Overview Outburst Arioso 1

mm. 1-27 mm. 28-61

108

Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 109 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8

Cello Concerto No. 1, first movement, opening

iii. Allegretto, mm. 140-


n of “Procession to Execution” from in 1948 film The

this very dark quartet, such an allusion is fitting.

Allusion to Cello Concerto No. 1 in iii. Allegretto

Imposing a structure onto the fourth movement seems arbitrary. Fanning

proposed a series of what he referred to as “outbursts” and ariosos, the outbursts

separating different quotations. As the majority of this movement is self-

or allusions to others works, I have reconstructed an outline of the movement

similar Fanning’s (Table 4.4).109

My analysis will relay the significance of the quotations

and allusions he identified.

Reconstruction of Fanning’s Fourth Movement Overview

Outburst Arioso 2 Transition Arioso 3

mm. 62-74 mm. 75-103 mm. 104- m

Shostakovich: A life, 213.

vich: String Quartet No. 8, 104.

first movement, opening

-146

54


The Young

Imposing a structure onto the fourth movement seems arbitrary. Fanning has

, the outbursts

-referential

or allusions to others works, I have reconstructed an outline of the movement

ance of the quotations

Arioso 3 Outburst

mm. 133- mm. 161-

The Young Guard

Lady Macbeth

Interestingly, critics and audiences have historically reduced these outbursts t

onomatopoeias that confirmed

fascism: bombs dropping.

understanding continued, only tailored to the new program: vicious party members’

knocks on Shostakovich’s door. However, as Fanning

not acknowledge the source of this material: Shostakovich’s 1948 film score to

Young Guard (Ex. 4.13).

as ‘Death of the Heroes.’111

significance. Interestingly, the reference to ‘Death of the Heroes’

dedication to victims of fascism. However,

incorporates his personal motif

transposed signature tied into the opening bar of the arioso.

end of the allusion, it is as if Shostakovich identifies himself as a fallen hero.

Example 4.13 Allusion to

110 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8111 Fanning, Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8

iv. Largo, mm. 62-66 (outburst 2)

132 160

The Young Guard

Revolutionary Song

Eleventh Symphony

Lady Macbeth

Interestingly, critics and audiences have historically reduced these outbursts t

onomatopoeias that confirmed Shostakovich’s public dedication to the victims of

: bombs dropping.110

Even after his letter to Gilkman surfaced, the onomatopoetic


knocks on Shostakovich’s door. However, as Fanning has noted, these interpretations do

not acknowledge the source of this material: Shostakovich’s 1948 film score to

. The original motif served as the basis for the movement known

111 The allusion is in triple octaves, which emphasizes its

significance. Interestingly, the reference to ‘Death of the Heroes’ compliments his public

dedication to victims of fascism. However, at the end of the allusion, Shostako

personal motif as a transition to the arioso using the final note of the

transposed signature tied into the opening bar of the arioso. By signing his name at the


Allusion to The Young Guard, “Death of the Heroes”



66 (outburst 2) “Death of the Heroes,” opening

55

160 187

Lady Macbeth

The Young Guard

Interestingly, critics and audiences have historically reduced these outbursts to

public dedication to the victims of

Even after his letter to Gilkman surfaced, the onomatopoetic


noted, these interpretations do

not acknowledge the source of this material: Shostakovich’s 1948 film score to The

motif served as the basis for the movement known

e octaves, which emphasizes its

compliments his public

the end of the allusion, Shostakovich subtly

using the final note of the

By signing his name at the


“Death of the Heroes,” opening

The allusion in the

MacBeth following the scene in which Katerina murders her father (Ex

regime attacked the opera for its vulgarity, among other sins. By alluding to such a

violent scene during a moment of relative tenderness in the quartet, Shostakovich

redefines the allusion’s meaning.

similar, but not exact. The similarity can be better heard, than seen in the scores.

contextualization seemingly reflects on why the regime tormented Shostakovich over the

opera. Interestingly, in the following arioso, Shostakovich quotes th

Zamuchen tyazholoy nevoeley,

arioso, sandwiched between two ariosos that allude to

member of the communist party, Shostakovich felt imprisoned by hi

torment exemplified by the

Katerina’s song from Act IV of

to Katerina greeting Sergey while she is still ignorant of his waning interest in her. Again,

Shostakovich’s re-contextualization of material for which the regime so severely

penalized him underlines the absurdity of the ridicule while also solemnly reflecting on


\

iv. Largo, mm. 28-43

Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District,

The allusion in the first arioso comes from an interlude in his opera

following the scene in which Katerina murders her father (Ex. 4.



redefines the allusion’s meaning. The allusion is very subtle, however. The mo

similar, but not exact. The similarity can be better heard, than seen in the scores.


n the following arioso, Shostakovich quotes the revolutionary song

Zamuchen tyazholoy nevoeley, meaning Tormented by Harsh Captivity (Ex

arioso, sandwiched between two ariosos that allude to Lady MacBeth, suggests

member of the communist party, Shostakovich felt imprisoned by his persecutors, his

torment exemplified by the Lady MacBeth controversy.

Katerina’s song from Act IV of Lady Macbeth (Ex. 4.17). This song corresponds


contextualization of material for which the regime so severely


Allusion to Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District in iv. Largo

Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District, Interlude between scenes 4 and 5

56

arioso comes from an interlude in his opera Lady

4.14). The



The allusion is very subtle, however. The motion is

similar, but not exact. The similarity can be better heard, than seen in the scores. The re-


e revolutionary song

(Ex. 4.15). This

, suggests that as a

s persecutors, his

This song corresponds


contextualization of material for which the regime so severely


iv. Largo, arioso 1


[Tormented by harsh captivity, You died a glorious death, In the struggle for the people’s cause, You laid

down your life with honor]

the negative repercussions he endured.

dramatic irony in the opera. When Kat

she does not know Sergey

context of the quartet, this

sarcastically greets his inducti

is ending because of it.

Example 4.16 Allusion to Symphony No. 11 in

Zamuchen tyaholoy nevoley

iv. Largo, mm. 75-104, arioso 2

iv. Largo, mm. 117-131, transition

Allusion to Revolutionary song, Zamuchen tyaholoy nevoley


repercussions he endured. Further, Shostakovich quotes an instance of

dramatic irony in the opera. When Katerina sings, “At last! I have not seen you all day!”

does not know Sergey is losing interest, but the audience does. However, i

context of the quartet, this instance assumes a darker irony. It is as if Shostakovich

sarcastically greets his induction into the communist party while feeling as though his life

Allusion to Symphony No. 11 in iv. Largo

Zamuchen tyaholoy nevoley melody

104, arioso 2

131, transition

57

Zamuchen tyaholoy nevoley in iv. Largo


Further, Shostakovich quotes an instance of

I have not seen you all day!”

However, in the

It is as if Shostakovich

on into the communist party while feeling as though his life

The final outburst ends in two statements

the starting note of the fifth movement

the fifth movement begins, it is so similar to the first that it sounds as if the quartet

begun all over again. This intense cyclical character affords the quartet a quality of

captivity. The oppressive redundancy of the monogram motive and the work’s

overwhelmingly negative essence fashions a quartet that represen

Shostakovich bore following his party entry.

capacity for greater personal expression, Shostakovich furiously composed his Eighth

String Quartet in just three days to create an aural world that paralleled his internal

anguish.


iv. Largo, mm. 133-159, arioso 3

The final outburst ends in two statements of the DSCH motifs. The final B tied to

the starting note of the fifth movement seamlessly connects the two movements

the fifth movement begins, it is so similar to the first that it sounds as if the quartet


The oppressive redundancy of the monogram motive and the work’s

overwhelmingly negative essence fashions a quartet that represents the turmoil

following his party entry. Thus, in a testament to the string quartet’s



Allusion to The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District in iv. Largo

159, arioso 3

58

he final B tied to

seamlessly connects the two movements. When

the fifth movement begins, it is so similar to the first that it sounds as if the quartet has


The oppressive redundancy of the monogram motive and the work’s

ts the turmoil

Thus, in a testament to the string quartet’s



iv. Largo, arioso 3

[Seryozha, my dearest! At last! I have not seen you all day, Seryozha]

In the spring of 1974, Shostakovich knew h

cancer and debilitating pain

Shostakovich endured a rapid

friend and fellow composer, received permission to emigrate with his family,

The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District,

, my dearest! At last! I have not seen you all day, Seryozha]

Chapter V: String Quartet No. 15

In the spring of 1974, Shostakovich knew his death was near. Suffering from

cancer and debilitating pain in his hands related to an unknown neurological

rapid decline in health. When Mstislav Rostropovich, a life


The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District, Act 4

59

is death was near. Suffering from lung

his hands related to an unknown neurological disorder,

When Mstislav Rostropovich, a life-long


60

Shostakovich wept and lamented, “In whose hands are you leaving me to die?”112

The

same spring, Shostakovich composed his final quartet, String Quartet No. 15 in E-flat

minor.

Late in his life, Shostakovich faced unique challenges as a Soviet artist in a

changing socio-political climate. Shostakovich, a witness, victim, and survivor of

Stalinist-era censorship and terror, differed from the rising generation of Soviet artists.

Alien to their blatant protests and bold experimentation, Shostakovich appeared outdated,

and, in the worst cases, in support of Brezhnev’s ideals. Since his 1960 party invocation,

Shostakovich’s signature increasingly appeared on government documents, deepening the

division between him and the new generation of artists. For example, Pravda published a

letter, “He Disgraces the Calling of Citizen” denouncing Soviet nuclear physicist Andrey

Sakharov for “anti-Soviet” comment. Among the party signatures at the end of the letter

was Shostakovich’s, marking Shostakovich not only as a non-resistor but a persecutor. In

response, Lydia Chukovskaya distributed a samizdat113

letter in which she wrote,

“Shostakovich’s signature on the protest of musicians against Sakharov demonstrates

irrefutably that the Pushkinian question has been resolved forever: genius and villainy are

compatible.”114

Humiliation of this vein continued. At a 1973 Composer’s Union

performance, actor Yuri Lyubimov refused to shake Shostakovich’s hand because of the

signature.115

Shostakovich identified with his reputation. He saw himself in the fictional

Dr. Ragin in Chekhov’s “Ward No. 6,” claiming, “it seems I am reading memoirs about

112

Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 259. 113

A samizdat letter refers to an open letter “distributed through samizdat,” a system for publishing and disseminating of forbidden or subversive literature in the Soivet Union. Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 278. 114

Fay, Shostakovich: A life, 278. 115

Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 256.

61

myself.” 116

Described by Fay as “a non-resister to evil by constitution and conviction,”

Dr. Ragin reveals the villainous qualities Shostakovich now saw in himself. In reference

to the Sakharov letter, Shostakovich told his physician, “ I won’t forgive myself for it

until the grave.”117

Compounded with his social demise, Shostakovich’s physical deterioration

caused tremendous pain. The neurological disorder and cancer confirmed in

Shostakovich the little time he had left. When a member of the Beethoven Quartet passed

away just an hour after rehearsal of String Quartet No. 15,118

Shostakovich insisted

another group premiere the quartet, as he might not still be around by the time the

Beethoven Quartet could replace their violinist. Shostakovich’s Fifteenth Quartet, with

six continuous, Adagio movements titled “Elegy,” “Serenade,” “Intermezzo,”

“Nocturne,” “Funeral March,” and “Epilogue,” lacks a dedication, the first since his

Sixth. However, with or without dedication, the quartet explicitly communicates a

dialogue about death. Shostakovich, acutely aware of his hasty deterioration, composed

this quartet as an abstract articulation of the morbidity, solitude, and grief he endured at

the end of his life.

Elegy

The opening movement, the longest of the six, is remarkably, if not painfully,

repetitive. During rehearsal with the Beethoven Quartet, Shostakovich told the Beethoven

Quartet, “Play it so that flies drop dead mid-air, and the audience starts leaving the hall

116



Lesser, Music for Silenced Voices, 256.

from sheer boredom.”119

The

derives almost all of its melodic and rhythmic material from the open

music (Ex. 5.1). The movement is loosely fugal in that the exposition begins with

statements of a subject. The most prominent feature of the movement is the haunting

motive that permeates the entire movement. The motive alternates between two forms:

dactylic and anapestic (see below). It is so prevalent that one expects nearly all sustained

notes to give way to the motive (as they often do).

Example 5.1 Elegy mm. 1

The exposition, the opening fifty

of E-flat minor. The relentless reiterations and fragmentations of the opening theme

foreshadow not just the content of the first movement, but also the character of the

quartet as a whole. The redundancy of this movement suggests both the inescapability of

death and the solitude Shostakovich faced in his last years.

physical and emotional, the quartet does not deny the harsh reality of a

Instead, its redundancy lends the quartet a meditative quality. However, there are

moments of sweetness. For instance, the C

though Shostakovich briefly and affectionately escapes to a fond memory. Shostakovich

achieves a beautiful and subtle modulation to C major. First, a violin solo arrives at C

natural via chromatic motion and, then, iterations of the main motive on C

119


Dactylic

The Elegy, over twelve minutes long in many performances

derives almost all of its melodic and rhythmic material from the opening seven bars of

5.1). The movement is loosely fugal in that the exposition begins with

The most prominent feature of the movement is the haunting



the motive (as they often do).

mm. 1-6

The exposition, the opening fifty-two bars, roots the movement firmly in the key

flat minor. The relentless reiterations and fragmentations of the opening theme



ath and the solitude Shostakovich faced in his last years. In a time of pain, both

physical and emotional, the quartet does not deny the harsh reality of a painful


sweetness. For instance, the C-major middle section, mm. 51



natural via chromatic motion and, then, iterations of the main motive on C

Music for Silenced Voices, 262.

Dactylic Anapestic

62

in many performances,

ing seven bars of

5.1). The movement is loosely fugal in that the exposition begins with

The most prominent feature of the movement is the haunting



movement firmly in the key

flat minor. The relentless reiterations and fragmentations of the opening theme



In a time of pain, both

painful end.


major middle section, mm. 51-96, sounds as



natural via chromatic motion and, then, iterations of the main motive on C-natural

confirm the modulation. (Ex.

essentially the only new material used in the section and

character. Rather than the fixed, unrelenting quality of the main motive, this rising figure

attains upward momentum that suggests fleeting moments of positivity.

Example 5.2 Modulation to C major,

After six measures of reprieve in C major (mm. 53

second violin, viola, and cello surrenders to the dactylic motive from the exposition. The

motive reminds the listener

parenthetic positivity amidst despair. Following the statement of this motive, the C major

section fails to re-establish its once hopeful character. Instead, fragments of the opening

gradually re-establish dominancy over the movement. Measures 85

minor by incorporating F

91-96, the reiteration of its leading tone, D

allows modulation back to the home key.

opening material affirms the cyclical nature of quartet.

The remainder of the movement consists almost entirely of reiterations of the

subject. In mm. 101-102 and again in

motive appears (Example 5.3). Though the variation is seemingly insignificant, it is

aurally obtrusive. The manner in which it stands out speaks to the deeply meditative

quality of the movement. Even the slightest variation of content sounds disruptive.

confirm the modulation. (Ex. 5.2). A rising arpeggio figure, first appearing in m. 54, is

essentially the only new material used in the section and bolsters the section’s ho


attains upward momentum that suggests fleeting moments of positivity.

Modulation to C major, Elegy, mm. 45-52

After six measures of reprieve in C major (mm. 53-58), the sustained C in the


motive reminds the listener that this optimistic digression is nothing more than, a

enthetic positivity amidst despair. Following the statement of this motive, the C major

establish its once hopeful character. Instead, fragments of the opening

establish dominancy over the movement. Measures 85-91 locally t

minor by incorporating F-sharps in viola and spelling E minor chords in the cello. In mm.

teration of its leading tone, D♯, or the enharmonic equivalent of E

allows modulation back to the home key. The firm return to the home key

opening material affirms the cyclical nature of quartet.


102 and again in mm. 105-106, a slight variation from the original

le 5.3). Though the variation is seemingly insignificant, it is



63

5.2). A rising arpeggio figure, first appearing in m. 54, is

bolsters the section’s hopeful


58), the sustained C in the


this optimistic digression is nothing more than, a

enthetic positivity amidst despair. Following the statement of this motive, the C major

establish its once hopeful character. Instead, fragments of the opening

91 locally tonicize E

sharps in viola and spelling E minor chords in the cello. In mm.

enharmonic equivalent of E♭,

The firm return to the home key and use of


106, a slight variation from the original

le 5.3). Though the variation is seemingly insignificant, it is



Further, variants of the rising figure introduced in the C

segment of the Elegy (Ex

relentless repetition of the opening motive, suggests forced resignation to death

by recycling a motive from the middle section, Shostakovich retroactively muddle

distinction between the optimistic moments in the quartet and its otherwise solemn

character.

Example 5.3 Variation of main motive in

Example 5.4 Recurring rising figure in

Elegy, mm. 101-102

Elegy, mm. 54-55

Elegy, mm. 157-158, mm. 177

e rising figure introduced in the C-major section pepper the final

(Ex. 5.4). The once optimistic gesture, now suffocated by the

relentless repetition of the opening motive, suggests forced resignation to death

motive from the middle section, Shostakovich retroactively muddle


Variation of main motive in Elegy

Recurring rising figure in Elegy

158, mm. 177-179

64

major section pepper the final

now suffocated by the

relentless repetition of the opening motive, suggests forced resignation to death. Further,

motive from the middle section, Shostakovich retroactively muddles the


Serenade

The Serenade, beginning on the B

contrasts the first movement in substance and character. In

Elegy, Serenade adheres closer to an atonal twelve

gesture (Ex. 5.5) traverses all twelve tones, establishing a radical departure from the strict

tonality of the first movement. This technical divergence

divergence: unlike the thoughtful meditation of the first movement, the second movement

reflects the anxious thoughts racing through the mind of a man approaching death. The

movement confesses fear and upset in its sudden dynamic shif

Example 5.5 Serenade opening figure

beginning on the B-flat sustained from the previous movement,

contrasts the first movement in substance and character. In contrast to the firmly tonal

adheres closer to an atonal twelve-tone construction. The opening

5.5) traverses all twelve tones, establishing a radical departure from the strict

tonality of the first movement. This technical divergence supports the emotive



movement confesses fear and upset in its sudden dynamic shifts and atonality.

opening figure, mm. 1-3

65

flat sustained from the previous movement,

to the firmly tonal -

on. The opening

5.5) traverses all twelve tones, establishing a radical departure from the strict

supports the emotive



ts and atonality.

Throughout the movement, abrasive dynamics shape the distressed character of

the movement. In the introduction, the repetition of

The repetition of this figure nearly numbs the listener to its effects. However, just as the

listener learns to negotiate the discomfort caused by the opening idea,

pizzicato chords jolt the listener.

90-101. The multiple appearances of these chords underline how the movement, despite

its constant motion, only spins in place. U

movement is antithetical to meditative. Instead, it

texture and dynamics. The impossibility of escaping the discomfort caused by the

movement parallels the inability to negotiate with death.

The texture of the piece is also a source of anxiety. For example, the cello

between the first and second statements of the morbid chorus in

uncomfortably barren (Ex. 5.6).

consists of discontinuous side

variant of the motive most prevalent in the first movement

movement’s motive, Shostakovich redefines its meaning. While the motive was once

emblematic of resignation to death and meditation at the end of one’s life, the motive’s

barren and disconnected treatment in the second movement suggests disquiet.

Example 5.6 Serenade first cello solo, mm. 14

Similar material appears after the second refrain, but evolves into the bass line for

the “true” Serenade (mm. 37

staccato eighth note accompaniment constructed by the cello, viola, and second violin


the movement. In the introduction, the repetition of ppp swelling to sf fff


listener learns to negotiate the discomfort caused by the opening idea, fortissimo

pizzicato chords jolt the listener. This dark refrain appears again at mm. 19

101. The multiple appearances of these chords underline how the movement, despite

only spins in place. Unlike the first movement, the redundancy in this

movement is antithetical to meditative. Instead, it is abrasive with its sudden change in


movement parallels the inability to negotiate with death.

The texture of the piece is also a source of anxiety. For example, the cello

between the first and second statements of the morbid chorus in fortissimo

uncomfortably barren (Ex. 5.6). Not only is the line exposed as a solo, the line itself

consists of discontinuous side-by-side eighth notes. The eighth notes recall a disfig

variant of the motive most prevalent in the first movement. By marring the first




first cello solo, mm. 14-18


the “true” Serenade (mm. 37-88) with the melody carried by the first violin. The soft,


66


sf fff elicits anxiety.


fortissimo

again at mm. 19-27 and mm.

101. The multiple appearances of these chords underline how the movement, despite

nlike the first movement, the redundancy in this

is abrasive with its sudden change in


The texture of the piece is also a source of anxiety. For example, the cello line

fortissimo is

Not only is the line exposed as a solo, the line itself

side eighth notes. The eighth notes recall a disfigured

By marring the first





melody carried by the first violin. The soft,


67

supports the eerie melody in the first violin. Although the accompaniment mimics the

sonic quality of a lute, a historically conventional accompaniment of a serenade, the

atonal melody in the violin detracts from the serenade character. Instead, the eight-

measure melody in the violin serves as the basis for much of the content in the remainder

of the movement thus affirming the immobility of the quartet (Ex. 5.7). By peppering the

remainder of the movement with this content, Shostakovich fashions a movement of

recycled material without suggesting a fugal structure. Thus, the repetitions seemingly

function as an emotive tool rather than a structural device. Ultimately, the movement

sounds as if it is going to begin again. A cello solo recalling the opening solo follows the

final statement of fortissimo chords at m. 121. However, the solo never resolves. Instead,

the final A-flat ties to the first measure of the Intermezzo.

Intermezzo

As suggested by the title, the third movement serves as little more than a bridge

between the second and fourth movements. Unlike the five other substantial movements,

the Intermezzo could not stand alone. Not two minutes in length, the Intermezzo disguises

its tempo marking, identical to that of the two prior movements, through its cadenza-like

material in the first violin. The Intermezzo links the second and fourth movements by

interspersing material from both movements amidst the cadenza-like material. Fortissimo

chords recalling those of the second movement interrupt the cadenza at m. 7 and mark its

end at m. 14. However, the chords drop in dynamic level. The gentle, piano iteration of

these chords in m. 16 commences the transition to the Nocturne. Solo melodic material

moving from instrument to instrument prepares the listeners for the relatively peaceful

movement to come.

Example 5.7 Recycling of melodic content in

Nocturne

The fourth movement, as the title suggests, recalls the nocturnes of the nineteenth

century, both in its texture and its atmosphere. Warmth characterizes this movement.

Unlike the painful repetitiveness of the first movement or the tense barren soundscape

the second, the clarity of the melody and its continuous support from the arpeggiated

chords in the cello and second violin lends the movement a tender quality lacking in the

movements prior. However, amidst the tenderness, there is eeriness to the move

well, a function both of its place within the quartet dealing with death and its unstable

harmony.

In the opening theme, the clear accompaniment provided by arpeggiated chords

suggests a character akin to that of a Chopin piano

nocturnes, this movement

flat minor, the opening theme

First statement, mm. 37

Fragments: mm. 48-50 mm. 77

Complete re-statement, mm. 108

Recycling of melodic content in Serenade



Unlike the painful repetitiveness of the first movement or the tense barren soundscape



However, amidst the tenderness, there is eeriness to the move



suggests a character akin to that of a Chopin piano nocturne. Like many

nocturnes, this movement combines solemnity with tenderness. Loosely in the key of E

flat minor, the opening theme consists of arpeggios in contrary motion in the second

statement, mm. 37-44

50 mm. 77-78

statement, mm. 108-114

68



Unlike the painful repetitiveness of the first movement or the tense barren soundscape of



However, amidst the tenderness, there is eeriness to the movement as



of the Chopin

Loosely in the key of E-

contrary motion in the second

violin and the cello. Their motion

the immobility of the quartet. Their constant motion suggests not advancement but,

instead, endless concentric circles.

explore few harmonies over the twenty

the tonic, flat supertonic, and leading tone.

of the opening theme lends the movement a sense of warmness, not resignation or anxiety

as in the first and second movements, respectively.

In the middle section (

couples with a glow of eeriness

Leningrad summer twilight.”

the second violin mentions a fragment from the first movement (

34-38, the violin plays a melody that alludes to the main motive from the first movement

(Ex. 5.9). By referencing material from the opening movement, Shostakovich suggests

moments of solemn meditation during one of his final nights in the “Leningrad summer

twilight.” However, unlike the motive’s original context marked by

the idea sounds like gentle echoes. This different treatment of the motive

the Nocturne as more peaceful

Example 5.8 Allusion minor second motion from

Example 5.9 Allusion varied main motive from

120


Nocturne m. 27

Nocturne m. 34-38

Their motion, rather than creating a sense of momentum,


instead, endless concentric circles. The harmony confirms this stasis. The arpeggios

s over the twenty-one-measure opening theme, primari

the tonic, flat supertonic, and leading tone. However, unlike past movement

opening theme lends the movement a sense of warmness, not resignation or anxiety

as in the first and second movements, respectively.

iddle section (mm. 21-48), the warmth established in the

ouples with a glow of eeriness—an eeriness that, according to Lesser, may represent “a

Leningrad summer twilight.”120

In this section, allusions to the Elegy surface. In

ond violin mentions a fragment from the first movement (Ex. 5.8). Again, in

38, the violin plays a melody that alludes to the main motive from the first movement

9). By referencing material from the opening movement, Shostakovich suggests


However, unlike the motive’s original context marked by belabored recurrence,

sounds like gentle echoes. This different treatment of the motive

as more peaceful.

Allusion minor second motion from Elegy

Allusion varied main motive from Elegy

Music for Silenced Voices, 265.

Elegy mm. 62-63

69

entum, confirms


The arpeggios

opening theme, primarily reiterating

However, unlike past movements, the stillness

opening theme lends the movement a sense of warmness, not resignation or anxiety

the opening section

may represent “a

surface. In m. 27,

8). Again, in mm.

38, the violin plays a melody that alludes to the main motive from the first movement

9). By referencing material from the opening movement, Shostakovich suggests


belabored recurrence,

sounds like gentle echoes. This different treatment of the motive characterizes

Measures 41-47 constitute the climax of the movement (

phrase is not dynamically climatic, there is a sense that the movement exists to frame this

six-bar passage. The only phrase lacking

pedestal. Arpeggios gradually

slowly resume following the passage. When the Chopin

ethereal glow cast by the previous passage subtly alters the meaning of the material.

Lesser’s understanding of the movement suggests that

be the final glow of a Leningrad twilight.

The end of the movement foreshadows the movement to come. Shostakovich

introduces the funeral march rhythm (

does not betray the gentle character of the movement. Instead, the sparse voicing

weakens the daunting and oppressive effect of the funeral march gesture. The

performance indication of the funeral march amidst final it

suggests an image of the ending night. The funeral, heard only distantly but ominously,

marks the break of day.

Example 5.10 Climax of

Elegy mm. 101-102

constitute the climax of the movement (Ex. 5.10). Although this


bar passage. The only phrase lacking arpeggios, it sounds as if it is on a musical

gradually disappear in the measures leading up to the passage and

slowly resume following the passage. When the Chopin-like nocturne material returns, an


understanding of the movement suggests that this gentle climax

low of a Leningrad twilight.


introduces the funeral march rhythm (Ex. 5.11). However, his treatment of the gesture


weakens the daunting and oppressive effect of the funeral march gesture. The

of the funeral march amidst final iterations of the arpe

f the ending night. The funeral, heard only distantly but ominously,

Climax of Nocturne, mm. 41-47

70

10). Although this


sounds as if it is on a musical

in the measures leading up to the passage and

like nocturne material returns, an


of the piece may


is treatment of the gesture


weakens the daunting and oppressive effect of the funeral march gesture. The pizzicato

erations of the arpeggio figures

f the ending night. The funeral, heard only distantly but ominously,

Example 5.11 Introduction of funeral march theme,

Funeral March

Even in the absence of the title, the

death. The only movement with a marked slower metronome marking (quarter note =

60), the movement explicates a deep sorrow, not by the dying, but for the dead. The

opening gesture awakens

them. Reiterations of the abrasive,

the Nocturne. Consisting almost entirely of solos punctuated by the unison

with which the movement begins, the movement exposes Shostakovich’s pain and his

acknowledgement of his imminent death.

percussive, nearly creates the drumming at an execution.

The archetypal march rh

viola, resembles a fugal subject. However, instead of following a fugal form, a reiteration

of the march trope punctuates the end of the solo

Beginning similarly to the viola’s solo, the solo devolves into its own unique idea.

Climbing by fourths, the cello reaches an uncharacteristically high register. The

Introduction of funeral march theme, Nocturne mm. 69-70

Even in the absence of the title, the Funeral March clearly embodies a

. The only movement with a marked slower metronome marking (quarter note =


listeners from the trance into which the fourth movement lulled

terations of the abrasive, forte march theme affirm the change in character from

Consisting almost entirely of solos punctuated by the unison


acknowledgement of his imminent death. The march theme, forte, abrasive, and aurally

percussive, nearly creates the drumming at an execution.

The archetypal march rhythm permeates the solos. The first solo,


punctuates the end of the solo. The cello plays the second solo.

the viola’s solo, the solo devolves into its own unique idea.


71

70

clearly embodies a march to

. The only movement with a marked slower metronome marking (quarter note =


movement lulled

theme affirm the change in character from

Consisting almost entirely of solos punctuated by the unison march figure


abrasive, and aurally

ythm permeates the solos. The first solo, mm. 4-11 in the


. The cello plays the second solo.

the viola’s solo, the solo devolves into its own unique idea.


unusually high register and length of the cello’s solo, expanding into twelve bars, adds

tension. The strain releases at the arrival of the familiar

m. 25. Interestingly, the harmonic movement of the

exceedingly standard (Ex.

movement’s opening and the image of a funeral march stiffly and solemnly travelling the

streets of Leningrad.

However, after the statement of the main theme on the dominant, the movement

gradually dissolves into the

the march theme on C minor. The violin solo that follows is incomplete and transfers to

the cello. The incompleteness of these ideas suggest the dissolution of the funeral

procession as members of the funeral party gradually wander away.

in the music add to the anxiety of the movement’s dissolution.

at m. 44, it loses steam and instead gives way to a pizzicato melody in the cello. The way

in which the Funeral March

approaches at the end of the

decreases in dynamics, suggesting the fading away of

suggesting the approach and fading away of the

suggests he is watching his own funeral procession pass h

Example 5.12 Harmonic progression of march theme in

Funeral March march theme, mm. 1

Harmonic reduction of the


leases at the arrival of the familiar march theme on the dominant at

. Interestingly, the harmonic movement of the march theme in the opening is

Ex. 5.12). The structure of the harmony reflects the rigidity of the

and the image of a funeral march stiffly and solemnly travelling the


ually dissolves into the Epilogue. The violin solo, mm. 27-33, ends with a vari

minor. The violin solo that follows is incomplete and transfers to

The incompleteness of these ideas suggest the dissolution of the funeral

members of the funeral party gradually wander away. Further,

in the music add to the anxiety of the movement’s dissolution. When the march resumes

44, it loses steam and instead gives way to a pizzicato melody in the cello. The way

Funeral March slowly fades away mirrors the way in which

at the end of the Nocturne. At the end of the Funeral March,

, suggesting the fading away of the funeral procession

approach and fading away of the funeral procession, Shostakovich

his own funeral procession pass him.

Harmonic progression of march theme in Funeral March

march theme, mm. 1-3, 11-13, and 25-27

Harmonic reduction of the march theme

72


theme on the dominant at

theme in the opening is

12). The structure of the harmony reflects the rigidity of the

and the image of a funeral march stiffly and solemnly travelling the


33, ends with a variant of

minor. The violin solo that follows is incomplete and transfers to

The incompleteness of these ideas suggest the dissolution of the funeral

Further, tense pauses

When the march resumes

44, it loses steam and instead gives way to a pizzicato melody in the cello. The way

ich the march

Funeral March, the march theme

he funeral procession. By aurally

Shostakovich

Epilogue

Aptly named, the

Interestingly, the material from the

notes that recall the Intermezzo

other movements. Just as it functioned

movements, fragments of the

final movement. After the

the Elegy returns (Ex, 5.13). Then, chords that quote the

iteration of Intermezzo material (

movements not only constructs

reflection for Shostakovich.

Example 5.13 Return of main motive from

Example 5.14 Restatement of chords from

Epilogue, mm 10-11

Epilogue, m. 29

i iv V7

Aptly named, the Epilogue recounts the events of the prior movements.

material from the Intermezzo dominates the movement: thirty

Intermezzo punctuate the recollections of melodic content from the

other movements. Just as it functioned as a bridge between the second and fourth

fragments of the Intermezzo bridge content from various movements

. After the first iteration of the Intermezzo material, the main motive from

13). Then, chords that quote the Serenade decorate the second

material (Ex. 5.14). This chronological survey of prior

movements not only constructs a cyclical structure in the quartet, it also suggests a final

reflection for Shostakovich.

Return of main motive from Elegy

Restatement of chords from Serenade

Elegy, mm 1-2

7

73

movements.

dominates the movement: thirty-second

punctuate the recollections of melodic content from the

as a bridge between the second and fourth

bridge content from various movements in its

material, the main motive from

decorate the second

vey of prior

the quartet, it also suggests a final

Following this ornate variant of the

recollection couples content from the

third variant, appears here referring to the

the passage a character similar to the melodic passages in the

The combination depicts

and his tender reflections on life.

Funeral March (Ex. 5.17

former dialogue resolved on

Example 5.15 Restatement of rising figure

Serenade, m. 13

Epilogue, mm. 32-33

Elegy, mm. 157-158, mm. 177

Following this ornate variant of the Intermezzo material, another passage of

recollection couples content from the Elegy and Nocturne. The rising figure, the minor

third variant, appears here referring to the Elegy (Ex. 5.15). Repetition of fourths lends

the passage a character similar to the melodic passages in the Nocturne (Example

a conflict between his solemn meditation on obligation to

his tender reflections on life. The first Adagio molto passage, mm. 47

5.17). By including this allusion next, Shostakovich suggests the

former dialogue resolved on obligation to death.

Restatement of rising figure from Elegy

158, mm. 177-179

74

material, another passage of

The rising figure, the minor

epetition of fourths lends

Example 5.16).

obligation to death

mm. 47-58, recalls the

next, Shostakovich suggests the

Example 5.16 Restatement of rising fourths from


Epilogue, mm. 45-46

Epilogue, mm. 47

Funeral March, mm. 1

Restatement of rising fourths from Nocturne

Allusion to Funeral march figure

Nocturne, mm 46-47

mm. 1-3-48

75

47

As the movement progresses, the spacing narrows between

and recollections of the other movement. The thirty

moments of reflection abbreviate to two and one bar ideas as the

movements thin in texture and truncate in length.

in a way that anticipates beginning at the

affirms the cyclical structure of the movement through

Example 5.18 End of Epilogue,

Despite the widespread interest in Shostakovich

Shostakovich the individual

riddle, wrapped in a mystery, inside an enigma; but perhaps there is a key.”

Shostakovich, too, seems to be a riddle, wrapped

thesis proposes his string quartets

Quartets No. 1, No. 8, and No. 15

illustrious career, demonstrate longitudinally how Shostakovich turned to the string

quartet as a medium for self

Shostakovich reveals his nearly life

Following the birth of his son, Shostakovich composed a string quartet that

betrays his own desire for

quartet reverts Shostakovich back to naiveté. However, the quartet’s sense of wandering

As the movement progresses, the spacing narrows between Intermezzo

and recollections of the other movement. The thirty-second note barriers between the

moments of reflection abbreviate to two and one bar ideas as the reflections on past

movements thin in texture and truncate in length. The final recollection, mm.

in a way that anticipates beginning at the Elegy once more (Ex 5.18). Thus, Shostakovich

affirms the cyclical structure of the movement through the quartet’s final measure

Epilogue, mm. 95-97

Conclusion

Despite the widespread interest in Shostakovich the composer, it often feels

Shostakovich the individual remains obscures. Winston Churchill once said Russia is


Shostakovich, too, seems to be a riddle, wrapped in a mystery, inside an enigma. This

thesis proposes his string quartets as the keys to understanding Shostakovich.

ets No. 1, No. 8, and No. 15, composed at the beginning, middle, and end of his

demonstrate longitudinally how Shostakovich turned to the string

quartet as a medium for self-expression. And in these musical representations of himself,

his nearly life-long obsession with his own mortality.


his own desire for the impossibility of restored youth. The seemingly simple

hostakovich back to naiveté. However, the quartet’s sense of wandering

76

Intermezzo iterations

second note barriers between the

reflections on past

mm. 85 -97, ends

. Thus, Shostakovich

the quartet’s final measure.

er, it often feels

Churchill once said Russia is “a


in a mystery, inside an enigma. This

Shostakovich. String

, composed at the beginning, middle, and end of his

demonstrate longitudinally how Shostakovich turned to the string

And in these musical representations of himself,

obsession with his own mortality.


restored youth. The seemingly simple

hostakovich back to naiveté. However, the quartet’s sense of wandering

77

reflects the endless and futile path towards restored youth. After the intense censure he

endured following Lady Macbeth, Shostakovich could never again enjoy the innocence of

the untarnished success of a composer. Although the celebratory finale of the quartet

suggests his journey is successful, the fact that the finale originally served as the opening

movement refutes this claim. Had the celebratory movement opened the quartet as

Shostakovich originally intended, the quartet would reflect a journey that begins with

optimism and ends with aimless wandering.

String Quartets No. 8 and No. 15 confront death in distinct ways. String Quartet

No. 8 reveals how a part of Shostakovich’s spirit died when he entered the communist

party. To confront this loss, Shostakovich immortalized his pre-party self through

constant self-quotations and signatures that suggest self-obsession. This quartet reveals a

different element of Shostakovich’s character: conceit. Perhaps, in an atmosphere of

ruthless scrutiny, Shostakovich’s survival depended on self-elevation. By promoting

himself to an iconic level, Shostakovich retained his distinctiveness in an aural world of

his own construction. In contrast, his final String Quartet deals not with his symbolic

death, but with his very literal and impending death. Shostakovich reveals weakness and

fear in his Fifteenth String Quartet. The redundancy of the string quartet does not convey

self-obsession as it did in his Eighth. Instead, the redundancy of String Quartet No. 15 is

like the repetitive ringing of one’s hands, expressing not just worry, but also weariness.

Perhaps as a result of the tense atmosphere in which he lived, Shostakovich was

consumed by his own mortality. He turned to the string quartet as medium for self-

expression following the first instance in which his life was in peril, after the Pravda

incident. From then forward, he systematically used the quartet to memorialize friends,

lovers, and most of all, himself. In his First, Eighth, and Fifteenth String Quartet,

78

Shostakovich assumes both the role of the subject and the countersubject, the mourner

and the mourned.

Literature

Musical Scores

Shostakovich, Dmitrii. Novoe sobranie sochineni•, Series X, v. 36. Moscow: Izd-vo "DSCH", 2001.

Shostakovich, Dmitrii. Novoe sobranie sochineni•, Series X, v. 37. Moscow: Izd-vo "DSCH", 2001.

Secondary Literature

Bartlett, Rosamund. Shostakovich in Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Brown, Malcolm Hamrick. A Shostakovich Casebook. Bloomington: Indiana University

Press, 2004.

Clark, Catarina. “Shostakovich’s Turn to the string Quartets and the Debates about Socialist Realism in Music.” Slavic Review 72 (2013): 573-589.

Dyer, Paul Eugene. "Cyclic techniques in the string quartets of Dmitri Shostakovich." PhD diss., Florida State Universoty, 1977. Fanning, David. Shostakovich, String Quartet No. 8. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2004.

79

Fay, Laurel Elizabeth. "The last quartets of Dmitrii Shostakovich: a stylistic investigation." PhD diss., Cornell University, 1978. Fay, Laurel Elizabeth. Shostakovich: A Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 Fay, Laurel Elizabeth. Shostakovich and his world. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004. Gutmann, Peter. ”Shostakovich’s Fifth Symphony—finding the cost of freedom.” Goldmine 28.19 (2002): 61-85. Gracheva, Ekaterina. “Of Russian origin: Stalin’s Purges” Russiapedia, http://russiapedia.rt.com/of-russian-origin/stalins-purges/ (accessed April 20, 2013). Glyde, Judith. "From oppression to expression: interpreting the string quartets of Dmitri Shostakovich." Strings 17 (2002): 28. Hansen, Lindsay. "Music for Silenced Voices: Shostakovich and His Fifteen Quartets by Wendy Lesser." Music Reference Services Quarterly 4 (2011): 267-269.

Ho, Allan Benedict, and Dmitry Feofanov. Shostakovich Reconsidered. London: Toccata Press, 1998. Jarman, Douglas, edit. The Twentieth Century String Quartet. Todmorden: Arc Music, 2002.

Kay, Norman. Shostakovich. London: Oxford University Press, 1971. Kuhn, Judith. Shostakovich in Dialogue: Form, Imagery, and Ideas in Quartets 1-7. Burlington: Ashgate, 2010. Kuhn, Judith. “The String Quartets: in dialogue with form and tradition.” In The Cambridge Companion to Shostakovich, edited by, Pauline Fairclough and David Fanning, 38-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Lesser, Wendy. Music for Silenced Voices: Shostakovich and his Fifteen Quartets. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011.

McCrelass, Patrick. “Dimitry Shostakovich: The String Quartets.” In Intimate Voices: The Twentieth Century String Quartet, Volume II, edited by Evan Jones, 9-30. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2009. Mishra, Michael. A Shostakovich Companion, (Westport: Preager Publishers, 2008), 103-104. Reichardt, Sarah. “Expressive Doubling and the Narrative Rebirth in Shostakovich’s String Quartet No. 3.” Music and Narrative since 1900, edited by Michael Klein and Nicholas Reyland, 346-362. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013.

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Reichardt, Sarah. Composing the Modern Subject: Four Strings Quartets by Dmitri Shostakovich. Burlington: Ashgate, 2008. Rowland, Christopher & Alan George. “Interpreting the String Quartets.” In Shostakovich: the Man and his Music, edited by Christopher Norris, 14-45. Boston: Marion Boyars, 1982.

Shostakovich, Dmitrii, and I. Glikman. Story of a Friendship: The Letters of Dmitry

Shostakovich to Isaak Glikman, 1941-1975. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001.

Shostakovich, Dmitrii, and Solomon Volkov. Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. Stowell, Robin, edit. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Stravinsky, Igor. Poetics of Music. Cambridge: Harvard University Press: 1970), 153.

Taruskin, Richard. “‘Public lies and unspeakable truths: Interpreting Shostakovich’s Fifth

Symphony” in Shostakovich Studies, ed. David Fanning (University of Manchester, 2006), 29-40.

Wilson, Elizabeth. Shotsakovich: A Life Remembered. Princeton: Princeton University

Press: 1994.

Documents

Self-Expression Through The String Quartet: An Analysis of