Self-Deception as a Mediator of.pdf

8/12/2019 Self-Deception as a Mediator of.pdf

1/19

ELSEVIER

S e l f -D e c e p t i o n a s a M e d i a t o r o f

C o o p e r a t i o n a n d D e f e c tio n in V a r y i n g

S o c ia l C o n t e x t s D e s c r i b e d in th e

I te r ate d P r is o n e r s D i le m m a

M i c h e l e K S u r b e y a n d J effr ey J M c N a l ly

Department o f Psychology M ount Allison University Sackville

Ne w Brunswick Canada

Deception and self-deception may be two related psychological capacities serving to en-

hance a n indiv idual 's inclusive fitness. Self-deception has been defined as any psycholog-

ical act in which one tho ught or beli ef is held at the expense of another. This study was

designed to test the noti on that we may deceive ourselves about ou r own intentions or the

intentions of others in o rder to facilitate cooperation, if the cooperative behavior has the

potential to improve fitness. We may also deceive ourselves in situations where we may

need to compete with others, if not competing might represent a loss of fitness. The Self-

Deception Questionnaire was administered to 80 women and 70 men to determine their

levels of self-deception. A series of vignettes, conforming to the Prisoner's Dilemma

game format, were administered in questionnaire material to measure part icipant's pre-

dispositions to cooperate or defect in three different contexts (family, mating, and neu-

tral). Me n predicted they would be less cooperat ive than women over all conditions, and

participants anticipated cooperating more with kin than with non-kin. Moreover, par-

ticipants who were high self-deceivers chose more coope rative responses in both family

and mati ng contexts than those with low self-deception scores. Finally, the three-way in-

teraction among sex, context, and level of self-deception suggested that the role of self-

deception in cooperation may vary according to the sex of the individual and the

context. 1997 Elsevier Science Inc.

KEY WORDS: Self-deception; Deception; Cooperation; Prisoner's Dilemma.

Received October 14, 1996; revised August 6, 1997.

Address reprint requests and correspondence to: Dr. Michele K. Surbey, Department of Psychology,

Mount Allison University, Sackville, N.B. Canada, E0A 3C0.

Evolution and Human Behavior 18:417-435 (1997)

1997 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010

1090-5138/97/$ 17.00

PII S 1090-5138(97)00090- l


2/19

41 8 M .K. Surbey and J. J. McNally

h i le c o n s c i o u s c o g n i t iv e p r o c e s s in g h a d b e e n t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s o f

t he ea r l ie s t s choo l s o f p s ycho l o g i ca l s tudy , F r e ud ' s t wen t i e t h cen -

t u r y r eve l a t i on o f cons i de r ab l e unco ns c i ous i n f o r m a t i on s to r age and

p r o c e s s i n g a l t e r e d o u r v i e w o f t h e h u m a n p s y c h e f o r e v e r . T h e o l d

m a x i m s k n o w t h y s e l f a n d t o t h in e o w n s e lf b y t r u e a p p e a r t o b e w i s h f u l t h in k -

i n g h a r b o r i n g a b a s i c h u m a n i n a b i l i t y f o r c o m p l e t e s e l f - k n o w l e d g e . E v o l u t i o n a r y

p s y c h o l o g y r e s ts u p o n t h e p r es u p p o s i t io n t h a t b o t h c o n s c i o u s a n d n o n c o n s c i o u s

i n f o r m a t i on p r oces s i ng have been s ub j ec t t o na t u r a l s e l ec t i on . P r oces s e s r ende r i ng

i n f o r m a t i on uncons c i ous , s uch a s r ep r e s s i on and s e l f - decep t i on , m ay have adap t i ve

s i gn i f i c ance i f t hey enha nce t he f i tne s s o f i nd i v i dua l s engag i ng i n t hem . I n s o f a r a s

b o t h c o m p e t i t io n a n d c o o p e r a t i o n h a v e e v o l v e d c o n c u r r e n t l y in Homo sapiens as

t hey have i n a l l s oc i a l s pec i e s , we m i gh t expec t s pec i f i c p s ycho l og i ca l m echan i s m s

t o p la y a r o l e i n th e i r m e d ia t io n . S e l f -d e c e p t i o n m a y b e s u c h a m e c h a n i s m . W e m a y

s e l f - dece i ve in com pe t i t i ve s i tua t i ons wh e r e de f ec t i on o r wi nn i ng r e s u l t s i n the

h i ghes t r ewar ds , o r when no t com pe t i ng r ep r e s en t s a l o s s i n f i t ne s s ( Nes s e and

L l o y d 1 9 9 2 ; T r i v e r s 1 9 8 5 ) . C o n v e r s e l y , w e m a y d e c e i v e o u r s e l v e s a b o u t o u r o w n

i n t en t i ons o r t he i n t en t i ons o f o t he r s i n s i t ua t i ons whe r e oppor t un i t i e s f o r m u t ua l

coo pe r a t i o n ex i st , i f coo pe r a t i on r e s u l t s i n a po t en t i a l i m pr o vem en t i n i nd i v i dua l f i t-

ne s s ( Al exande r 1987 ; Locka r d 1978 ; Nes s e and L l oyd 1992) . I n u s i ng t he P r i s -

o n e r ' s D i l e m m a ( P D ) p a r a d i g m , t h i s s t u d y e x a m i n e d w h e t h e r h i g h o r l o w s e l f -

d e c e i v e r s w o u l d c h o o s e t o c o o p e r a t e o r d e f e c t i n h y p o t h e t i c a l s o ci a l c o n te x t s , w h e n

engag i ng i n e i t he r o f t he s e op t i ons w ou l d ha ve d i f f e r en t i a l f i tne s s ou t com es .

C O N C E P T A N D M E A S U R E O F S E L F D E C E P T I O N

Se l f - decep t i on ha s been d e f i ned a s a m o t i va t ed ps ycho l og i ca l a c t in w h i ch one be l i e f

i s cons c i ous l y he l d a t t he expens e o f ano t he r ( Gur and Sacke i m 1979) . I n a c l a s s i c

e x p e r i m e n t , G u r a n d S a c k e i m ( 1 9 7 9 ) c o m p a r e d i n d i v i d u a l s ' a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n i z e

t he i r ow n r eco r ded vo i ce s , am ong a s e r ie s o f vo i ce s , und e r t wo m ot i va t i ona l s ta te s .

Re cogn i t i on was m e as u r ed v i a s e l f - r epo r t a s we l l a s by exa m i n i n g pa r t ic i pan t s ' Ga l -

v a n i c S k in R e s p o n s e ( G S R ) . G S R r e c o r d in g s f o l lo w i n g e x p o s u r e t o o n e ' s o n e v o i c e

ve r s us ano t he r ' s a r e t yp i ca l l y d i s t ingu i s hab l e and w e r e u s ed a s a phys i o l og i ca l m ea -

s u r e o f r ecogn i t i on . As a m eans o f m an i pu l a t i ng m o t i va t i on , pa r t i c i pan t s we r e

exp os e d t o e i t he r an exp e r i ence o f s ucces s ( do i ng w e l l on an i n t e l l igence t e s t) o r an

e x p e r i e n c e o f f a i lu r e ( d o i n g p o o r l y ) . G u r a n d S a c k e i m r e a s o n e d t h a t s u c ce s s w o u l d

m ot i va t e i nd i v i dua l s t o s e l f - agg r and i ze and d i s pos e t hem t o i den t i f y o t he r s ' vo i ce s

a s t h e i r o w n o n a v o i c e r e c o g n i t i o n ta s k. C o n v e r s e l y , th e y e x p e c t e d p a r ti c ip a n t s w h o

expe r i enced f a i l u r e t o dep r ec i a t e t hem s e l ves and m i s i den t i f y t he i r own vo i ce a s t he

vo i ce o f ano t he r . As p r ed i c t ed , s e l f - r epo r t re s u l ts r eve a l ed t ha t pa r t ic i pan t s expe r i -

enc i ng s u cces s t ended t o m i s i den t i f y o t he r s ' vo i ce s a s t he i r ow n , and p a r t ic i pan t s

expos ed t o f a i l u r e m i s i den t i f i ed t he i r own vo i ce a s t he vo i ce o f ano t he r . Howeve r ,

w h i l e c o n s c i o u s r e c o g n i t i o n o f o n e ' s o w n v o i c e d e c r e a s e d i n t h e l a tt e r c o n d i t io n , a n

e x a m i n a t i o n o f G S R r e c o r d i n g s i n d i c at e d p h y s i o l o g i ca l ( o r u n c o n s c i o u s ) r e c o g n i -

t i on o f t he pa r t i c i pan t s ' o w n vo i ce . Gur and S acke i m s ugges t ed t ha t t he d i s c r epancy


3/19

S e l f D e c e p t i o n a s a M e d i a t o r o f C o o p e r a t i o n 4 1 9

b e t w e e n s e l f- r e p o r t a n d G S R r e a d in g s i n v o i c e r e c o g n i t io n w a s i n d i c at i v e o f s e l f -

decep t i on . The i r f i nd i ngs l end s uppor t t o t he i dea tha t , in t he p r oces s o f s e l f- decep -

t io n , a p e r s o n s h o l d s t w o c o n t r a d i c t o r y b e li e f s w i t h o u t k n o w i n g o f o n e o f t h em , a n d

t ha t t he ac t wh i ch de t e r m i nes wh i ch be l i e f i s he l d i s a m o t i va t ed ac t s ub j ec t t o

awar enes s . Whi l e Gur and Sacke i m ' s r e s u l t s have a t t r a c t ed app r op r i a t e c r i t i c i s m

( Doug l a s and G i bbon s 1983 ; Kr eb s e t a l. 1988) , t he i r s tudy r em a i ns on e o f t he m os t

c i te d a n d c o n v i n c i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l d e m o n s t r a ti o n s o f s e l f - d e ce p t io n .

I n a d d i t i o n , S a c k e i m a n d G u r ( 1 9 7 8 ) d e v e l o p e d a w i d e l y u t i l i z e d p a p e r a n d

penc i l m eas u r e o f s e l f - decep t i on , t he Self D eception Q uestionnaire ( S D Q ) . T h e

SD Q con t a i n s 20 p s ycho l og i ca l l y t h r ea t en i ng ques t ions , t he m a j o r i t y r ega r d i ng p r e -

s u m a b l y u n i v e rs a l h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e m o t io n s . S a m p l e it e m s i n c lu d e H a v e

y o u e v e r b e e n v e r y a n g r y w i th a f a m i l y m e m b e r ? , an d D o y o u h a v e a n y b a d m e m -

or i e s ? I f t he r e s ponden t cons i s ten t l y den i e s t he pe r s ona l r e l evance o f the i tem s ,

t hen s e l f - decep t i on i s i nd i ca t ed . T he ex t e r na l va l i d i t y o f the SD Q has been i nves t i-

ga t ed i n s eve r a l s t ud i e s wi t h f i nd i ngs gene r a l l y i nd i ca t i ng t ha t s co r e s on t he SDQ,

t he Byr ne Repr e s s i on - Sens i t i z a t i on Sca l e , t he Repr e s s i ve Cop i ng Sca l e , t he We i n -

b e r g e r A d j u s t m e n t I n v e n t o r y ( W A I ) , t h e M i l l e r M o n i t o r i n g a n d B l u n t i n g S c a l e

( M B S ) , a n d t h e B a l a n c e d I n v e n t o r y o f D e s i r e d R e s p o n d i n g ( t h e S e l f - D e c e p t i o n s u b -

s ca l e ) a re h i gh l y i n t e r co r r e l a t ed ( T ur ve y and S a l ove y 1993).

E V O L U T I O N O F S E L F - D E C E P T I O N I N C O M P E T I T I O N

A N D C O O P E R A T I O N

B e c a u s e a n o r g a n i s m ' s f i t n e s s g e n e r a l l y d e p e n d s u p o n t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h

r ea l i ty is enco ded an d i n t e r p r e ted , Wa l l ace ( 1973) s ugges t s t ha t an i nd i v i dua l cou l d

i nc r ea s e h i s o r he r r e l a t i ve f i t ne s s by caus i ng ano t he r t o misinterpret the env i r on -

m en t , r educ i ng t he s ec ond i nd i v i du a l ' s f it ne s s. The r e f o r e , t he m an i pu l a t i on o f

ano t he r ' s r e a l i t y t h r ough

deception

cou l d be s ub j ec t t o s e l ec t i on . Decep t i on occu r s

w h e n a r e c e i v e r r e g is t e rs ( o r b e li e v e s ) i n fo r m a t i o n f r o m a s e n d e r a n d b e h a v e s

t ow ar d i t a s thou gh i t we r e s om e t h i ng o t he r t han i t i s, conv ey i ng s om e bene f i t t o t he

s ende r (Kr eb s e t a l. 1988) . T r i ve r s ( 1976 , 1985) p r opo s es t ha t wh e r e m i s l ead i ng o r

dece i v i ng o t he r s ha s f i t ne s s bene f i t s , t he p r i m ar y f unc t i on o f s e l f - decep t i on i s t he

s ucces s f u l decep t i on o f o t he r s . He s ugges t s t ha t t he r e ex is t s a co - evo l u t i ona r y s tr ug -

g l e b e t w e e n t h e d e c e i v e r a n d t h e d e c e i v e d t h a t i s f r e q u e n c y d e p e n d e n t : a s d e c e p t i o n

i nc r ea s e s i n f r equency , i t i n t ens i f i e s s e l ec t i on f o r de t ec t i on , and a s de t ec t i on

s p r eads , i t i n tens i f i e s s e l ec t i on o f f u r t he r dece i t. Se l f - decep t i on r ende r s t he de cep -

t i on be i ng p r ac t i c ed uncon s c i ous , t hus e l i m i na t i ng t he s ub t le s i gns o f gu i lt y s e l f-

knowl edge , s uch a s s wea t y pa l m s and f i dge t i ng , wh i ch cou l d a l e r t t he po t en t i a l l y

dece i ved t o t he dece i v e r ' s s e l f - i n t e r e s t ( T r i ve r s 1985) . One i s gene r a l l y m or e e f f ec -

t ive a t dece i v i ng o t he r s i f t hey a r e them s e l ves unaw ar e o f t he dece it . The r e f o r e , whe r e

dece i t ha s f i tne s s bene f i t s , s e l ec t i on f o r o t he r - dec ep t i on s e l ec t s f o r s e l f - decep t i on .

The cond i t i ons i n wh i ch dece i t and , p r e s um ab l y , s e l f - dece i t a r e m os t l i ke l y t o

occu r i nc l ude t hos e whe r e r e s ou r ce s a r e i n dem and o r com pe t i t i on i s i n t ens e , and

wh er e r ec i p i en t s ar e non - r e l a t i ve s ( Tr i ve r s 1985 ; Wa l l ace 1973). Wh er e r e s ou r ce s


4/19

4 2 0 M K Surbey and J J McNally

a r e l im i t e d , d e c e i v i n g a n o t h e r i n d iv i d u a l a b o u t w h e r e t h e y c a n b e l o c a t e d c o u l d i n -

c r e a s e o n e ' s r e l a t i v e f i t n e s s ( W a l l a c e 1 9 7 3 ) , a n d h i d i n g o n e ' s d e c e p t i o n t h r o u g h

s e l f - d e c e p t i o n w o u l d i n c r e a s e i ts e f f e c ti v e n e s s . W h e n t h e c o m p e t i t io n i s f o r a c c e s s

t o t e r r i t o r i e s , h i e r a r c h i e s , o r o t h e r w i s e m a t e s , a s c o m m o n l y o c c u r s a m o n g m a l e s ,

s e l f- d e c e p ti o n c o u l d i m p r o v e o n e ' s c o m p e t i t i v e ed g e in a n u m b e r o f w a y s . T r iv e r s

( 1 9 8 5 ) d e s c r i b e s h o w a d u l t m a l e c h i m p a n z e e s e n g a g e d i n a g g r e s s i v e d i s p l a y s t y p i -

c a l l y m a k e t h e m s e l v e s a p p e a r l a rg e r , t h ro u g h p i l o - e r e c t i o n , a s a m e a n s t o i n t im i d a t e

t h e i r o p p o n e n t s . I n s u c h a g g r e s s i v e e n c o u n t e rs , m a l e s w h o b l u f f th e i r o p p o n e n t s a n d

d e c e i v e o t h e r s a b o u t t h e ir a b i li ti e s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i ti e s b y a p p e a r i n g l a rg e r , m o r e m o -

t i va t ed , and m ore con f iden t t han t hey ac tua l l y a r e can be f a ir l y succes s fu l . In spec i e s

s u c h a s o u r s , w h e r e c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s o f o u r o w n i n s e c u r i t i e s m a y p r o v e t o b e

hand i caps i n compe t i t i ve s i t ua t i ons , s e l f -decep t i on cou ld s e rve t o he igh t en an i nd i -

v i d u a l ' s p e r c e i v e d s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e a n d s e l f - e s t e e m , a n d d u l y i m p r e s s c o m p e t i t o r s .

S t a r e k a n d K e a t i n g ( 1 9 9 1 ) e x a m i n e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s c o r e s o n t h e S D Q

a n d s u c c e s s i n a t h l e t i c c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d f o u n d t h a t s w i m m e r s w h o q u a l i f i e d f o r a

n a t i o n a l c h a m p i o n s h i p e n g a g e d i n m o r e s e l f - d e c e p t i o n t h a n s w i m m e r s w h o d i d n o t

q u a l i f y . T h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t s e l f - d e c e p t i o n i m p r o v e d m o t i v a t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e

a m o n g c o m p e t i t i v e s w i m m e r s b y r e d u c i n g s t r e s s a n d b o l s t e r i n g c o n f i d e n c e . S e l f -

d e c e p t i o n m i g h t a d d i t i o n a l l y i n c r e a s e c o n f i d e n c e b y r e p r e s s i n g o n e ' s k n o w l e d g e o f

t h e s e l f -i n t e re s t s o f a c o m p e t i t o r . I f o n e w a s c o m p l e t e l y a w a r e o f a n o t h e r ' s d e te r m i -

n a t io n t o w i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o m p e t i t io n , o n e m i g h t n e v e r h a v e t h e c o n f i d e n c e t o c o m -

p e t e a g a i n s t t h e m .

W h i l e i n m a n y c o m p e t i t i v e s i t u a t i o n s a m o n g n o n - k i n , s u c h a s t h o s e b e t w e e n

m a le r i va l s , w in n ing ha s f i t ne s s bene f i t s , i n o the r s mu tua l coo pe ra t i on r e su l t s i n a

n e t i n c r e a s e i n f i t n e s s f o r b o t h c o m p e t i t o r s . T h e i t e r a t e d P D g a m e p a r a d i g m h a s

b e e n u s e d a s a m o d e l f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f r e c i p r o c a l a lt r u is m u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s

( A x e l r o d 1 9 84 ) . I n e v e r y tr ia l o f th e g a m e , e a c h o f tw o c o m p e t i t o r s h a s t h e o p p o r t u -

n i t y to c o o p e r a t e ( C ) w i t h t h e o t h e r o r d e f e c t ( D ). T h e p a y o f f m a t r i x i s c o n s t ru c t e d

s o t h a t t h e r e tu r n s f o r e it h e r c h o i c e a r e u n e q u a l a n d d e p e n d e n t o n t h e c h o i c e m a d e

b y t h e c o m p e t i t o r . O n a n y s i n g l e t ri al , d e f e c ti o n b y a p l a y e r w h e n t h e o t h e r c o o p e r -

a t e s w i ll e a r n t h e f i rs t p l a y e r th e h i g h e s t r e w a r d ( T ) a n d c o o p e r a t i n g w h e n y o u r p a r t -

n e r d e f e c t s r e s u l ts i n y o u r r e c e i v i n g t h e l o w e s t p o s s i b l e r e t u rn ( S ). T h e p a y o f f s o c -

c u r r in g i n th e o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e i n t e rm e d i a t e , w i t h t h e p a y o f f f o r m u t u a l

c o o p e r a t i o n ( R ) b e i n g h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r m u t u a l d e f e c t i o n ( P ). U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i -

t i ons , wh e re T > R > P > S , h igh l eve l s o f de f ec t i on a r e exp ec t ed i n one - t r i a l

g a m e s . H o w e v e r , o v e r m a n y t r i a l s o r i t e r a t i o n s , w h e r e m u t u a l c o o p e r a t i o n ( R ) r e -

su i ts i n t he h ighes t f i tne s s f o r bo th pa r t i e s (R > (S + T ) /2 ) , h igh l eve l s o f coop e ra -

t io n a r e p r e d i ct e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e i t er a t e d P D i s a m o d e l o f h o w c o o p e r a t i o n m i g h t

e v o l v e i n s o c i al r e l a ti o n s h i p s w i t h n o n - k i n , w h e r e b o t h p a r t i e s h a v e a n o n g o i n g r e l a -

t i onsh ip and a r e l i ke ly t o engage i n f u tu r e i n t e r ac t i ons (Axe l rod 1980) . Mak ing e f -

f e c t i v e c h o i c e s i n s u c h a n o n g o i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p d e p e n d s n o t j u s t o n t h e o b j e c t iv e

pay o f f , bu t a l so upo n t he cha r ac t e r i s t i c s o f the p l aye r s . F r ank e t a l. ( 1993 ) hav e

s h o w n t h a t in o n e - s h o t P D s , w h e n g i v e n t i m e t o a s s e s s t h e o t h e r p l a y e r , i n d iv i d u a l s

a r e r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e a t p r e d i c ti n g w h e t h e r t h e y w i l l c o o p e r a t e o r d e f e c t . I f p e o p l e

a r e a b l e t o d e t e c t c o o p e r a t o r s t h e y m a y b e m o r e l i k e l y t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e m , t o


5/19


t he i r m u t ua l bene f i t . Conve r s e l y , Al exande r ( 1987) s ugges t ed t ha t s e l f - decep t i on

m ay en able indiv idua l s to a ppear a l t ru i s ti c through the den ia l of se l f -in te rest . Appear -

i ng l i ke a coo pe r a t o r , e s pec i a l ly one w ho i s ove r l y bene f i cen t, is one way t o e l i ci t co -

ope r a t i on in o t he r s and , pa r adox i ca l l y , t h is f o r m o f dece i t m a y und e r l i e r ec i p r oc i t y .

I n add i t i on , Nes s e and L l oyd ( 1992) s ugges t t ha t s e l f - decep t i on m ay f ac i l i t a t e

c o o p e r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e s e l f i s h t h o u g h t s a n d m o t i v e s o f

others

They s ugges t t ha t s e l ec t i on ha s r e s u l t ed i n ou r be i ng ab l e t o ove r l ook t he po t en t i a l

t r ans g r e s s i ons o f o t he r s i n con t ex t s i n wh i ch m u t ua l coope r a t i on i nc r ea s e s f i t ne s s .

F o r e x a m p l e , i n th e Tit for Tat s o l u t i on t o t he PD, whe r e payof f s f o r bo t h pa r t ne r s

a r e op t i m i zed ove r m any i t e r a t i ons , pa r t ne r s f o l l ow one ano t he r ' s m oves , r e s u l t i ng

i n c o o p e r a t io n b e i n g f o l l o w e d b y c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d d e f e c t i o n b y r e ta l ia t io n ( A x e l r o d

1980) . The f i r s t r u l e o f t he Tit for Tat s t r a t egy i s t o a l ways coope r a t e on t he f i r s t

m o v e , b u t i s n o t c l e a r h o w s u c h c o o p e r a t i o n m i g h t b e i n i t i a t e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y

wh en , i n one - t r ia l gam es , t he be s t op t i on i s t o de f ec t . Th i s cou l d o ccu r i f p l aye r s be -

gan the gam e op t i m i s t i c a l l y by a s s um i ng t he i r pa r t ne r s wi l l coope r a t e , and s e lf -

d e c e p t i o n c o u l d u n d e r l i e s u c h o p t i m i s m . B y r e m o v i n g f r o m c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s

t he v e r y r ea l pos s i b i li t y tha t t he o t he r p l aye r m i gh t de f ec t , s e l f - decep t i on m ay p r o -

m o t e coope r a t i on on t he f ir s t t u r n . We i ns t e i n ( 1980) n o t ed t ha t peop l e o f ten engag e

in

unrealistic optimism

abou t f u t u r e l if e even t s i n t ha t t hey be l i eve nega t i ve even t s

( s uch a s be i ng i nvo l ved i n a f a t a l a cc i den t , o r be i ng t r i cked by a f r i end ) a r e no t

l i ke l y t o happen t o t hem . Se l f - decep t i on m ay f ac i l i t a t e op t i m i s m i n t he f ace o f po -

t en t ia l de f ec t i o n and , i n t u rn , coo pe r a t i on .

F a m i l y m e m b e r s t y p i c a ll y e n g a g e i n e x t r e m e l y c o o p e r a t i v e i n te r a c ti o n s w i t h

one ano t he r t ha t ex t end ove r t he i r en t i r e l i ve s . I f , a s Ot t e ( 1975) s ugges t s , dece i t

a m o n g k i n m a y o c c u r a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e n e e d t o m a i n t a i n c o o p e r a t i v e r e l a t i o n -

s h ips , t hen s o m ay s e l f - decep t i on . In add i t i on t o p r om ot i ng r ec i p r oc i t y am ong non-

k i n , s e l f - decep t i on m ay be an a s s e t i n m a i n t a i n i ng ha r m on i ous f am i l y re l a t ions h i ps .

P s y c h o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m s r e d u c i n g c o n s t a n t c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n k i n m a y h a v e b e e n

s ub j ec t t o

kin selection

and t hen un de r gon e f u r t he r s e l ec t i on in o r de r t o f u lf i ll o t he r

r o l e s . W i t h i n t he nu c l ea r f am i l y , pa r en t s m ay r ep r e s s t he i r d i f f e r ences if coope r a t i ng

i n t he r a i s i ng o f o f f s p r i ng ha s m u t ua l f i t ne s s bene f i t s . I n add i t i on , s e l f - decep t i on

m ay f ac i l i t a t e a t t a chm en t by p r oduc i ng t r u s t and r educ i ng con f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t be -

t ween pa r en t s and ch i l d r en . Ch i l d r en m ay s uppr e s s t he i r own s e l f i s h i n t e r e s t s when

t hey co n f l i c t wi t h t hos e o f the i r pa r en t s, and t h is s ub s e r v i ence m ay r e s u l t i n c l o s e r

r e l a t i ons h i ps and g r ea t e r pa r en t a l i nves t m en t . Al t e r na t i ve l y , pa r en t s who a r e s e l f -

dece i ved i n t o g i v i ng ex t ended ca r e t o o f f s p r i ng wi l l have h i ghe r f i t ne s s t han t hos e

no t s e l f - dece i ved ( Locka r d 1978) . Wi t h i n s i b s h i ps and ex t ende d f am i li e s , s e lf -

decep t i on m ay f ac i l i t a t e com m una l a c t i v i t i e s s uch a s f ood co l l e c t i on and s ha r i ng ,

a n d c h i l d re a r in g . W o m e n ' s p s y c h o l o g y , in p a r ti cu l a r, m a y h a v e b e e n s h a p e d t o e n -

ab l e g r ea t e r coope r a t i on wi t h k i n o r o t he r f am i l y m e m b er s t han i s m en ' s . I n s o f a r a s

w o m e n ' s m i n i m u m i n v e s t m e n t in o f f s p r i n g is g r e a t er th a n m e n ' s , t h e ir fi tn e s s d e -

pends m o r e d i r ec t l y upon t he r e s ou r ce s and ca r e t hey can g a r ne r f o r o f fs p r i ng . I n ad -

d i t i on t o m a i n t a i n i ng a r e l a t i ons h i p wi t h an i nves t i ng m a t e , e s t ab l i s h i ng a ne t wor k

o f s o c i a l r e la t io n s b a s e d o n k i n r e c i p r o c i ty is o n e m e a n s b y w h i c h w o m e n c a n i n-

c r ea s e t he r e s ou r ce s and p a r en t a l c a r e ava i l ab l e t o t he i r o f f s p r i ng ( I rons 1983).


6/19

4 M K S u r b e y a n d J J M c N a lly

P R E D I C T IO N S T E S T E D I N T H E P R E S E N T S T U D Y

The p r e s en t s t udy was de s i gned t o exp l o r e t he r o l e o f s e l f - decep t i on i n m ed i a t i ng

m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s c h o i c e s to c o o p e r a t e o r d e f e c t w h e n p r e s e n t e d w i th h y p o t h e t i-

ca l oppor t un i t i e s t o coope r a t e wi th k i n v e r s us com pe t e f o r m a t e s . I n o r de r t o c r ea te

t he s e hypo t he t i c a l s cena r i o s , t h r ee pa i r s o f v i gne t t e s con f o r m i ng t o t he c l a s s i c PD

f o r m a t we r e p r epa r ed . Th e f i r st pa i r o f v i gne t t e s we r e s e t i n

a f a m i l y c o n t e x t

and t he

p a y o f f s f o r c o o p e r a t in g o r d e f e c t i n g i n v o l v e d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e a n d u n d e r m i n i n g o f

f am i l y r e l a t i ons h i ps , r e s pec t i ve l y . Ano t he r pa i r o f v i gne t t e s we r e s e t i n a

m a t i n g

c o n t e x t wher e t he payof f s i nvo l ved t he d i f f e r en t i a l p r obab i l i t y o f ga i n i ng exc l us i ve

acces s t o a po t en t i a l m a t e . I n t he f i na l s e t o f v i gne t t e s , t he payof f s we r e r e l a t i ve l y

m i n o r o r

neu t ra l

wi t h r e s pec t t o f it ne s s com par ed wi t h t he payof f s o f f ind i ng a m a t e

o r p r e s e r v i ng f am i l y r e l a ti ons h i ps .

Pa r t i c ipan t s w e r e i n s t r uc t ed to i m ag i ne t hey w e r e con f r on t ed wi t h t he s i tua t i on

des c r i bed i n each v i gne t t e and i nd i ca t e how t he y wou l d ac t g i ven t he cond i t i ons de -

s c r ibed t he r e i n . The r e f o r e , t h is m e t hod pe r m i t t ed t he a s s e s s m en t o f a pa r t i c i pan t 's i n -

t en t ion t o coope r a t e o r de f ec t , ra t he r t han t he i r a c t ual behav i o r . H ow eve r , i n s o f a r a s a

pe r s on ' s i n t en t i on i s a re l i ab l e p r ed i c t o r o f the i r beh av i o r ( E ag l y and C ha i ken 1993 ;

F i s h b e i n a n d A j z e n 1 9 7 5 ) - - a n i n te r r e la t io n u p o n w h i c h m o s t s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l

wo r k i s p r ed i ca t ed - - t h i s m e t hodo l og y appea r ed adequa t e f o r in i ti al t es ts o f ou r hypo t h -

e s e s. Pa r t ic i pan t s ' p r open s i t ie s t o coope r a t e o r de f ec t we r e exam i ned w i t h r e s pec t t o

w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e h i g h o r l o w s e l f- d e c e i v e rs , a s m e a s u r e d b y s c o r es o n t h e S D Q .

Bas ed on t he a s s um pt i ons ou t l i ned i n p r ev i ous s ec t i ons , t he f o l l owi ng p r ed i c -

t ions were t es ted :

1 . T he d i l em m as de s c r i bed i n the f am i l y and m a t i ng con t ex t s wi l l y i e l d s ex d i f f e r -

ences i n coope r a t i on , wi t h m en i nd i ca t ing t hey w ou l d be l e s s coop e r a t i ve t han

w o m e n o v e r a ll .

2 . C oop e r a t i on wi l l be con t ex t dependen t , wi t h t he h ighes t l eve l s exp ec t ed i n the

f am i l y con t ex t and t he l ow es t when acqu i r i ng a po t en t i a l m a t e i s at s take .

3 . I n gene r a l , pa r t i c ipan t s w i t h h igh l eve l s o f s e lf - decep t i on wi ll choos e m o r e coop-

e r a t i ve r e s pons e s t han pa r t i c ipan t s wi t h l ow s co r e s on t he SDQ .

4 . T h e g r e a t e s t d if f e r e n c e i n th e l e v e l o f c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n i s

e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r i n t h e m a t i n g c o n t e x t , w i t h m e n i n d i c a t i n g l o w e r l e v e l s o f

c o o p e r a t i o n a n d h i g h e r l e v e ls o f d e f e c t i o n th a n w o m e n .

5 . In the mat ing con text , m en scor ing h ighly in se l f -decept ion wi ll indica te less co oper -

a t ion t han m en wi t h l ow SD Q s co re s , whe r ea s wom en wi t h h i gh l eve ls o f s e lf - decep -

t i on wi l l ind i ca te m or e coo pe r a t i on than w om en wi t h l ow l eve l s o f s e l f -decep t ion .

M E T H O D S

Part i c ipants

O n e h u n d r e d f i ft y u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e nt s a t M o u n t A l li s o n U n i v e r s it y , N e w B r u n s -

w i c k , C a n a d a ( 8 0 w o m e n a n d 7 0 m e n ) , w i t h a m e a n a g e o f 1 9 . 4 0 y e a r s ( 1 8 . 9 8 f o r


7/19

Se lf Deception as a M edia tor o f Cooperat ion 4 2 3

w o m e n a n d 1 9 . 8 8 f o r m e n ) a n d a r a n g e o f 1 7 - 2 6 y e a r s , p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y .

A l l p a r ti c i p a n t s i n d ic a t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e h e t e r o s e x u a l , a n d m o s t w e r e C a u c a s i a n a n d

f r o m m i d d l e - c la s s s o c i o e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s .

M a t e r i a l s

I n a d d i ti o n t o o b t a i n i n g b a s i c d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n , p a r t ic i p a n t s w e r e a d m i n i s -

t e r e d q u e s t i o n n a i re m a t e r i a l s i n c lu d i n g t h e f o l lo w i n g m e a s u r e s :

Sel f -Decep t ion Ques t ionna i re (Sac ke im a nd G ur 1978). P a r t i c i p a n t s c o m p l e t e d

t h e S D Q b e f o r e b e i n g p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e P D v i g n e t t e s . F i f t e e n f i l l e r i t e m s w e r e

i n t e r s p e rs e d w i t h t h e o r i g in a l i t e m s o f th e S D Q , a n d p a r t i c i p a n ts w e r e a s k e d t o i nd i -

c a t e t h e p e r s o n a l r e l e v a n c e o f e a c h i t e m u s i n g a 7 - p o i n t L i k e r t s c a le , w i t h t h e l o w e r

end o f t he s ca l e l abe l ed N ever and t he o the r l abe l ed Always. F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a n a l -

y s i s and i n t e rp r e t a t i on , s co re s we re r eve r sed so t ha t h ighe r s co re s s i gn i f i ed h ighe r

l e v e l s o f s e l f- d e c e p t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o S a c k e i m a n d G u r ' s m e t h o d s , p a r t i c ip a n t s w i t h

a v e r a g e s c o r e s o v e r 5 w o u l d b e c l a s s i f i e d a s h i g h s e l f - d e c e i v e r s . H o w e v e r , u s i n g

th i s cu to f f i n a s am p le o f t he s i z e u t il i z ed i n the p r e sen t s t udy wo u ld ha ve r e su l t ed i n

e x t r e m e l y u n b a l a n c e d g r o u p s o f l o w a n d h i g h - d e c e i v e r s , w i t h v e r y f e w i n d i v i d u a ls

p l a c e d i n t h e l a t t e r g r o u p . T h e r e f o r e , p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a v e r a g e s c o r e s o n t h e 2 0 S D Q

i t ems we re u t i l i z ed t o d iv ide ma le and f ema le pa r t i c i pan t s i n to h igh and l ow se l f -

d e c e p t i o n g r o u p s b y u s i n g a m e d i a n s p li t.

Vignet te vers ions o f t he Pr i soner s Di l em ma gam e.

Using a 6 -po in t L ike r t s ca l e ,

e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t r e s p o n d e d t o e i g h t v i g n e t t e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h r e e r a n d o m o r d e r s b y

i m a g i n i n g t h e y w e r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e s i t u a ti o n s d e s c r i b e d . T h r e e p a i rs o f v i g n e t t e s

w e r e d e s i g n e d , c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e f o r m a t o f i t e r a t e d P D s , w i t h e a c h p a i r o f d i l e m -

m as s e t in one o f t h r ee con t ex t s : a f am i ly con t ex t , a m a t i ng con t ex t , and a neu t ra l

c o n t e x t . A d d i t i o n a l l y , o n e p a i r o f f i ll e r o r p s e u d o - P D v i g n e t te s w e r e i n c l u d e d as

d i s t rac t e r i tems . Ex cep t f o r t he f i ll e r v igne tt e s , e ach v igne t t e was ca r e fu l l y cons t ruc ted

s o t h a t a c o m p l e t e p a y o f f m a t r i x , c o n s is t e n t w i t h t h a t o f th e c l a s s ic P D m a t r i x , w a s

ou t l i ned fo r t he pa r t i c i pan t . Af t e r r e ad ing each v igne t t e , pa r t i c i pan t s i nd i ca t ed

w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d c o o p e r a t e o r d e f e c t u s i n g t h e L i k e r t s c a l e , w i t h a s c o r e o f 1

i n d i c a ti n g c o m p l e t e d e f e c t i o n a n d s c o r e o f 6 i n d ic a t in g m a x i m u m c o o p e r a t io n .

P a y o f f m a t ri c es in the fam ily context were cons t ruc t ed i n such a way a s t o hy -

p o t h e t i c a ll y a l l o w f o r c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o r d e f e c t io n a g a i n s t a f a m i l y m e m b e r ( a s i b -

l i ng ) . I n t he se v igne t t e s mu tua l coope ra t i on wou ld s t r eng then t r u s t and t he r e l a t i on -

s h i p b e t w e e n s i b l i n g s a n d i n c r e a s e p a r e n t a l a p p r o v a l , w h e r e a s m u t u a l d e f e c t i o n

w o u l d h a v e t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e ct . I f o n e s i b li n g d e f e c t e d w h i l e t h e o t h e r c o o p e r a t e d ,

t h e d e f e c t i n g s i b l i n g c o u l d r e c e i v e a p a y o f f g r e a t e r th a n t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m u t u a l

coope ra t i on , wh i l e t he o the r one wou ld be p l aced i n t he l e a s t de s i r ab l e r o l e a s

suck e r . V ign e t t e s i n t he

mat ing context

were cons t ruc t ed so t ha t a dec i s i on t o co -

o p e r a t e o r d e f e c t w i t h a n o t h e r p l a y e r a l t er e d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e n g a g i n g i n a re l a -

t i onsh ip w i th an a t t r a c t i ve pe r son o f t he opp os i t e s ex . I n t he se v igne t t e s , mu tua l co -

o p e r a t i o n e n s u r e d e a c h p l a y e r a n e q u i v a l e n t c h a n c e o f i n it ia t in g a r e la t i o n sh i p ,


8/19

42 4 M .K. Surbey and J. J . M cNally

w h e r e a s d e f e c t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f o n e c o m p e t i t o r i n c r e a s e d t h e i r o d d s o f g a i n in g e x -

c l u s i v e a c c e s s t o a p o t e n t i a l m a t e . M u t u a l d e f e c t i o n s u b s t a n t i a ll y r e d u c e d t h e p r o b a -

b i l i t y o f e i t h e r p l ay e r g a i n i n g ac ce s s t o a p o t en t i a l m a t e . I n t h e se v i g n e t t e s , a s i n

t h o s e s e t i n a n e u t r a l c o n t e x t , c o m p e t i t o r s w e r e n o n - k i n w i t h w h o m t h e p a r t i c i p a n t

w o u l d i n t e r a c t i n th e f u t u re . P a y o f f m a t r i c e s i n t h e neutral context w e r e c o n s t r u c te d

s o t ha t th e r e w a r d f o r d e f e c ti o n o r c o o p e r a t i o n w a s i n c o n s eq u e n t ia l c o m p a r e d w i th

o b t a i n i n g a m a t e o r p r e s e r v i n g a m i c a b l e f a m i l y r e l at io n s . F o r e x a m p l e , p a y o f f s i n

o n e v i g n e t t e i n th i s c a t e g o r y i n v o l v e d s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e n u m b e r o f c o o k i e s

p a r t i c i p a n t s m i g h t i n g e s t c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r c o m p e t i t o r . T h e s e v i g n e t t e s w e r e i n -

c l u d e d f o r c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s a n d w e r e e x p e c t e d t o s e rv e a s a n c h o r i te m s , w i t h

r e s p o n s e s o n t h e m e x p e c t e d t o f a l l b e t w e e n t h o s e i n t h e o t h e r t w o c o n t e x t s . S a m p l e

v i g n e t t e s f r o m e a c h o f t h e th r e e c o n t e x t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e A p p e n d i x .

Bem Sex Role Inventory BSRI) Bem 1974). T h i s m e a s u r e w a s i n c l u d e d t o a s s e s s

t h e r o l e o f s o c i a l i z e d g e n d e r r o l e s a n d s o c i a l d e s ir a b i l it y o n l e v e l s o f c o o p e r a t i o n .

T h e B S R I c o n ta i n s M a s c u l i n it y ( B S R I - M ) a n d F e m i n i n i ty ( B S R I - F ) s u b s c a l e s a n d a

S o c i a l D e s i r a b i l i t y ( B S R I - S D ) s u b s c a l e t h a t i s n e u t r a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o g e n d e r . E a c h

su b sc a l e co n s i s t s o f 2 0 d e sc r i p t i v e i t em s ( e .g . , ag g re s s i v e , ch ee r fu l , t h ea t r i c a l ,

e t c. ), a l l o f w h i c h a r e p r e s e n t e d r a n d o m l y , a n d p a r t i c ip a n t s a r e a s k e d t o r a te , u s i n g a

7 - p o i n t L i k e r t s c a l e , h o w w e l l e a c h d e s c r i p t i o n a p p l ie s t o t h e m .

R E S U L T S

L e v e l o f S e l f D e c e p t i o n

T h e a v e r a g e s c o r e o n a l l 2 0 it e m s o f t h e S D Q w a s c a l c u l a t e d f o r e a c h p a r t i c ip a n t

( M = 4 . 7 3 , Mdn = 4 . 7 5 , SD = . 6 4 ). M en (M = 4 . 7 2 , Mdn = 4 . 7 8 , SD = . 6 1 ) an d

w o m e n (M = 4 . 7 4 , Mdn = 4 .8 , SD = . 6 6 ) d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c an t l y i n s co re s o n

t h e S D Q , F ( 1 , 1 4 8 ) = . 05 3 , MSE = .409 , ns. M e d i a n s p l i t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n o r d e r

t o e v e n l y p la c e m e n a n d w o m e n i n to g r o u p s o f l o w a n d h i g h s e lf - d e ce i v e rs .

I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s B e t w e e n V i g n e t t e I t e m s

T h e a v e r a g e l e v e ls o f c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e f a m i l y c o n t e x t ( M = 5 . 2 6 , SD = .78) , t he

m a t i n g c o n t e x t ( M = 4 . 3 4 , SD = 1 . 1 9 ), an d t h e n eu t r a l co n t e x t (M - - 4 . 8 0 , SD =

1 .1 7 ) w e r e c a l c u l a t e d . R e s p o n s e s t o b o t h v i g n e t t e s i n e a c h o f th e t h r e e c o n t e x t s w e r e

p o s i t i v e l y a n d s i g n i fi c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d ( F a m i l y : r ( 1 4 8 ) = . 27 , p < . 0 01 , M a t i n g :

r (1 4 8 ) = . 2 8 , p < . 0 01 ; N eu t r a l : r (1 4 8 ) = . 3 9 , p < . 0 0 0 1 ) , a l t h o u g h s i g n i f i c an t

i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w e r e d e t e c t e d b e t w e e n s o m e n o n p a i r e d i t e m s a s w e l l . H o w e v e r , a

P r in c i p al C o m p o n e n t F a c t o r A n a l y s i s ( o r t h o g o n a l t r a n sf o r m a t io n , v a r i m a x r o ta t io n )

i n d i c a t e d t h a t r e s p o n s e s t o th e t w o v i g n e t t e s p r e p a r e d f o r e a c h c o n t e x t l o a d e d p r i -

m a r i l y o n t o o n e o f t h r e e s e p a r a t e f a c t o r s, s y n o n y m o u s w i th t h e th r e e d i f f e r e n t c o n -

t e x ts ( T a b l e 1 ). T h e r e f o r e , i n c o n s t r u c t i n g e a c h v i g n e t t e p a i r w e w e r e s u c c e s s f u l i n

c r e a t i n g a c o m m o n a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e m , w h i c h w e i n f e r t o b e a c o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r . I n

l ig h t o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e rc o r r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e r e s u l ts o f t h e f a c t o r


9/19

Self -Decept ion as a M ediator of Cooperat ion 4 25

T a b l e 1 L o a d i n g s o n O r t h o g o n a l F a c t o r s f o r R e s p o n s e s t o t h e T w o V i g n e t t e s P r e p a r e d f o r

E a c h C o n t e x t

V i g n e t t e s F a c t o r I F a c t o r 2 F a c t o r 3

F a m i l y c o n t e x t

L e a v e s . 0 3 . 6 7 * . 3 7

C l e a n s u p . 0 9 . 8 5* - . 0 7

M a t i n g c o n t e x t

L i b r a r y . 7 6 * . 2 7 . 0 8

T r i p . 8 2 * . I 1 . 1 3

N e u t r a l c o n t e x t

B a k i n g . 0 4 - . 0 1 . 8 4 *

T i d y . 2 1 . 2 0 . 7 7 *

Note Vigne t t e s have been a s s igned shor t ened nam es ind ica t ive o f the scena r ios desc r ibed the re in .

* ind ica te s i tems loaded p redom inan t ly on the f ac to r .

a n a l y s i s , th e a v e r a g e r e s p o n s e t o e a c h p a i r o f v i g n e t t e s w a s u t i l i z e d a s a m e a s u r e o f

c o o p e r a t i o n , w i t h h i g h s c o r e s s i g n i f y i n g a h ig h l e v e l o f c o o p e r a t i o n .

D i m e n s i o n s o f M a s c u l i n i t y F e m i n i n i t y a n d S o c i a l D e s i r a b i l i t y

T h e s c o r in g p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e M a s c u l i n i ty , F e m i n i n i t y , a n d S o c i a l D e s i r a b i l i ty s u b -

s c a l e s a re o u t l i n e d b y B e m ( 1 9 7 4 ). O v e r a l l , 1 0 c a s e s w e r e d e l e t e d b e c a u s e o f

i m p r o p e r l y c o m p l e t e d q u e s t i o n n a ir e s . T h e a v e r a g e B S R I - M s c o re fo r m e n ( M =

5 . 0 9 , M d n = 5 .0 0 S D = .7 1 ) w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f th e w o m e n ( M =

4 . 6 0 , M d n = 4 . 6 0 , S D = . 6 5 ), t( 1 3 8 ) = 4 . 2 8 , p < . 0 0 0 1 . T h e a v e r a g e s c o r e o n t h e

B S R I - F fo r w o m e n ( M = 4 . 89 , M d n = 4 . 8 5 , S D = . 56 ) w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r

t h a n th a t f o r m e n ( M = 4 . 5 0 , M d n = 4 . 5 0 , S D = . 4 8 ) , t ( 1 3 8 ) = 4 . 4 4 , p < . 0 0 0 1 .

A l s o , t h e a v e r a g e B S R I - S D s c o r e f o r w o m e n ( M = 5 .1 0 , M d n = 5 . 0 5 , S D = .40)

w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e m e n ( M = 4 . 8 4 , M d n = 4 . 8 5 , S D = .41) ,

t (1 3 8 ) = 3 . 7 6 , p < . 0 0 03 . A r a t io o f B S R I - M s c o r e s to B S R I - F s c o re s ( B S R I - M / F )

( M = 1 . 0 5 , M d n = 1 .02 , S D = . 2 1) w a s u s e d i n c e r t a i n a n a l y s e s a s a c o m p o s i t e

m e a s u r e o f g e n d e r r o l e s te r e o t y p e s . S c o r e s o n th e B S R I - M / F h i g h e r t h a n 1 .0 in d i -

c a t e d a p r i m a r i l y m a s c u l i n e s e x - r o l e i d e n t i ty , w h i l e s c o r e s o f le s s th a n 1 .0 o n t h e

B e r n M / F r a t i o w e r e r e p r e s e n t a ti v e o f f e m i n i n e s e x - r o l e i d e n ti ty . A B S R I - M / F s c o re

e q u a l t o 1 . 0 r e p r e s e n t e d a n a n d r o g y n o u s s c o r e a n d w a s e x c l u d e d fr o m t h e a n a l y s e s .

T h e B S R I - S D a n d B S R I - M / F s c o r e s w e r e s u b j e c t e d to a m e d i a n s p l i t i n o r d e r to

p l a c e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t o g r o u p s r e c e i v i n g l o w o r h i g h s c o r e s o n t h e s e m e a s u r e s .

I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s B e t w e e n C o n t i n u o u s V a r i a b l e s

A n i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x o f a l l c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e s is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . A s i g -

n i fi c a n t p o s it i v e c o r r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n s c o r es o n t h e S D Q a n d s c o r e s o n t h e B S R I - S D

w a s o b t a i n e d , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t h i g h l e v e l s o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h

l e v e l s o f s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i ty . T h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f T u r v e y a n d

S a l o v e y ( 1 9 9 3 ) , w h o r e p o r t e d a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s c o r e s o n t h e S D Q a n d

a n o t h e r m e a s u r e o f s o c i a l d e s ir a b i l i t y ( T h e B a l a n c e d I n v e n t o r y o f D e s i r e d R e s p o n d -


10/19

4 2 6 M . K . S u r b e y a n d J. J . M c N a l l y

Table 2. Intercorrelations Between Continuous Varia bles (n = 140-150)

Average score for vignette pairs

in each context

SDQ BSRI-SD BSRI-M/F Family Mating Neutral

SDQ

BSRI-SD .38*** --

BSRI-MF .09 -.2 1 * --

Fami ly .06 .20* - .02 - -

Mat ing .20* .34*** .05 .21 * - -

Neutral .07 .17 - . 14 .27** .27***

Note

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .0001.

i ng ). Al s o , h i gh s co r e s on the SD Q we r e a s s oc i a t ed wi t h h i gh l eve l s o f coope r a t i on

i n t he m a t i ng con t ex t . I n a l l t h r ee con t ex t s , h i gh l eve l s o f coo pe r a t i on w e r e s i gn i fi -

can t l y a s s o c i a t ed wi t h h i gh l eve l s o f s oc i a l de s i rab i l it y .

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e

A s s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 3 a t h r e e - f a c to r A N O V A c o n d u c t e d o n r e s p o n s e s f r o m a ll

t h r ee con t ex t s r evea l ed a s i gn i f i c an t m a i n e f f ec t f o r s ex , wi t h m en i nd i ca t ing s i gn i f -

i c an t l y l e s s coope r a t i on t han wom en ac r os s a l l con t ex t s ( F i gu r e 1 ) . Al s o , a s p r e -

d i c t ed , the r e w as a s i gn i f i c an t m a i n e f f ec t o f con t ex t wi t h pa r t i c i pan t s r epo r t i ng t hey

wou l d coope r a t e m os t i n t he f am i l y con t ex t , t he l e a s t i n t he m a t i ng con t ex t , and a t

an i n t e r m ed i a t e l eve l in t he neu t r a l con t ex t ( F i gu r e 2 ). The m a i n e f f ec t o f l eve l o f

s e l f - decep t i on app r oached s i gn i f i c ance and r evea l ed a t endency f o r h i gh s e l f -

d e c e i v e r s t o c h o o s e t h e m o r e c o o p e r a t i v e r e s p o n s e s a c r o s s a ll t h r e e c o n te x t s . H o w -

eve r , becaus e w e had p r e d i c t ed t ha t s e l f -decep t i on wo u l d be u s ed d i f f e r en t i a ll y by

m a l e s and f em a l e s i n t he f am i l y and m a t i ng con t ex t s bu t no t i n t he neu t r a l con t ex t ,

w e e x a m i n e d t h e r e su l ts o f a n a n a l y si s o f v a r ia n c e ( A N O V A ) i n v o l v i n g r e s p o n s e s

f r om t he f am i l y and m a t i ng con t ex t s on l y ( Tab l e 4 ) . Thes e r evea l ed a s i gn i f i c an t

m a i n e f f ec t o f s e l f - decep t i on , and t he m ar g i na l l y s i gn i f ic an t i n te r ac t i on be t w een s ex

and s e l f - decep t i on s ugges t ed t ha t t he e f f ec t s o f s e l f - decep t i on r e s u l t ed p r i m ar i l y

f r o m t h e w o m e n ' s s c o r es ( F i g u r e 3 ). P a i r w i s e c o m p a r i s o n s o n r e s u lt s f r o m t h e tw o

r e l e v a n t c o n t e x t s r e v e a l e d t h a t w o m e n w h o w e r e l o w s e l f - d e c e i v e r s ( M = 4 . 7 4 ,

Table 3. Analysis of Variance Results Involving Three C ontexts Family, Mating, Neutral)

Source of variation f Sum of squares Mean square F p

Sex 1 8.02 8.02 4.97 < .02 (one- tailed)

SDQ 1 3.56 3.56 2.21 < .07 (one- tailed)

Sex x SDQ 1 .39 .39 .24 n s

Error (between- subjects) 146 235.59 1.61

Contex t 2 63.71 31.85 36.87 < .0001 (one- tailed)

Sex x Cont ext 2 .39 .19 .22 n s

SDQ x Con tex t 2 2.59 1.29 1.50 n s

Sex x SDQ x Con text 2 1.46 .73 .85

n s

Error (with in subjects) 292 252.26 .86

Total 449


11/19


6

. 5

~0 5.0

~

t ~

~. 4 .5

4 .0

0

rO

3.5

0 310'

~ ' 2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

M a l e

e m a l e

S e x o f P a r t ic ip a n t

Figure 1. Mea n (+ SE) l eve l o f coopera t ion tb r male and female par t i c ipan t s acros s a l l

contexts .

S D

= 1 .1 1 ) w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s c o o p e r a t i v e t h an h i g h s e l f - d e c e i v e r s ( M = 5 . 0 9 ,

S D

= . 9 9 ), t (7 9 ) = 4 . 0 8 , p < . 0 5. I n c o n t r a s t , m e n d i d n o t d i f f e r i n l e v e l o f c o o p e r a -

t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o l e v e l o f s e l f -d e c e p t i o n (L o w : M = 4 . 6 4 ,

S D

= 1 . 2; H i g h : M =

4 . 7 1 ,

S D

= 1 .04) t (79 ) = . 187 ,

n s .

T h e t w o - w a y i n t e ra c t i o n s b e t w e e n c o n t e x t a n d s e x o f p a r ti c i p a n t a n d c o n t e x t

a n d l e v e l o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n ( h i g h o r l o w ) w e r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a c c o r d i n g t o e i t h e r

A N O V A . C o n t r a r y t o o u r f if th p r e d i c ti o n , th e t h r e e - w a y i n t e ra c t io n a m o n g c o n t e x t,

l e v e l o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n , a n d s e x o f p a r t i c i p a n t w a s n o t s i g n i f ic a n t . M e n w i t h h i g h

s c o r e s i n s e l f - d e c e p t i o n w e r e n o t l e s s c o o p e r a t i v e i n th e m a t i n g c o n t e x t t h a n m e n

w i th l o w s c o re s . W o m e n c l a s s e d a s h i g h s e l f - d e c e i v e rs d i d c o o p e r a t e m o r e t h a n

w o m e n w h o w e r e l o w i n s e l f - d e c e p t i o n i n t h is c o n t e x t ( s e e a b o v e ) , b u t t h e o v e r a l l

i n t e r a c t i o n w a s n o t s t a t i s ti c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( F i g u r e 4 ) .

F i n a l l y , a f iv e - f a c t o r A N O V A w a s p e r f o r m e d o n d a t a f ro m a l l t h re e c o n t ex t s ,

i n c l u d i n g B S R I - S D , a n d B S R I - M / F a s n e w f a c to r s, i n o r d e r t o a s se s s th e e f f e ct s o f

s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y a n d g e n d e r r o l e s t e r e o t y p e s o n t h e r e su l t s. N e i t h e r t h e m a i n e f f e c t

o f B S R I - S D , F ( I , 1 2 1 ) = 1 .2 8 ,

n s

o r o f t h e B S R I - M / F , F ( 1 , 1 2 1 ) = . 01 ,

n s

w e r e

s i g n i f i c a n t . W h e n t h e s e t w o f a c t o r s w e r e a d d e d i n t o t h e m o d e l , t h e m a i n e f f e c t s o f

s e x o f p a r t i c i p a n t , F ( 1 , 1 2 1 ) = 3 . 0 8 , p < . 0 4 ( o n e - t a i l e d ) , a n d c o n t e x t , F ( 2 , 2 4 2 ) =


12/19

4 2 8 M K S u r b ey a n d J J M c N a il y

0

0

D

Q;

V V

Fam ily M ating Neutral

ontexts

Figure 2. M ean (+ SE) level of cooperation in response to Priso ner's Dilem m a vignettes set

in family, mating, and neutral contexts.

13 .58 , p < . 0001 , r ema ined s i gn i f i c an t , bu t the ma in e f f e c t o f s e l f -decep t i on wa s r e -

d u c e d t o a t r en d , F ( 1 , 1 2 1 ) = 1 . 1 9 , p < . 1 4 ( o n e - ta i le d ) .

D I S C U S S I O N

A l t h o u g h s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r s i n P D g a m e s h a v e n o t b e e n r e p o r t e d

c o n s i s t e n t l y n o r b e e n c o n s i s t e n t i n d i r e c t i o n ( H a r t m a n 1 9 8 0 ) , i n t h i s s t u d y m e n

r e p o r t e d l o w e r l e v e l s o f i n t e n d e d c o o p e r a t i o n t h a n w o m e n a c r o s s a l l c o n d i t i o n s .

M o r e o v e r , t h i s b i o l o g i c a l s e x d i f f e r e n c e c o u l d n o t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r i n t e r m s o f

s o c i a l i z e d g e n d e r r o l e s a s d e f i n e d b y t h e B S R I . I n a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f s t u d ie s

u s i n g P D g a m e s , t h e p a y o f f s a r e p u r e l y e c o n o m i c , w i t h o u t a s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l c o n -

t e x t. I f s o c ia l c o n t e x t s a r e d i f fe r e n t i a ll y m o t i v a t i n g t o m e n a n d w o m e n , t h e n P D

g a m e s n o t s e t in s p e c i f i c s o c i a l c o n t e x t s w o u l d n o t b e e x p e c t e d t o e l i c it s e x d i f f e r-

e n c e s . T h e p a r t i c u la r s o c i a l s i t u a ti o n s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e v i g n e t t e s u n i q u e l y d e s i g n e d

f o r th i s s t u d y a p p e a r t o h a v e d i f f e r en t ia l ly t a p p e d i n to m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s p r o p e n s i -

t ie s f o r c o o p e r a t i o n v e r s u s d e f e c t io n .


13/19

S e l f - D e c e p t i o n a s a M e d i a t o r o f C o o p e r a t i o n 4 9

T a b l e 4 . A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e R e s u lt s I n v o l v i n g T w o C o n t ex t s F a m i l y , M a t i n g )

Source of variat ion f Sum of s quar es M e an s quar e F p

S ex 1 4 .32 4 .32 3 .73 < .03 one-tailed)

S D Q 1 3 .33 3 .33 2 .87 < .05

one-tailed)

Sex X SD Q 1 1.31 1.31 1.13 s

Error between-subjects )

146 169.13 1.16

Context

1 63 .70 63 .70 77 .0 < .0001

one-tailed)

S ex X Co nt ex t 1 . 22 .22 .27

s

S D Q C o n t e x t 1 2 . 3 4 2 . 3 4 2 . 8 4 < . 0 9

S e x x S D Q x C o n t e x t 1 . 2 6 . 2 6 .3 1

s

E r r o r

within subjects)

146 120 .79 .83

Total

2 9 9

A s p r e d i c t e d , p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o i n d i c a t e t h e y w o u l d c o o p e r a t e

w i t h k i n i n t h e f a m i l y c o n t e x t ) t h a n w i t h u n r e l a te d i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e m a t i n g or

n e u t r al c o n t e x t s ) . T h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t c o o p e r a t i v e b e h a v i o r s m a y

h a v e a r is e n t h r o u g h k i n s e l e c t i o n a n d t h e g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t m a n y c o o p e r a t i v e

a n d a l t r u i s t i c b e h a v i o r s s e e n i n n a t u r e o c c u r b e t w e e n c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s

K r e b s a n d D a v i e s 1 9 9 2 ) . O n e c o u l d , h o w e v e r , a tt rib u t e t h e r e s u l t s t o s t ro n g s o c i a l

F i g u re 3 . T w o - w a y i n t er a c ti o n b e t w e e n s e x o f p a r ti ci p a n t a n d l e v e l o f s e lf - d e c e p t i o n i n t h e

f a m i l y a n d m a t i n g c o n t ex t s .

5.3

5.2

5.1

0

5 0

o 4.9

0

U

~ 4.8

o

4.7

4.6

4 . 5

4.4

0.0

- - ~ - - W o m e n

M e n

D ~

L o w ni h

L e v e l o f S e l f d e c e p t i o n


14/19

4 30 M .K. Surbey and J . J . McNal ly

6.0

5 .5

5 . 0

o

4 . 5

4.0

0.0 ,

- = 4 1 -- W o m e n L o w s e l f - d e c e i v e r s

= = 4 3- = W o m e n H i g h s e l f - d e c e i v e r s

~- M e n L o w s e l f - d e c e i v e r s

o , ~ , . = - = ' o = - - M e n H i g h s e lf - d e c e i v e r s

Figure 4.

context.

Family Mating Neutral

ontexts

Three-way interaction among sex of participant, level of self-deception, and

pr e s s u r e s f o r coop e r a t i ng wi t h k i n , a l t hough cu l t u r a l p r oh i b i t i ons aga i ns t t he f avo r -

i ng o f r e la t i ve s a r e a l s o l i ke l y to ex i s t and w ou l d r e s u l t i n f i nd i ngs opp os i t e t o t hos e

r epo r t ed . I n any ca s e , s i gn i f i c an t d i f f e r ence s i n l eve l s o f coo pe r a t i on be t w een t he

d i f f e r en t con t ex t s we r e no t e l i m i na t ed b y t he ad d i t ion o f s oc i a l de s i r ab i li t y s co r e s to

t he s t a t is t ic a l ana l ys is . T he r e f o r e , pa r t i c i pan t s ' cho i ce s t o c oop e r a t e o r de f ec t i n t he

d i f f e r en t con t ex t s d i d no t appea r t o be r e l a t ed t o t he i r t endenc i e s t o p r e s en t t hem -

s e l ve s i n a s o c i a l l y accep t ab l e f a s h i on .

W hi l e t e s t i ng t he f i r s t t wo p r ed i c t i ons , t ha t t he s ex o f t he pa r t i c i pan t and k i n -

s h i p wou l d be i m por t an t f a c t o r s in coop e r a t i on , was a un i qu e con t r i bu t i on o f t h is

s t udy , the u s e o f t he PD v i gne t t e s was an o r i g i na l and e f f ec t i ve m e t hodo l ogy . M or e -

ove r , t h is m e t ho do l o gy r e s u l ted i n t he nove l f i nd i ng t ha t pa r t i c ipan t s w i t h h igh l ev -

e l s o f s e l f - decep t i on we r e gene r a l l y m or e coope r a t i ve t han l ow s e l f - dece i ve r s .

Whi l e no t m ax i m a l l y r obus t , t h i s r e s u l t l ends s om e s uppor t t o t he s ugges t i on o f

N e s s e a n d L l o y d ( 1 9 9 2 ) t h a t s e l f- d e c e p t io n m a y h a v e e v o l v e d in h u m a n s t o f a c i li -

t a t e s t ra t eg i e s tha t r equ i r e s ho r t - te r m s ac r i f ic e f o r t he s ake o f m a i n t a i n i ng l ong - t e r m

r e l a t ions h i ps by co ncea l i ng i m p u l s e s f o r chea t i ng and agg r e s s i on . I n o r de r to coop -

e r a t e and s t r eng t hen r e l a t ions w i t h s i b li ngs , pa r en ts , and un r e l a t ed c l a s s m a t e s , h i gh

s e l f - dece i ve r s m ay ha ve r ep r e s s ed t he s e l f i s h m o t i ve s o f bo t h t hem s e l ves and o t he r s .


15/19


T h a t s c o r e s o n t h e S D Q r e f le c t a n u n d e r l y in g , c o n s i s t e n t p e r s o n a li t y t r i t w a s

a n i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n o n w h i c h t h i s s t u d y w a s b a s e d . H o w e v e r , s e l f - d e c e p t i o n

c o u l d a l s o v a r y a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d m a y b e a f a c u l t a t i v e m e c h a n i s m .

I n d i v i d u a l s m a y b e p r e d i s p o s e d t o w a r d l o w o r h i g h l e v e l s o f s e l f - d e c e p ti o n , b u t s it -

u a t io n a l f a c t o r s m a y f u r t h e r m o d i f y s c o r e s o n t h e S D Q i n th e s h o r t - t e r m a n d , h e n c e ,

l e v el o f c o o p e r a ti o n , F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c o n d u c t i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y, S D Q s c o r e s

were cons ide r ed a t r a i t measu re and co l l e c t ed p r i o r t o pa r t i c i pan t s choos ing a r e -

s p o n s e f o r e a c h o f t h e P D s c e n a r io s . I t m i g h t b e f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i v e t o p r e s e n t t he

S D Q f o l l o w i n g t h e e x p o s u r e o f p a r ti c i p a n ts t o th e v i g n e t t e s t o d e t e rm i n e i f p a r t ic u -

l a r s it ua t i ons a l t e r l eve l s o f s e l f -decep t i on . I f s e l f -decep t i on l eve l s we re fou nd t o

v a r y a s a f u n c t io n o f t h e c o n t e x t, t h is w o u l d p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e f o r a fa c u l t a ti v e c o m -

ponen t .

B e c a u s e s c o r e s o n th e S D Q a n d t h e B S R I - S D w e r e s i g n if i c a n tl y c o r r e l a te d a n d

the ma in e f f ec t o f s e l f -decep t i on was r educed w i th t he add i t i on o f soc i a l de s i r ab i l i t y

sco re s i n to t he s t a t i s t i c a l mode l , one cou ld a rgue t ha t pa r t i c i pan t s had engaged no t

i n s e l f -decep t i on , bu t i n o the r -decep t i on , o r consc ious a t t emp t s t o r ep r e sen t onese l f

i n a s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e m a n n e r , w h e n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e v i g n e t t e s . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e

g a i n s s o m e s u p p o r t f r o m t h e f in d i n g s o f T u r v e y a n d S a l o v e y ( 1 9 9 3 ) o f s ig n i f ic a n t

r e l a t i onsh ips be tw een va r ious mea su re s o f soc ia l de s i r ab i l i ty and s e l f -decep t i on .

H o w e v e r , t h e s e a u t h o r s a l s o r e p o r te d s i g n i f i c a n t in t e r c o rr e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n m e a s u r e s

o f s e l l - d e c e p t i o n a n d r e p r e s s io n . I f s e l f- d e c e p t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r in c o n j u n c -

t i on w i th decep t i on , t hen we migh t expec t s e l f -decep t i on s co re s t o be r e l a t ed t o bo th

se l f -p r e sen t a t i on and soc i a l decep t i on , i n add i t i on t o unconsc ious p roces se s r ende r -

i n g u n a c c e p t a b l e t h o u g h t s ( s u c h a s d e c e i t ) i n a c c e s s i b l e . P r e s u m a b l y , S D Q s c o r e s

s h o u ld b e a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y a c c o u n t e d f o r b y th e c o m b i n e d m e a s u r e s o f o th e r -

dece i t o r s e l l - p r e sen t a t i on , and r ep re s s ion . The f ac t t ha t t he e f f ec t s o f SDQ sco re s

h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o o v e r l a p w i t h r e p r e s s i o n a n d s o c i al d e s i r a b il i ty m a y a t t e st t o th e

S D Q ' s a b i li t y to m e a s u r e s e l f - d e c e p t i o n as i t i s c l a s s ic a l l y d e fi n e d : a s a m o t i v a t e d

psycho log i ca l a c t , sub j ec t t o awarenes s , whe re con t r ad i c to ry be l i e f s a r e he ld a t d i f -

f e r e n t l e v e ls o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( G u r a n d S a c k e i m 1 97 9).

Con t r a ry t o t he p r ed i c t i on t ha t t he g r ea t e s t d i f f e r ence i n l eve l o f coope ra t i on

b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n w o u l d o c c u r i n t h e m a t i n g c o n t e x t ( w i t h m e n b e i n g l e s s

c o o p e r a t i v e th a n w o m e n ) , t h e i n t e ra c t io n b e t w e e n c o n t e x t a n d s e x o f p a r t ic i p a n t w a s

n o t s i g n if i c an t . W h i l e m e n w e r e s i g n if i c a n tl y l e s s c o o p e r a t i v e th a n w o m e n o v e r a l l ,

t h e p a tt e r n o f c o o p e r a t i n g a n d d e f e c t in g f o r b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n w a s s i m i l a r w i t h in

e a c h c o n t e x t , T h e p r e d i c ti o n t h a t m e n w o u l d c o m p e t e m o r e i n a m a t i n g c o n t e x t p o s -

s i b ly m a y h a v e b e e n r e f in e d t o s p e c i f y t h e t y p e o f c o m p e t i ti o n . I n t r a s e x u a l c o m p e t i -

t io n o v e r m a t e s m a y t a k e m a r k e d l y d i f f e re n t f o r m s i n m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s . I t m a y b e

o v e r t l y a g g r e s s i v e , a s o f t e n o b s e r v e d i n m a l e s , o r m a y b e m o r e s u b t l e, s u c h a s s u p -

p r e s s i n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e c y c l e s a n d , h e n c e , a t t ra c t i v e n e ss , o f p o t e n ti a l f e m a l e c o m -

pe t i t o rs . Pe rhaps i f t he i tem s fo r the ma t in g con t e x t had been co ns t ruc t ed so tha t t he

c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r s w a s m a r k e d b y o v e r t p h y s i c a l a l t e r c a t i o n s , a s o p p o s e d t o

d e f a m i n g t h e o p p o s i n g p l a y e r i n t h e e y e s o f a n a t tr a c ti v e p e r s o n o f th e o p p o s i t e s e x ,

r e s u lt s m a y h a v e b e e n d i f fe r e n t. W e w o u l d e x p e c t m e n t o b e m o r e l i k e ly to e n g a g e

in ove r t phys i ca l com pe t i t i on t han w om en in o rde r to ga in acce s s t o a po t en ti a l ma t e .


16/19

43 2 M K Surbey and J J McNally

Th e ove r a l l t h r ee - way i n t e r ac t i on am on g s ex , con t ex t , and s e l f - decep t i on was

no t s i gn i f ic an t , ye t the t wo - w ay i n t e r ac t i on be t ween s ex and l eve l o f s e l f - decep t i on

and pa i r wi s e co m p ar i s ons s ugges t ed t ha t s e l f - decep t i on m ay be d i f f e r en t i a l ly r e -

l a t ed to coop e r a t i on in m a l e s and f em a l e s . As p r ed i c t ed , i n the m a t i ng con t ex t

w o m e n w h o w e r e h i g h s e l f - d e c e i v e r s c o o p e r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e t h a n w o m e n

w h o w e r e l o w s e l f- d e c e iv e r s , w h e r e a s m e n ' s d e c i s io n t o c o o p e r a t e v e r s u s d e f e c t d i d

no t appea r t o va r y a s a f unc t i on o f s e l f - decep t i on . Th i s p r ov i des s om e s uppor t f o r

t h e n o t i o n t h a t m a l e a n d f e m a l e p s y c h o l o g i e s m a y h a v e b e e n d i f f e r en t i a ll y ad a p t e d

t o coop e r a t i on and com pe t i t i on i n d i f f e r en t con t ex t s , and t ha t pa r t i cu l a r p s yc ho l og i -

ca l m e chan i s m s , s uch a s s e l f - decep t i on , m ay m ed i a t e s uch s oc i a l behav i o r s .

I n s um m a r y , r e s u l ts s ugg es t t ha t a pa r t i c i pan t ' s b i o l og i ca l s ex , deg r ee o f k i n -

s h i p be t ween p l aye r s , con t ex t , and s e l f - decep t i on a r e r e l a t ed t o p r ed i s pos i t i ons t o

coo pe r a t e i n PD ga m es and cann o t be exp l a i ned s i m p l y i n te r m s o f s oc i a l de s i r ab i l -

i t y and gende r - r o l e expec t a t i ons . The PD gam es de s i gned f o r t h i s s t udy va r i ed i n a

n u m b e r o f d i m e n s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e l a te d n e s s b e t w e e n p l a y e r s , p a y -

o f f s , and con t ex t . Ad d i t i ona l l y , a l though a l l gam es w e r e i t e r a ted , t he i n tr i n s ic n um -

b e r o f i t e ra t io n s m a y h a v e v a r ie d s o m e w h a t b e t w e e n c o n t ex t s . S y s t e m a t i c v a r ia t io n

o f each d i m e ns i on , w h i l e ho l d i ng t he o t he r va r i ab l e s cons tan t , wo u l d enab l e the f u r -

t he r t e a s ing ou t o f t he i r i nd i v i dua l e f f ec t s . Fo r exam pl e , co e f f i c i en t o f r e l a t ednes s

cou l d be va r i ed wh i l e ho l d i ng con t ex t and payof f s cons t an t . We m i gh t p r ed i c t t ha t ,

i n th i s s i tua t ion , coo pe r a t i on w ou l d b e h i ghes t w hen t he co e f f i c i en t was g r ea t e s t , re -

ga r d l e s s o f t he con t ex t . I n add i t ion , t h i s m e t h odo l ogy m i gh t be r ep l i c a t ed and ex -

t e n d e d b y u s i n g o t h e r m e a s u r e s o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n a n d / o r a m e a s u r e o f r e p r e s s i o n

( e .g . , t he Byr n e Rep r e s s i on - Sens i t i z a t i on s ca l e ), o r by expo s i ng pa r t i c ipan t s t o m or e

eco l og i ca l l y va l i d s i tua t i ons i n wh i ch t hey m ay exh i b i t ac t ua l coope r a t i ve behav i o r .

A l t h o u g h f u r th e r r e f i n e m e n t o f p r e d i c ti o n s a n d m o d i f i c a ti o n o f m e t h o d o l o g y a r e i n-

d i ca t ed , t h i s s t udy none t he l e s s dem ons t r a t ed t ha t va r y i ng t he s oc i a l con t ex t o f t he

PD gam e and u t i l iz i ng t h is f o r m a t in con j un c t i on wi t h o t he r p s yc ho l og i ca l m ea s u r e s

m a y b e a v e r y u s e f u l to o l in t a p p i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m s u n d e r l y i n g th e b e -

h a v i o r a l c h o i c e s o f c o o p e r a t i o n v e r s u s d e f e c ti o n .

W e t h a n k t w o a n o n y m o u s r e v i e w e r s f o r th e i r d is c e r n i n g c o m m e n t s o n t h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d B . S l u g o sk i f o r

h i s h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e d e s i g n a n d e x e c u t i o n o f t h e r es e a r c h . T h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d w e r e i n

p a r ti a l f u l f i l l m e n t f o r a n H o n o u r ' s d e g r e e g r a n t e d t o J . M c N a l l y .

R E F E R E N C E S

A l e x a n d e r , R . D .

The Bio logy o f Moral Systems

New York : Ald ine , 1987 .

A x e l r o d , R . E f f e c t i v e c h o i c e i n t h e p r i s o n e r ' s d i l e m m a . Journal o f Conf l ic t Resolu t ion 24:379--403 ,

1980.

A x e l r o d , R . The Evolu tion o f Cooperation New York : Bas ic , 1984 .

B e m , S .L . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f p s y c h o l o g ic a l a n d r o g y n y .

Journ al of Consulting and C linical Psychology

4 2 : 1 5 5 - 1 6 2 , 1 9 7 4 .

D o u g l a s , W . A . , a n d G i b b o n s , K . I n a d e q u a c y o f v o i c e r e c o g n i t i o n a s a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n .

J ourna l o f Pe r son a l i~ and Soc ia l Psyc ho logy 4 4 : 5 8 9 - 5 9 2 , 1 9 8 3 .


17/19

S e l f D e c e p t i o n a s a M e d i a t o r o f C o o p e r a t i o n

4

Eagly, A.H., and Chaiken, S. The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,

1993.

Fishbein, M., and Ajzen, I. Belief Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Re-

search.

Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1975.

Frank, R.H., Gilovich, T., and Regan, D .T. The evolution of one-shot cooperation: An experiment.

Ethol-

ogy and Sociobiology

14:247-256, 1993.

Gur, R.C., and Sackeim, H.A. Self-deception: A concept in search o f a phenomeno n.

Journal qf Person-

ality and Social Psychology 37:147-169, 1979.

Hartman, A.E. Motivational bases of sex differences in choice behavior. Journal (~['C(mflict Resolution

24:455475, 1980.

Irons, W. H uman female reproductive strategies. In

Social Behavior qfFemale Vertebrates,

S.K. Wasser

(Ed.). New Y ork: Academic Press, 1983, pp. 169-213.

Krebs, D., and Davies, N.B.

An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology,

3rd ed. London: Blackwell Scien-

tific Publications, 1992.

Krebs. D., Denton, K., and Higgins, N .C. On the evolution of self-knowledge and self-deception. In

So-

ciobiological Perspectives on Human Development,

K.B. MacDonald (Ed.) . New York:

Springer-Verlag, 1988, pp. 10 3-139.

Lockard, J.S. Speculations on the adaptive significance o f cognition and consciousness in nonhuman spe-

cies. Brain and Behavioral Sciences 4:583-584. 1978.

Nesse, R., and Lloyd, A. The evolution of psychodynam ic mechanisms. In

The Adapted Mind,

J. Barkow,

L. Cosmides, and J. Tooby (Eds.). New York: Oxford University P ress, 19 92, pp. 601-624.

Otte, D. On the role of intraspecific deception.

American Naturalist

109:239-242, 1975.

Sackeim, H.A., and Gut, R.C. Self-deception, self-confrontation and consciousness. In Consciousness

and Sell-Regulation: Advances in Research and TheoO'

(Vol. 2), G.E. Schwartz and D . Shapiro

(Eds.). New Y ork: Plenum, 1978, pp. 1 39-197.

Starek, J.E., and Keating, C.F. Self-deception and its relationship to success in competition.

Basic and

Applied Social Psychology

12:145-155, ] 991.

Trivers, R.L. Foreward. In The Selfish Gene, R. Dawkins (Ed.). New York: Oxford Press, 1976, pp. vii-ix .

Trivers, R.L.

Social Evolution.

Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings, 1985.

Turvey, C, and Salovey, P. Measures of repression: Converging on the same construct'?

Imagination.

Cognition and Personali O

13:279-289, 1993.

Wallace, B. Misinformation, fitness, and selection.

The American Naturalist

107:1-7, 1973.

Weinstein, N.D. U nrealistic optimism about future life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psy-

chology 39:806-820, 1980.

P P E N D I X

Sam ple Vignettes for Each C ontext

Fami ly contex t . O v e r th e s u m m e r , y o u a n d y o u r y o u n g e r s i s t e r / b r o t h e r (s i b li n g )

h a v e a w i l d p a r t y w h i l e y o u r p a r e n ts a r e a w a y f o r t h e w e e k e n d . T h e r e i s q u i t e a

l a r g e m e s s t h e n e x t m o r n i n g , a n d y o u r p a r e n t s a r e d u e b a c k f r o m t h e ir tr ip th a t

e v e n i n g . Y o u a n d y o u r s i b l in g m u s t d e v i s e a c l e a n - u p s c h e d u l e , k n o w i n g th a t

y o u r s i b l i n g h a s a s w i m m e e t t h a t m o r n i n g , a n d t h a t y o u h a v e t o w o r k u n t i l t h e e ar l y

a f t e rn o o n . Y o u d e c i d e t h a t w h o e v e r g e t s h o m e f i rs t w i ll s ta rt c l e a n i n g u p a s f a st a s

t h e y c a n u n t il t h e o t h e r g e t s h o m e a n d h e l ps . T h a t m o r n i n g a t w o r k i t i s n ' t v e r y

b u s y , a n d y o u r b o s s t e l l s y o u t h at y o u c a n g o h o m e e a rl y . Y o u r e a l i z e th a t i f y o u d o

g o h o m e , y o u w i l l h a v e t o s ta r t c l e a n i n g u p m u c h e a r l ie r th a n y o u r s i b li n g . S i n c e

y o u r s i b l i n g c o u l d n ' t p o s s i b l y k n o w t h at y o u g o t o f f w o r k e a r ly , y o u c o u l d j u s t g o

s h o p p i n g o r t o a m a t i n e e , a n d l e t y o u r s i b l i n g d o a l l o f th e w o r k . Y o u r e a l i z e t h at i f

y o u d o g o h o m e e a r l y a n d s t a r t c l e a n i n g , t h e r e is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t y o u r s i b l i n g

c o u l d d o t h e s a m e t h i n g t o y o u b y s h o w i n g u p l a t er a n d l e t ti n g y o u d o a l l t h e w o r k .


18/19

43 4 M K Surbey and J J McNaily

If neither of you shows up and gets home late in the afternoon, you probably will not

have time to clean up the mess before your parents get home, and you'll have to suf-

fer the consequences. Still, both you and your sibling really dislike housework ....

Given this situation would you:

Go home later and Go home and

let your sibling do 1 2 3 4 5 6 start cleaning.

all the work.

M a t i n g c o n t e x t

Suppose that you and a classmate (who is of the same sex as you

and is in many of your classes; you both plan on attending the same law school)

have the opportunity to meet with an attractive person of the opposite sex. This per-

son expressed a desire to meet with both o f you at the library to get some study help

on Tuesday night. Both you and your classmate would like to eventually date this

attractive person, and you agree to go together to the library. Tuesday night is a

good time for you both, since you both have to work at the cafeteria on Monday

until late in the evening. However, on Monday afternoon, you hear that this attrac-

tive person will be at the library Monday evening as well. You and your classmate

both have supper breaks, each an hour long, at different times, and you begin to con-

sider meeting this attractive person alone on your break. It is possible that your

classmate, who also knows that this attractive person will be at the library Monday

night, will also go to the library at break time (which is an hour after yours). If you

go to the library on Monday, you could put yoursel f in a good light, and even say a

few not-so-attractive things about your classmate. You realize, however, that if both

you and your friend do this at different times on Monday night, this attractive person

might get completely turned o ff of the both of you, and date neither of you. It is also

possible that if you both go Tuesday night and make each other look good, she could

potentially date both of you. However, since you know that your classmate would

never know that you went Monday night to meet the attractive person, you are still

considering it. Will you:

Go to the library Go on Tuesday

on Monday night 1 2 3 4 5 6 night with your

by yourself, classmate.

N e u t r a l c o n t e x t

Suppose that both you and a classmate live in a large dorm, and

that you have your own rooms on the same floor. While studying for an exam one

evening, you both get hungry, but neither of you has enough money to order out for

food. You decide to make a batch of cookies together in the dorm's kitchen, which

is located on the floor below the one on which you both live. Once the cookies are in

the oven you decide that each of you will check on the cookies every few minutes,

meaning that you will both have to interrupt your studying at regular intervals for

the length of time it takes for the cookies to bake. The one of you who finds that the

cookies are finished baking is to divide the cookies up evenly and take the other's

share to their room. You both find it hard to take so many breaks, as both of you are

on a roll' in your studies. If neither of you checks the cookies at the appropriate


19/19

S e l f D e c e p t io n a s a M e d i a t o r o f C o o p e r a t i o n 4 3 5

times, then, of course, the cookies will get burnt, and neither of you will have any.

However, it is possible that the one who finds that the cookies are done may eat a

few of the cookies efore dividing them up, as you are both very hungry. Supposing

that you are the one that finds that the cookies are finished baking, would you:

Eat some of Divide them up

the cookies before 1 2 3 4 5 6 up evenly and

dividing them up. give the proper

amount to your

classmate.

Documents

Self-Deception as a Mediator of.pdf