Nursr Edu&ion Today (1988) 8,22%233 0 Longman Group UK Ltd 1988

Self-evaluation methods in nurse education

P Burnard

Evaluation is an important aspect of any nursing curriculum. With the move towards student-centred educational methods in nurse education, comes the need to develop self-evaluation methods. Such methods can be used to evaluate learning and also personal development - an important aspect of self-awareness. This paper offers a rationale for self-evaluation. It also describes three practical methods of self-evaluation and indicates how they can be used in a variety of nursing educational contexts, to evaluate both cognitive and affective learning.

INTRODUCTION self-evaluation. As is the case with evaluation of learning, evaluation of self-development is an

Nurse education continues to develop the theme aspect of the learning cycle that can help in the

of self-direction in learning. A necessary part of planning of future educational encounters.

such self-directed learning is the ability for To evaluate means to ‘place a value on,’ to

nursing students to self-evaluate both their ‘identify the worth, of something. Given the

learning and their personal development. The subjective personal nature of most learning

learning aspect is clearly a necessity, all learners (indeed, can it ever be claimed that learning is

in any discipline need to be able to identify what not a personal process?), the person most suited

they have learned in order to plan future edu- to carry through the evaluation procedure is the

cational enterprises. The ability to self-evaluate student herself. Whilst ‘objective’ evaluation

personal development is also important as it is methods such as texts, examinations, vivas,

only through constantly reviewing our capacity dissertations and so forth, all have their place in

for self-awareness that we can continue to the educational process, self-evaluation methods

understand the problems of others. Self- have certain distinct advantages.

awareness is a necessary prerequisite for appre- ciating the situation of the other person. Such self-awareness can never be completed, it is never possible to acknowledge that one is totally self-aware. Self-awareness is necessarily a pro- cess of becoming: a continuous evolutionary process of discovery. That process, however, needs to be punctuated by frequent periods of

Philip Burnrrd MSc RMN RGN DipN Cert Ed RNT Lecturer in Nursing Studies, University of Wales College of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff Manuscript accepted 6 January 1988

THE ADVANTAGES OF SELF- EVALUATION

Firstly, as we have noted above, self-evaluation can be a means of identifying personal progress. It can enable us to clarify what is still to be learned and how past learning can be incorpo- rated with present. In this sense, it is a process of incorporation or of synthesis.

Secondly, it can enable us to notice gaps in our learning or development. This, again, can help

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us to set new objectives of Learning goals and to make economical use of our time. If we never self-evaluate we tend to ‘carry on as usual,’ not knowing whether we have progressed or regressed. Further, there is a tendency for us to continue to cover the same ground - we stick to that which we know. Self-evaluation, then, can enable us to stop and take stock in order to prepare ourselves for future learning.

In addition, the process of self-evaluation can be an integral part of self-awareness develop- ment. As we shall see, one aspect of self-evalu- ation involves inviting feedback from others. That feedback can encourage us to develop a balanced self-image. We need others to tell us who we are. In this sense, self-awareness becomes a two-way process. It invokes a reflec- tive, inward-looking aspect; on the other, it requires us to take note of other peoples’ views of us. Such a balanced approach satisfies both the self-disclosure and feedback-from-others requirements, identified as essential for self- awareness by Luft (1969).

Lastly, self-evaluation is a means of developing autonomy in learning (Boud 1981). If a student becomes totally dependent upon other peoples’ evaluation of her progress, she will tend to deny the importance of her own evaluation. Further, she becomes dependant upon the institutional education process itself. When only evaluation by others is allowed, students begin to believe that only educational ‘experts’ are able to effectively evaluate. Then, tests, examinations, certificates and diplomas become the only ‘valid’ means of appreciating that learning has taken place.

Alternatively, the student who can effectively self-evaluate can become an independent learner. She can begin the process of ‘valuing herself,’ of appreciating that a persons own evaluation of their own performance is, in the end, the most important aspect of the edu- cational enterprise.

There are, of course, limits to self-evaluation. Summative evaluation (Striven 1967), carried out by an ‘objective’ person or body is an important part of the professional education of nurses. However, once entry to the profession has been achieved or once a degree or diploma

has been obtained, self-monitoring through self- evaluation becomes the more autonomous, mature means of further development. We cannot, after all, expect to rely on other people’s evaluation of our ability for evermore!

METHODS OF SELF-EVALUATION

How, then, can self-evaluation be achieved? Various methods are identified in literature (Rowntree 1977; Clift & Imrie 1981; Sullivan 1977; Kilty 1979). Questionnaires, ranking and rating scales may be used as methods of self- evaluation (Reynolds & Cormack 1985; Fink & Kosecoff 1978; Narayanasamy 1985). This paper identifies three practical methods (1) self and peer evaluation (2) the use of the journal (3) an adaption of co-counselling as a means of self-evaluation.

It is worth considering, before the three prac- tical methods are described, what is being evalu- ated. Arguably both cognitive and effective aspects of learning can be evaluated through the processes described below. In practice, however it may be that self and peer evaluation is better suited to evaluating cognitive (or knowledge- based) aspects of the syllabus. Thejournal offers a medium, which considers a mix of both cogni- tive and affective components and co-counsell- ing focuses more on the ‘feelings’ or affective aspects of the learning process. Thus the three methods described below can span the conti- nuum ranging from knowledge through to feel- ings in a graded and selective manner. As Heron (1982) notes, traditional educational methods have tended to focus almost exclusively on the cognitive domain. It is important that we develop effective methods for considering emotional growth, particularly in the field of nursing. The three ‘layers’ of evaluation, offered by the methods described here are illustrated in Figure 1.

Another useful distinction may be made between knowledge and skills. Because the methods described here rely on verbal and written reporting only, and not on demon- stration, it is likely that only knowledge can be

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Self and Peer evaluation to the group and invites feedback

Evaluation from the rest of the group. 4 *

Journal As we have seen above, this process encour-

* c ages two aspects necessary for the development

Co-counselling of self-awareness: self disclosure and feedback pa

Cognitive Affective from others. A more detailed exposition of the

Learning Learning method can be found in Burnard (1987). Self and peer evaluation can be used as a

Fig 1 Three layers of evaluation means of evaluating a ‘block’ of learning, a study day, workshop or an entire course. If notes of the

evaluated through the process described. All that can be evaluated in terms of skills, are the learners perceptions of their own skill levels. Now, this may be an important facet of evalu- ation but it should be born in mind that such evaluation methods cannot claim to evaluate skill levels themselves. The only possible exception to this is in the use of co-counselling, where certain basic listening skills are being employed, but in practice, whilst these basic skills form part of the procedure of the evaluation exercise, they are not under scrutiny themselves. These limitations should be considered when using the evaluation tools as it is important to appreciate what can and what cannot be evaluated through using them.

evaluation are kept by individual students that information can be used in the planning of future learning. The approach is of particular value in the development of the interpersonal skills aspect of the nursing curriculum as it offers direct and immediate feedback of skill levels shortly after they are demonstrated. Indeed, the offering of feedback to others requires a con- siderable level of interpersonal competence. In this sense, the whole process of self and peer evaluation can become an instrument for the further development of interpersonal skills.

The process of self and peer evaluation should not be rushed. To work effectively with a group of 8-10 students, at least 2 hours should be set aside for the activity. It is also often helpful if the tutor or facilitator takes an active part in her own evaluation. This can do much to encourage a

SELF AND PEER EVALUATION egalitarian atmosphere in which both students and tutors share learning and experience (Clark

Self and peer evaluation is an activity that can & Kadis 197 1). easily be carried out in small learning groups. The stages of the process can be identified as follows:

Journal

1. identification of criteria for evaluation The keeping of a journal can enable students to

2. self-assessment against those criteria maintain continuous self-evaluation throughout

3. sharing, through self-disclosure, that self- a course. All that is required, here, is that those

assessment with the group and students fill in at weekly intervals various entries

4. inviting feedback from other group

in a suitable notebook. It is useful if a variety of

members. headings are offered as a means of organising the journal. Suitable headings include:

In the first instance, members of the learning group collectively identify a small number of criteria against which to evaluate a week, term, year or course. Then each group member silently evaluates herself against those criteria and, as necessary, makes notes of that evalu-

1. New learning 2. New skills developed 3. New references gained 4. Notes on self development 5. Learning objectives for coming week/term.

ation. Once this self-referent process has taken By inclusion of the heading about learning place, each member, in turn, self-discloses that objectives, the journal can be developed into a

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form of continuous learning contract (Knowles 1975). Such a contract can serve as the focus for small group discussions or seminars. A further advantage is that students enhance their skills in writing objectives - a useful aspect of learning that may transfer over into the writing of clinical objectives relating to patient care.

The journal, itself, may be evaluated in a variety of ways. The student, herself, may choose to keep the journal to herself and keep it as a

private method of monitoring progress.

Alternatively, it can be used as a vehicle for discussion between student and tutor and can even be formally evaluated by both tutor and students, resulting in a mark or grade. A third

approach is to use the journal in a group setting. In this way, the self and peer evaluation process

described above can be used to evaluate each person’s journal in turn. Such an approach can only be used in a group in which a high level of trust and self-disclosure already exists. What we write about ourselves in a journal becomes a highly personal document to be shared only with

those with whom we feel comfortable. If such a group exists it is worth considering that the tutor herself also maintains a journal and subjects it to the same self and peer evaluation process de- scribed here. In this way a more egalitarian educational atmosphere is maintained. The tutor can also serve as a role-model for students in maintaining their journals. However, this can work with adverse effect. If the tutor is too self-disclosing, too quickly, the student group can either feel de-skilled by that disclosure or they can feel embarassed by it. It is essential that

tutor disclosure roughly matches the amount of disclosure made by students. In other words, the tutor takes a lead from the students and not vice-versa.

CO-COUNSELLING

Co-counselling is a two-way process of peer support described by Jackins (1973, 1975) and Heron (1978). Essentially, the process involves two trained co-counsellors meeting for a period of 2 hours during which each person, in turn, spends 1 hour as client and one as counsellor. In

this way, each person at each meeting serves as both client and counsellor. The ‘counselling’ aspect of the process is not that of traditional question asking, reflecting and clarifying but principally that of adopting a listening role.

Thus, in co-counselling, the aim is for the client to be self-directing and self-problem-solving without becoming dependent upon their partner.

A modification of the co-counselling process

may be used as a self-evaluation tool. All that is required is that students divide up into pairs and sit facing one another. One then spends 5 minutes answering, to the other, one of the following questions:

‘What have I learned this week?’ ‘What do I need to do to further my

personal development?’ ‘What specific areas do I need to consider for future learning?’

The student who listens does just that. She is not required to discuss what she hears nor to ask questions. The aim, here, is to allow the student

who is considering the question to fully explore it and its implications. Once 5 minutes has passed, the student pairs change roles and the ‘listener’ considers the questions for 5 minutes while her partner listens impassively.

When the total process has been completed the pairs can be invited to rejoin the group and discuss the exercise. Out of that discussion will arise a variety of educational and personal issues that can be used for future planning of edu- cational and developmental programmes.

This method is a very simple but very effective means of allowing students time to reflect on their learning and development. As they become accustomed to the process, the time spent in the pairs activity can be increased and the questions offered for consideration modified to suit the learning group. Students may also wish to con- sider their own questions. Jarvis (1983) describes a further modification of this activity that he calls ‘snowballing’.

The adaptation of co-counselling technique described, here, has been used by the present writer for evaluating learning and development with a variety of nursing students: those in basic

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training, undergraduates, master of nursing students and a wide range of trained nurses in a continuing education context.

These are three approaches to self-evaluation. All can be modified in various ways to suit the particular learning group under consideration. Whatever method is chosen, the process of self-evaluation remains an essential aspect of the student-centred approach to learning how to nurse - from basic training through to post-basic and higher education courses. If we are to encourage nurses to use a patient-centred approach to caring for patients it seems vital that those same nurses develop the simple skills of self-reflection and self-monitoring.

References

Boud D 1981 Developing student autonomy in learning. Kogan Page, London

Burnard P 1987 Self and peer assessment. Senior Nurse 6 (5): 16-17

Clark D H, Kadis A L 197 1 Humanistic teaching. Merrill. Columbus, Ohio

Clift J C, Imrie B W 198 1 Assessing students: appraising teaching. Croom Helm, London

Fink A, Kosecoff J 1978 An evaluation primer. Sage, London

Heron J 1978 Co-counsellor’s teacher’s manual. Human Potential Research Project. University of Surrey, Guildford

Heron J 1982 Education of the affect: Human Potential Research Project. University of Surrey, Guildford

Jackins J 1973 The human situation. Rational Island Publishers, Seattle

Jackins H 1975 Guidebook to re-evaluation counselling. Rational Island Publishers, Seattle

Jarvis P 1983 The theory and practice of adult and continuing education. Croom Helm, London

Knowles M 1975 Self-directed learning. Cambridge Publishing Co, New York

Kilty J 1979 Self and peer assessment. Human Potential Research Project. University of Surrey, Guildford

Luft J 1969 Ofhuman interaction. TheJohari model of interaction. Mavfield Publishing Co, Palo Alto. California ’

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Narayanasamy S A 1985 Evaluation of a training curriculum for nursing assistants. Nurse Education Today 5 (3): 124-129

Reynolds W, Cormack D F S 1985 Clinical teaching of group dynamics. An evaluation of a trial clinical teaching programme. Nurse Education Today 5 (3): 101-108

Rowntree D 1977 Assessing Students. How shall we know them? Harper & Row, London

Striven M 1967 The methodology of evaluation in R W Tyler (ed) Perspectives of curriculum evaluation. Rand McNally, Chicago

Sullivan A M 1977 A framework for the evaluation of teaching. Self assessment and formal evaluation, in C K KnaDDer. G L Geis. C E Pascal and B H Shore (eds). if’teaching is important. The evaluation of instruction in higher education. Canadian Association of University Teachers. Clark, Irwin & Co, Toronto