SEES - trimis.ec.europa.eu · Web viewData file : D1_Report.doc Project funded by the European Community under the Sixth Framework Programme Priority 6.2 Table of Contents ... Figure

CONTRACT N° : TST3-CT-2003-506075

ACRONYM : SEES

PROJECT TITLE : Sustainable Electrical & Electronic System for the Automotive Sector

PROJECT START DATE : 1 February 2004 DURATION : 36 Months

DELIVERABLE D1 (= WP 1 REPORT)Integrated Assessment of Automotive EES

WP TITLE : Integrated Assessment of EES in Cars

WP LEADER : Julio Rodrigo and Prof. Francesc CastellsUniversitat Rovira i Virgili (URV)

WP PARTNERS : Kerstin Lichtenvort, André Greif, Franziska Schreck, Technische Universität Berlin (TUB)

Juan Carlos Alonso, LEAR Automotive (EEDS) Spain, S.L. (LEAR)

WP START DATE : 1 February 2004 DURATION : 4 months

Date of issue of this report : 30 June 2004

Data file : D1_Report.doc

Project funded by the European Community under the Sixth Framework Programme Priority 6.2

URV, TUB, LEAR D1: Integrated Assessment of Automotive EES

Table of Contents

1 Automotive Electrical and Electronic System (EES)....................................................4

1.1 Evolution of EES in Cars........................................................................................4

1.2 Functions of Automotive EES.................................................................................51.2.1 Electricity Generation, Storage and Distribution.......................................71.2.2 Starting and Ignition..................................................................................71.2.3 Lighting and Auxiliary Devices..................................................................81.2.4 Powertrain Electronics..............................................................................81.2.5 Chassis / Safety Electronics...................................................................101.2.6 Comfort Electronics................................................................................131.2.7 Infotainment / Telematics.......................................................................13

1.3 Electrical and Electronic Products Characteristics...............................................141.3.1 Sensors..................................................................................................141.3.2 Basic Actuators.......................................................................................161.3.3 Wire Harness..........................................................................................171.3.4 Connection and Protection Devices.......................................................201.3.5 Electronic Control Units (ECU)...............................................................221.3.6 Integrated Mechatronic Components (IMC)...........................................251.3.7 Batteries.................................................................................................271.3.8 Motors and Generators...........................................................................281.3.9 Lights......................................................................................................291.3.10 Heating Units..........................................................................................301.3.11 Displays and Screens.............................................................................301.3.12 Entertainment Devices...........................................................................311.3.13 Communication and Navigation Devices................................................311.3.14 Other Devices.........................................................................................31

1.4 Main Strategies followed......................................................................................311.4.1 Future Trends in Automotive EES Technology......................................31

1.4.1.1 Inter-system Trends.....................................................................................321.4.1.2 System Specific Trends................................................................................34

1.4.2 Design, Manufacture, Assembly and Disassembly Strategies...............411.4.2.1 Car Manufacture & Assembly.......................................................................411.4.2.2 The Modular Design.....................................................................................421.4.2.3 Electronics and Wire Harness Integration....................................................421.4.2.4 Materials Strategy........................................................................................431.4.2.5 Disassembly and Recycling.........................................................................43

1.5 Assessment of Automotive EES...........................................................................441.5.1 Assessment Scheme..............................................................................451.5.2 Assessment Results...............................................................................501.5.3 Conclusions and Implications for SEES Workpackages........................58

SEES – Sustainable Electrical & Electronic System for the Automotive Sector Page 1 of 178


2 End-of-life Processes for Automotive EES.................................................................64

2.1 Collection of End-of-life Vehicles in Europe.........................................................642.1.1 Company-by-company Approach...........................................................642.1.2 Fee-based Approach..............................................................................652.1.3 The Liberal Approach / Market-based Approach....................................66

2.2 Disassembly and Shredding.................................................................................682.2.1 Pre-treatment..........................................................................................682.2.2 First Level Disassembly..........................................................................70

2.2.2.1 Qualitative overview of the disassembly of EES Components.....................722.2.2.2 Non-destructive Disassembly.......................................................................762.2.2.3 Destructive Disassembly..............................................................................77

2.2.3 Second Level Disassembly....................................................................782.2.3.1 Disassembly of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)..............................................78

2.2.4 Shredding...............................................................................................79

2.3 Separation Technologies......................................................................................832.3.1 Particle Size Reduction Methods............................................................87

2.3.1.1 Shear-shredder............................................................................................882.3.1.2 Hammermill..................................................................................................892.3.1.3 Granulator....................................................................................................902.3.1.4 Rotary Grinder..............................................................................................912.3.1.5 Cryogenic Grinding.......................................................................................91

2.3.2 Basic Sorting Methods............................................................................912.3.2.1 Screening or Sifting......................................................................................912.3.2.2 Magnetic Separator......................................................................................942.3.2.3 Eddy Current Separator...............................................................................952.3.2.4 Air Classification...........................................................................................95

2.3.3 Mechanical Sorting Methods..................................................................962.3.3.1 Sink-float Separation....................................................................................962.3.3.2 Near-critical and Supercritical Fluids............................................................982.3.3.3 Centrifuging..................................................................................................992.3.3.4 Hydrocyclone.............................................................................................1002.3.3.5 Wet Tabling................................................................................................1012.3.3.6 Ballistic Classifier.......................................................................................1022.3.3.7 Fluidised Bed Table....................................................................................102

2.3.4 Non-mechanical Sorting Methods........................................................1032.3.4.1 Electrostatic Separation.............................................................................1032.3.4.2 Differential Melting or Softening Temperature............................................1042.3.4.3 Selective Dissolution..................................................................................105

2.3.5 Plastics Identification Methods.............................................................1052.3.6 Contaminants Removal Methods.........................................................111

2.3.6.1 Methods for Removing Metal Inserts from Plastic Parts.............................1122.3.6.2 Methods for Removing Coatings................................................................113



2.4 Recycling Technologies......................................................................................1142.4.1 Metal Recycling Technologies..............................................................114

2.4.1.1 Pyrometallurgical Processes – Smelting....................................................1162.4.1.2 Hydrometallurgical Processes....................................................................125

2.4.2 Plastics Recycling Technologies..........................................................1332.4.2.1 Processing and Reprocessing Technologies.............................................1332.4.2.2 Feedstock Recycling of Plastics.................................................................1352.4.2.3 Energy Recovery of Plastics......................................................................1392.4.2.4 Production of Plastic Lumber.....................................................................142

2.4.3 Synergies in Automotive EES Recycling Flows....................................144

3 Environmental and Economic Data...........................................................................147

3.1 Economic Data Requirements............................................................................147

3.2 Environmental Data Requirements.....................................................................148

4 Recommendations.......................................................................................................149

4.1 Recommendations for the next SEES Workpackages.......................................1494.1.1 WP 2: Assembly Study.........................................................................1494.1.2 WP 3: Disassembly Study....................................................................1504.1.3 WP 4: EES Recycling...........................................................................1504.1.4 WP 5: Plastic Recycling........................................................................1514.1.5 WP 6: Shredding Study........................................................................151

4.2 General Recommendations................................................................................152

Glossary of Abbreviations.................................................................................................153

Annex A: Heavy Metals in Vehicle Components..............................................................156

Literature and Internet Sources.........................................................................................157



IntroductionThe main objective of this workpackage is to assess and integrate the existing knowledge about the electrical and electronic systems used in cars considering their products characteristics, design, manufacture, assembly, dismantling, separation and recycling in order to provide a basis for deciding which EES elements will be examined in more detail in the following work packages and which technologies to be used.

1 Automotive Electrical and Electronic System (EES)The automotive electrical and electronic system that is the focus of the SEES project consists of all car devices that are dependent on electric currents or electromagnetic fields and devices for the generation and transfer of such currents and fields.

The electrical system of a car encompasses the devices that produce, store, transmit and transform electric energy.

The electronic systems of a car consist of units of sensors and controllers. The sensors gather information from the environment, either from the physical situation or the commands from the driver or occupants, and give these to the controller. The controller in turn calculates the appropriate output signal which is sent to actuators (electric motors, valves, pumps, displays, etc.) to achieve a desired effect.

The electrical and electronic systems work closely together throughout the car and cannot be clearly distinguished. Therefore they are covered in whole as electrical and electronic system (EES).

In section 1.2 the various EE systems will be discussed at the systems level, which will be followed by a more detailed look at functions and material composition at the component level in 1.3.

1.1 Evolution of EES in Cars

In the beginning of the automotive industry, the electrical distribution system was quite simple. There were electric circuits in the ignition system, engine start (not always), lighting and front wiper. Switches for interacting with the driver were big and directly handled the power going to the loads, basically lamps and dc motors.

As the industry matured more features were requested in the vehicles. Using the old architectures, principles more wire, more electronic modules and more connectors were needed because each subsystem employed its own controller and its own switching device. The complexity of the wiring and mounting features is growing, making the assembly operation more costly and less reliable.

In the engine compartment, the front harness takes the power from the battery and feeds the main fuse box and a fuse box. It also connects the front lights of the vehicle to the switches and relays located in the instrument panel area. To make such a connection, the harness needs to go through the fire wall. The requirements in the engine compartment are very demanding in terms of water ingress, temperature and vibration. This is why passing through the fire wall usually requires sealed connectors or grommets. It is possible that the instrument



panel (IP) harness passes to the engine into other places: one for connecting to the main fuse box and the other to connect with the engine harness.

In the passenger compartment area there is a rear harness servicing all the doors, the seats and the trunk, crossing the vehicle behind the front seats. This rear harness is connected to the IP harness in two different locations, the front seat and the A pillar. The A pillar hosts the inline connectors for the three main harnesses allowing them to be modular. These in line connectors are big, expensive and difficult to assemble. The IP harness runs under the IP reaching the end of the car picking up fuel tank information. It also goes to the engine compartment, connecting, among others, a body controller, a fuse box and a relay box. [Pinos et al. 1998]

This architecture leads to a complex and heavy wire harness system, which has low scalability, is difficult to upgrade and is burdened with high production costs.

The increasing demand of more services and functions required the change of this old architecture, and the introduction of more electronic control units (ECU) to manage these new services. The growth of electronic systems has had implications for vehicle engineering. For example, today’s high-end vehicles may have more than 4 kilometres of wiring, compared to 45 meters in vehicles manufactured in 1955 [Leen et al. 2002]. Today the cost of electronics in luxury vehicles can amount to more than 23 percent of the total manufacturing cost.

As it was commented, the increase of electronics technologies in the vehicle is a fact, and the trend in the nearest future is to increase it much more (x by wire, new functions, etc.). This scenario enhances the problems of electronics centralisation, and additionally the packaging of these devices will not fit into the smaller free areas of the car.

This is the reason why it is needed to move to a distributed architecture based on mechatronics (integration of switches and electronics). This integration in a unique product results in a number of advantages for the final OEMs such as: assembly savings, not only in the amount of pieces to assemble but also in the number of operations to deal with in the car manufacturer lines; minimal number of parts to control; reduction in numbers of versions; logistics reduction; packaging integration; electronics module integration and crimping reduction. [Aparicio et al. 2004]

1.2 Functions of Automotive EES

Automotive electrical systems can be grouped according to their functions as follows: electricity generation, storage and distribution, starting and ignition, lighting and auxiliary devices. Similarly, electronic systems can be divided into four basic domains: power-train, chassis / safety, comfort electronics and infotainment / telematics.

A clear delineation between systems which employ electrical and electronic technology respectively is not possible in today’s automotive world. In many cases, systems which in the past were purely of electrical or mechanical nature have become electronic, for instance cabin climate systems, spark ignition, fuel injection, seat positioning, lighting control and many more. This trend is expected to continue in the future. The following chapters describe the most common and relevant EE devices in today’s cars.



Table 1: Most Common EE Systems Grouped According to Function

Functional Group Common EE SystemsElectricity generation, storage and distribution

Alternator, batteries, wire harnesses, switches and relays, fuses and fuse boxes, junction boxes

Starting and ignition Spark ignition system, glow plugs, starter

Lighting and auxiliary Headlights, brake lights, blinkers, fog lights, reverse and park lights, interior lighting, cabin heating and A/C, rear window heating, windshield wipers, headlight windshield wipers, horn, cigarette lighter

Power-train Engine control unit, fuel injection system, transmission control, integrated starter alternator (ISA)

Chassis / safety Steering assist, airbags and pretensioners, brake assist, traction control, suspension control, speed control, pre-crash sensors, driver alert / status monitor, night vision, automatic headlight levelling / positioning

Comfort Personality system, power windows, windshield wiper, climate control, parking aid, remote entry, security / anti-theft, voice control, heads-up-display

Infotainment / telematics Navigation, vehicle tracking, entertainment, communication, telematics

Figure 1: Examples of some EES and their Location in an Automobile [Dupont 2004a]



1.2.1 Electricity Generation, Storage and Distribution

In order to be able to power the various electric and electronic systems and communicate information in and between them, it is necessary to generate, store and distribute electricity and electrical/electronic signals.

Responsible for power generation is the alternator, which transforms mechanical energy (generated by the engine) into electricity. An alternator works on the same basic principles as an electric motor except that the process is reversed.

The electricity from the alternator is used to power the car’s electrical applications and charge the battery or batteries. The main battery, for starter, lighting and ignition (SLI), powers the starter motor to start the engine, provides energy for the ignition spark (in the case of an Otto engine) and, when the alternator cannot provide sufficient power, delivers energy for the car’s other electrical applications. The lead-acid battery is the only relevant SLI battery in use in conventional autos. There may also be other batteries (possibly NiMH, NiCd or other) for dedicated auxiliary functions such as anti-theft devices. Batteries also play a key role for some of the most prominent non-conventional auto types – hybrid, electric battery and fuel cell cars.

The car’s wire harnesses transmit the power provided by the alternator and battery to the individual applications that are spread throughout the automobile. In addition, wire harnesses are also used to carry information to and from sensors, control units and actuators.

The flow of electricity through the wire harnesses is controlled by switches and relays. Modern electronic controls in cars also allow for electronic switching of the flow of electricity and information.

Fuses and fuse boxes are necessary for the safety of the electrical connections. To avoid damage to the car or even a dangerous fire, fuses break a circuit in the case of overload or short-circuit.

Connectors, switches, relays and fuses often are integrated into junction boxes that distribute electricity and information flow between different wire harnesses connected to it.

1.2.2 Starting and Ignition

A combustion engine functions in that a mixture of fuel and air is compressed, this mixture is then either ignited (Otto engine) or combusts spontaneously (diesel engine) and the resulting thermal energy causes an expansion in the cylinder which produces mechanical work.

When the fuel is inside the cylinder and has been compressed, combustion is desired. In the Otto engine, the spark ignition system carries out this task. It is important that the amount of electrical energy as well as the ignition timing are correct to ensure optimal engine performance and minimal exhaust emissions. Generally speaking, this spark ignition system consists of “an energy storage device, ignition timing mechanism, ignition triggering mechanism, spark distribution system and spark plugs and high tension wires” [Jurgen 1994]. Depending on the system type – coil, transistorised coil, capacitor discharge, electronic with distributor and electronic distributorless – the ignition timing and triggering as well as the



spark distribution can be either mechanically or electronically controlled and the high-voltage generation is either capacitive or inductive.



Glow plugs function as a heat source for diesel engine cylinders to provide the temperature that is needed for spontaneous combustion of the compressed diesel/air mixture as long as the engine is cold. After a while when the engine is running and temperature of intake air has risen, the glow plugs are automatically turned off.

The starter system is used to turn the car “on”. Essentially, when the ignition switch is activated (usually by turning the ignition key), the battery supplies energy to the starter motor, which then turns the crankshaft and starts the engine.

1.2.3 Lighting and Auxiliary Devices

The automobile’s various lighting systems: headlights, blinkers, brake, fog, interior lighting, reverse and parking lights, allow the operator to drive the car safely at night, illuminate the interior of the car and communicate with the outside world (cyclists, pedestrians, other motorists). The cabin heating system and air conditioning provide comfort in winter and summer, the rear window heating system and windshield wiper system a clear view. Further convenience and safety is provided by the headlight wiper system, horn and cigarette lighter.

1.2.4 Powertrain Electronics

Powertrain electronics refer to electronics that control processes along the transmission of power – from the engine through the transmission and drive shaft and eventually to the tyres and road. They were initially developed to reduce the environmental impact of automobile use and they have been quite successful in this regard.

To accomplish this task, a closed-loop control system is employed to regulate the combustion process. By measuring the relevant parameters – input air flow and temperature, manifold pressure, engine speed, exhaust gas characteristics, etc. – and employing control systems technology, the input variables – sparking timing, fuel dosage and timing, etc. – can be optimally determined by the engine control unit. The result is combustion that is consistently closer to the stoichiometric optimum. This in turn means that fewer semi- or unburned fuel particles are emitted and an increase in performance. It also means that operation within the lambda window or catalytic converter window can be maintained, allowing the catalytic converter to function optimally. The engine control unit itself typically consists of a microprocessor, memory, housing, bus, etc.

An important step for the functioning of the engine is the fuel preparation and delivery. In modern cars this is carried out by the fuel injection system which has essentially replaced the mechanical carburettor. The fuel pump transports the petrol to the injector unit and supplies pressure to the fuel. The injector unit regulates the flow of the fuel to the cylinder intake ports. There are several types of injections systems. The major aspects of these systems are:

Single-point injection or multipoint injection, where the fuel for all cylinders is metered centrally or supplied individually for each cylinder, respectively,

Mechanically or electronically controlled injection,



Continuous or pulsed injection, where the fuel is released continuously or discretely to the cylinders, respectively. Pulsed injection systems are exclusively electronically controlled.



In modern systems, the engine control unit receives information about the engine speed and temperature, air flow and temperature and calculates the optimal opening time for the injection valves. At the desired moment and for the appropriate amount of time a solenoid is activated which opens a valve just upstream of the cylinder intake manifold.

Figure 2: Schema of a Lucas L-Jetronic Fuel Injection System [The World of Rover SD1 2004]

Figure 3: Detail Drawing of an Injector Unit [The World of Rover SD1 2004]



Another component of power-train electronics is the transmission control. Modern cars that are equipped with automatic transmissions employ transmission control. Electronic transmission control replaces manual transmission (stick gear shifting). For this it is necessary to sense engine torque and speed as well as the driver’s behaviour in order to shift gears appropriately. Gear shifting and clutch moving is done by electromagnetic actuators.

A further fuel-saving electronic technology is the integrated starter alternator (ISA). According to the information on the website of DuPont Automotive, “Simply stated, an integrated starter alternator (ISA) will combine the functions of an alternator to recharge the battery and an electric motor for providing initial propulsion and starting the engine.” [Dupont 2004b] Using an ISA, the car’s engine is turned off whenever the car comes to a stop. When the driver depresses the accelerator, the ISA engages and powers the car until a certain speed, at which point the engine is started. In this way, emissions are reduced and fuel-efficiency increased, especially in city driving, where starting, stopping and idle times play a significant role. ISA’s are not currently built into production automobiles because the standard 12-volt power supply architecture is impractical for ISA technology. It is likely that there will be a switch to 42-volt architecture within the next decade, which would make widespread incorporation of ISA’s possible (see chapter 1.4.1).

1.2.5 Chassis / Safety Electronics

Development of chassis / safety electronics systems have greatly improved the safety for automobile drivers and passengers.

A steering assist system should make the turning, especially at low speeds, easier for the driver but at the same time maintain a driving feel. System types include electronically controlled hydraulic, full electric and hybrid. The steering assist system follows the typical control system configuration of sensors – for instance torque and angular velocity of the steering wheel, vehicle speed, motor current, etc. – control unit and actuators. The actuators are, depending on system type, hydraulic or electric. The sensors detect the movement of the steering wheel and the characteristics of the car movement and the control unit prompts the actuators to turn the wheels according.

Airbag & pretensioner systems find widespread application in modern automobiles. A driver’s side airbag is standard in virtually all new cars and some luxury automobiles employ literally dozens of airbags. Pretensioners for seatbelts are also standard in all cars. Crash detection sensors (which can be electromechanical or electronic) start the process of deploying the airbags and pretensioners. When a large deceleration is detected that correlates with a crash, the ignition sequence is started. Current is sent through a thin metal filament of the initiator or squib and a pyrotechnic charge is ignited. This in turn provides energy to ignite a booster charge which starts a chemical reaction that converts the solid propellant into gas. The gas flows through a series of filters and inflates the airbag or tensions the seat belt. [Jurgen 1994]



Figure 4: Schematic of an Air Bag Inflation Device[HowStuffWorks 2004a]

Advanced or “smart” airbags take into account additional information such as the weight and or height of the driver or passenger and based on this information may deploy less forcefully or even not at all.

One of the most well known safety electronics system is brake assist or antilock braking system (ABS). The goal of ABS is to avoid skidding during a hard braking manoeuvre so that control of the vehicle’s direction is maintained. Again, a closed-loop control scheme is employed. The electronic control unit receives a signal from speed sensors and determines whether or not skidding is taking place (deceleration of tyre speed that can only be due to skidding). If this is the case, the electronic control unit sends a signal to the actuators (usually either solenoid valves or electric motors), which reduce the pressure of the brake fluid until the skidding has ceased. Fluid pressure is then increased again until skidding is detected. This cycle is repeated several times per second until skidding has ceased completely.

Figure 5: Schematic of an Anti-Lock Braking System[HowStuffWorks 2004b]



Similar to ABS are traction control systems. The goal of traction control systems is to avoid drive-wheel slippage as a result of excess throttle. The information from the wheel speed sensors is provided to the traction control system’s electronic control unit. The electronic control unit evaluates whether or not slippage is occurring, and if this is the case it sends a signal to either reduce the power produced by the engine (by e.g. throttle-valve control or selective ignition cutout with fuel injection suppression) or apply braking to one or more of the drive-wheels.

The goal of suspension control in an automobile is to increase comfort while also improving stability. The basic configuration of a suspension control system includes sensors which measure for instance vehicle speed, steering angle, acceleration / deceleration, braking activity, the distance from the vehicle body to the road (e.g. via supersonic wave sensor) and / or the axial force from the road surface in the shock absorber (e.g. via piezoelectric), an electronic control unit and actuators which either influence the characteristics of the suspension system passively or actively supply forces to the suspension system. [Jurgen 1994]

The most common form of a speed control system is the so-called cruise control. The cruise control’s function is to maintain a constant speed which the driver sets. A closed loop control system consisting of speed sensor, control unit and throttle regulator accomplishes this task. Possible, more advanced speed control systems could include a sensor to measure the distance to the next vehicle and adjust the speed accordingly to avoid collisions.

A pre-crash system is one that detects a likely accident before it happens and uses this advanced warning (up to several seconds) to initiate safety measures. One example is the “Pre-Safe” system from Mercedes-Benz which tightens the seat belts to bring the occupants into the optimal position for the airbags and, if necessary, adjusts the passenger seat and closes the sunroof.

Similar to pre-crash systems are driver alertness / status monitor systems. The goal of these systems is to avoid accidents caused by the driver falling asleep at the wheel or being distracted. There are many ways in which this can be achieved, either by monitoring the driver directly or the behaviour of the automobile.

A disproportionate number of accidents occur at night. It is assumed that this is due mainly to decreased visibility, although driver alertness may also play a significant role. To improve this situation, night vision systems have been developed. These typically work in conjunction with a heads-up-display (HUD), which consists of a projector that can project onto the front windshield. An infrared sensor is placed at the front of the automobile and “looks” ahead. This information is then projected onto the windshield so that the driver sees what the infrared sensor has detected. Objects that are warm tend to be of greater interest (pedestrians, animals, etc.). Additionally an active system can beam infrared waves in front of the car, “illuminating” (for the infrared sensor) the landscape further than the headlights are able to. In this way a more detailed, enhanced image of the surroundings can be projected.

Automatic levelling or positioning of the headlights is another function which is sometimes implemented electronically. To maintain the optimum level independent of loading, sensors and actuators for the position of the lights relative to the ground are used. Systems which



respond to the steering of the car to “peer” around a corner by moving the headlights slightly with the wheels have also been developed.



1.2.6 Comfort Electronics

Comfort electronics, as the name suggests, aim to make the experience of driving and being in the car more enjoyable and less hassle. A personality system, for instance, can record settings for seat and mirror positioning, preferred climate control settings and others for different occupants and restore these settings on command. Power window control allows the windows to be rolled up or down fully at the touch of a button while avoiding jammed fingers. The windshield wiper system controls, for instance, the intermittent time delay by moderate rain. A specific temperature can be maintained with a climate control system.

Parking aid systems use sensors to detect a collision while parking. The sensors, often ultrasonic, send a signal when a collision is eminent and the driver is alerted via an LED display, acoustic warning or similar. Using a remote entry system, the doors can be locked or unlocked remotely and the alarm activated or deactivated.

Security / anti-theft systems aim to ensure that the car is there when one comes back to it, and in the case that it is not, to help it be tracked down. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways including employing an alarm system, requiring authentication to enable the electronic ignition (keycard, transponder, code, etc.) or other.

Using a voice control system various other electronic systems can be controlled including radio, telephone, climate, etc. A heads-up-display allows the driver to check his or her driving status (speed, rpm, etc.) on the windshield without having to look down to the dashboard.

Common components in comfort electronics are control units, small electric motors and, increasingly, mechatronic subassemblies.

1.2.7 Infotainment / Telematics

Infotainment and telematics can be seen as a further development of comfort electronics. They also aim to make the automobile experience more enjoyable and less hassle. The applications, however, are different.

A navigation system aids the occupants of the vehicle in finding their way. A global positioning system (GPS) unit in combination with a compass, an LCD screen, a processor unit and appropriate software indicate where the automobile currently is and the path to be taken to get to the desired location. Vehicle tracking can be used, for instance, for security or for applications such as automatic toll payment.

Most common entertainment systems in cars include compact disc radios, amplifiers and several loudspeakers. But Video / multimedia entertainment systems such as a DVD player with screens for the passengers in the backseat are becoming increasingly popular.

Various communications systems are currently being implemented or developed including mobile phone and internet. Common components in infotainment / telematics electronics are communications electronics and screens. Telematic systems provide additional information on traffic situation (e.g. on congestion, road construction and roadblock) for driver’s information and car’s navigation system.



1.3 Electrical and Electronic Products Characteristics

All the different functions of the Automotive EES result from complex interaction between a variety of EES components. Some of the components (e.g. batteries, junction boxes) are essential parts of several systems at the same time. Other components fulfill very specific functions only. In order to understand the role of different components within the EES the components have been divided into 14 main groups. This chapter describes basic functions, physical properties and location in car of all these EES component groups. The material composition of different EES components has been estimated so far as possible. A more detailed analysis will be done in the WP 4 (E&E Equipment database).

It is important to mention that the substance contents referred to hereafter are estimated values and can vary from one specific product to another. However, it gives a good approach to know, at this first stage, the recyclability potential of these devices taking into account their material fractions (e.g. quantity of non-ferrous metal fraction).

1.3.1 Sensors

Sensors play a crucial role in all modern car electronics since they gather all kind of information needed for any electronic control system in the car. They are used for a wide variety of sensing tasks at different locations of the car. In general, sensors are rather small components, but a high number of them is present throughout the car with very different material composition depending on their specific function. Therefore only a brief overview on sensors can be given here. A more detailed description of sensors can be found e.g. in [Jurgen 1994].

Depending on what they are monitoring, sensors collect various bits of information and send this information to the appropriate electronic control unit (ECU). On average, an economy car could have about 30 to 40 sensors. This figure could be 100 to 120 sensors on luxury models. Sensor types can be grouped by their function (the kind of information they provide) as follows:

Pressure sensors

Linear and angle position sensors

Flow sensors

Temperature, heat and humidity sensors

Exhaust gas sensors

Speed sensors

Acceleration and knock sensors

Torque sensors

Typical tasks for pressure sensors are the measurement of pressure in engine and transmission oil, the fuel intake manifold, turbocharger, brake hydraulics, suspension hydraulics and tyres. Basically a pressure sensor consists of a diaphragm that collects pressure force and a potentiometer, capacitor or piezoelectric element that transforms the force on the diaphragm into an electric signal.



Position sensors are used in a variety of comfort, safety and emission control systems to detect linear or angular position changes of observed components. Their function can be very simple using microswitches that give information e.g. if a door is open or not. Potentiometric position sensors are e.g. used for measuring accelerator pedal position. More sophisticated non-contact position sensors use optical or magnetic detection of positions without touching the observed component.

The major application of flow sensors is for control of several engine functions. Flow can be measured by mass or volume flow. Flow measurement is used for determination of intake air mass flow that is needed to control electronic fuel injection. Fuel flow measurement provides information on fuel consumption during driving and is needed for calculation of fuel range. Another application is measurement of exhaust gas recirculation flow to reduce emissions. Gaseous flow most often is measured by thermal technology using a heated wire. The gas passing by the wire removes heat from it that can be measured electronically. From this the mass flow can be calculated. Liquid flows are measured using differential pressures or turbine rotation.

Temperature, heat and humidity sensors are mainly used for diagnostics to ensure that all car systems can adapt to environmental influences and function properly. The main applications are measurement of coolant, oil, battery, catalyst and tyre temperature. Humidity sensors are also used for automatic windshield wiper control (rain sensors) or for control of passenger compartment comfort. Thermal sensors use thermistors, bimetallic switches, bimetallic potentiometers or semiconductor techniques. Humidity sensors use capacitive or resistive effects.

Exhaust gas sensors are used for engine control to increase vehicle performance and fuel efficiency and decrease emissions at the same time. This mainly depends on determination of the air/fuel ratio lambda. Lambda closed-loop control is used to keep lambda within an optimal range. Lambda can be calculated from oxygen concentration in exhaust gas that is measured by a sensor. Sensor types used are the Nernst Type (zirconium oxide with platinum electrodes) or oxidic semiconductors (e.g. TiO2).

Speed sensors measure linear or rotational speed e.g. for monitoring ground speed, engine speed and wheel speed. This information is needed for engine and transmission control, antilock braking and traction control systems. For speed sensing variable reluctance devices, Hall effect devices and magnetoresistive devices are often used.

One key function of acceleration sensors is crash detection for safety systems like airbags and seat-belt tensioner. For this application, several sensors are mounted at different positions of the car frame to detect when a crash occurs and whether it is hard enough to activate safety systems. Acceleration can be measured mechanically with a metal ball held by a spring in a cylinder. When a certain acceleration threshold is exceeded, the inertia of the ball overcomes the retaining force of the spring and an electric contact is closed. Other sensors use piezoelectric devices that produce voltage when their shape changes by acceleration force, or capacitive devices. A special application for acceleration sensors is knock sensing. Engine knock is an undesired spontaneous phenomenon that generates excessive vibration and noise during combustion. To prevent knock, gasoline additives have been used. Lead-free gasoline requires enhanced electronic knock control of the engine. Knock control optimises ignition-timing and fuel-intake to prevent knock as much as possible.



Torque sensors are only used in few specific car applications like advanced diagnostics of engine power. Their importance might increase in future with new applications like electric power steering (see chapter 1.4.1, X-by-wire technologies) to measure drivers input force on the steering. Typically the torque is actually measured using a strain gage bridge on the drive shaft. The twist in the strain gage is measured by magnetic, optical or capacitive means.

1.3.2 Basic Actuators

Whereas sensors provide input for car electronics, the actuators are output devices that transform electronic control signals to mostly mechanical forces. This means that actuators are end-points of electronic control chains. Most common actuators in cars are electromagnetic actuators like solenoids, moving coils and electromagnetic step motors. These kind of actuators manipulate, for example, valves for fuel injection or antilock braking hydraulics.

Spark plugs in Otto engines can be considered as electrical actuators for ignition of fuel/air mixture. The glaze contains around 50 w% lead in the lead silicate glass. The overall amount in one spark plug is around 0.15 g, which sums up to an amount of 0.6 to 1.8 g lead per vehicle. [Lohse et al. 2001]

Electric motors are treated separately in this report (see chapter 1.3.8) since they are more complex and generally larger than the basic actuators and are used in large number in the car.

Piezoelectric actuators use materials that change their shape when a voltage is applied. They are usually made of so-called PZT ceramics (lead zirconate titanate) with a lead content of 58-68 w% [Lohse et al. 2001] and thin electrodes made of palladium or silver. Typical applications include precision positioning devices (like special fuel injection valves) and active vibration dampers. Their use could increase in future for systems like active noise control.

Thermal actuators use e.g. bimetallic elements for switching operations. A special case of thermal actuators are glow plugs used for warming up cylinders of diesel engines.

Pyrotechnical actuators are used for air bag inflation and in some cases for seat belt pretensioning. If an air bag inflator is activated in case of a detected crash, a flow of electric current through an initiator (squib) heats up a booster charge that is brought to ignition. The combustion of the booster charge builds up pressure and heat to start a chemical reaction that converts a solid propellant into gas. This gas runs through a series of screens, filters and baffles into the air bag that is inflated within fractions of a second.

Figure 6: Various Dismantled Pyrotechical Actuators for Airbags and Pretensioners



In 75 % of the European cars, lead styphnate is the chemical compound used to initiate ignition. Total lead content from airbag initiators is about 0.05 - 0.31 g per car. [Lohse et al. 2001]

1.3.3 Wire Harness

Wire harnesses link sensors and actuators to the corresponding control units and carry information between them. Furthermore they transport electric energy from the battery or alternator to all devices depending on electric power. You could say that wires form the “neural network” and “blood circulation” of the automotive EES.

In the past, wiring was the standard means of connecting one element to another. Each electronic system typically included its own wiring harness which implies a significant amount of wiring. For example, on some luxury vehicles it was possible to find more than 1,5 kilometres of wiring. As electronic content increases, more wiring is needed. For an average well-tuned vehicle, every extra 50 kg of wiring-or extra 1000 watts of power-increase fuel consumption by 0.2 litres for each 100 kilometres travelled (increasing obviously the air emissions). Nowadays, the trend is to replace individual wiring systems with a multiplexed serial communications network [Figuerola et al. 2003].

In order to avoid this continuous increase on wire harness demand, new architectures have been proposed to make the wire harness (W/H) more modular. This new approach is explained in the Figure 7, where it is proposed the inclusion of three main junction distribution boxes in the car, for controlling the different functions of each area (engine, passenger and trunk).

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Figure 7: New Architecture Proposal Used in New Cars

The Figure 7 shows the different wire harness sections, connected by connectors with the other wire harnesses.



The common wire harness sections are:

Table 2: Common Wire Harness Sections

Area Wire HarnessEngine Compartment: - Front W/H

- Engine W/H

- Engine compartment W/H

Passenger compartment: - Main W/H

- Roof W/H

- Tank W/H

- Rear left W/H

Door - WH for each door

Trunk - Trunk W/H

- Tail Gate W/H

The technical requirements for each section are different due to the different environment in each section. For example, in the engine compartment, the temperature requirement is 125ºC. In the passenger compartment the temperature is 85ºC.

The following pictures show one commercial wire harness before its assembly, divided into the three main sections (engine, body & trunk and instrument panel). The idea is to show the complexity of the WH system, due to the different branches, connectors, etc.

Figure 8: Complete Wire Harness Divided into Main Sections



Complete Car Wire Harness

In this section the results of the analysis of a luxury car, model year 98 are presented. This could be representative for the complete percentage of the entire car wire harness. This system includes very different types of materials: plastics (PP, PA, PBTP, PE, PU, etc.), rubbers, non-ferrous metallic alloys (CuSn, CuZn, Cu), ferrous metals (steel, iron, etc.), paper, etc. These materials are summarized in the Table 3.

Table 3: Material composition of the entire wire harness

Composition Percentages (%)

Categories Weight (%)

Non-ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals

Precious metals

Plastics Others

Boxes 2.8 100.0Channels 8.3 100.0Metallic channels 2.8 100.0Terminals 3.2 100.0Connectors 9.4 100.0Grommets/rubbers 4.9 100.0Overmouldings 0.4 100.0Tubes 1.0 100.0Tapes 3.5 100.0Straps/clips 1.3 100.0Fuses 0.4 30.6 50.0 19.4Solder 0.0 100.0Plastic bags 1.6 100.0Labels 0.1 0.0 0.0 7.1 92.9Wire 60.1 76.4 0.0 23.6 0.0Others 0.1 100.0TOTAL 100.0 49.4 2.8 42.7 5.1

The total weight of the system depends on the car size and functions complexity. It could go from 10 kg to nearly 30 kg or even more.

The following picture shows an example of a dismantled wire harness (passenger compartment):



Figure 9: Dismantled Wire Harness (Passenger Compartment)

1.3.4 Connection and Protection Devices

Connection and protection devices are all devices that establish and switch connections between different devices and that protect devices from harmful short circuits or overvoltage. These are mainly cable connectors, switches, relays and fuses. Often several of these components are integrated into junction boxes that connect different wire harnesses to distribute the flow of electricity between different car compartments.

Passive Junction Boxes (without Printed Circuit Boards)

This category includes the passive distribution junction boxes that do not contain printed circuit boards (e.g. wired junction boxes). These devices could be considered as simple connections between the actuator and the function to activate (through the wire and connectors), including the protection devices (fuses) and actuators (relays). It could contain:

- Connectors

- Terminals

- Screws

- Bus bars (copper alloy)

- Fuses (plugged-in)

- Relays (plugged-in)

- Plastic covers

No control or intelligent management could be done by this type of junction box (only passive connection).

An estimate of the material content for this kind of products is shown in Table 4:

Table 4: Passive Junction Boxes (without PCBs)




Type of Component Weight (%)

Non-ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals

Precious metals

Plastics Others

Terminals 1.6 100.0Screws/nuts, etc. 3.5 100.0PCB's 0.0Relays 27.0 48.1 30.8 21.2Fuses 2.6 49.8 50.2Covers, spacers & frame 60.0 100.0Insulator 0.0Connectors 0.0Bus Bar 5.3 100.0Electronic Components 0.0Solder 0.0TOTAL 100.0 21.2 11.8 67.0

The weight of this type of junction box typically varies from 800 g to 2 kg, depending on the junction box complexity. It could be located in the engine and/or in the passenger compartment.



The following picture shows an example of this type of device:

Figure 10: Passive Junction Box (without PCB)

Passive PCB Junction Boxes

This category includes the passive distribution junction boxes that contain printed circuit boards. These junction boxes are also passive (without control or intelligent management of the functions) and they act just like a connection between the actuator and the function to be operated through the PCB. It contains also the needed protection devices (fuses) and actuators (relays). The parts contained in the junction box could be:

- Connectors

- Terminals

- Screws

- Bus bars (copper alloy)

- Fuses (plugged-in)

- Relays (plugged-in and/or soldered to the PCB)

- Plastic covers

- Power Printed circuit boards (e.g. 400 µm copper thickness for power distribution)

No control or intelligent management could be done by this type of junction box.



An estimate of the material content for this kind of products is shown in Table 5:

Table 5: Passive PCB Junction Boxes



Non-ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals

Precious metals

Plastics Others

Terminals 11.6 100.0Screws/nuts, etc. 0.2 100.0PCB's 20.2 57.8 42.2Relays 19.1 48.1 30.8 21.2Fuses 2.4 49.8 0.0 50.2Covers, spacers & frame 44.1 100.0Insolator 0.8 100.0Connectors 0.0Bus Bar 0.0Electronic Components 0.0Solder 1.6 100.0TOTAL 100.0 33.6 6.1 50.1 10.1

The weight of this type of junction box typically varies from 700 g to 1.5 kg, depending on the junction box complexity and location (engine or passenger compartment).

The following pictures show an example of this type of junction boxes. It contains fuses, plugged-in relays and power PCBs.

Figure 11: Passive PCB Junction Box

1.3.5 Electronic Control Units (ECU)

Electronic control units (ECU) are the “brain” of all electronics. They process the information gathered from sensors to generate output signals to be sent to actuators. ECU can be specialised for a single control function or alternatively integrate several control functions into one unit. Smart junction boxes which not only connect electrical devices but also carry out electronic control functions are considered to be electronic control units hereafter.

The ECU acts as a central processing unit and it consists basically of a circuit board containing a microprocessor, memory chips, an amplifier, and an input/output driver. On average, an economy model car could have 9 to 14 different ECUs monitoring powertrain functions, anti-lock brakes, body functions, airbags, and other systems. On high-end luxury vehicles, it is possible to find over 50 control units monitoring many other functions.



The following functions are usually controlled today by ECUs Powertrain control

– Engine control units– Transmission control units– Cruise control units– Integrated powertrain control units

Chassis control units– Anti-lock brake control units– Traction control units

Suspension control units– Electronic air suspension control units– Semi-active suspension control units– Full-active suspension control units

Steering control units Electronic climate control units

– Automatic electronic climate control units– Manual electronic climate control units

Airbag electronic control units Body control units

ECU are made of printed circuit boards (PCB) that integrate microprocessors, memory and bus systems. The PCB could contain precious metals such as gold, platinum, palladium and silver and a large fraction of copper as the main conductor. According to Goosey and Kellner (2002, p. 7), populated PCB assemblies typically have the following approximate material composition (average values, no specific values for car electronics):

Table 6: Average material composition of printed circuit boards

Material Weight percentage

Glass-reinforced polymer (GRP) 70%

Copper 16%

Solder 4%

Iron, ferrite (from transformer cores) 3%

Nickel 2%

Silver 0.05%

Gold 0.03%

Palladium 0.01%

Other (bismuth, antimony, tantalum etc) < 0.01%

Source: [Goosey, Kellner 2002]

Soldering of components to PCB typically has been made with tin-lead solders. As a result of this wherever components are soldered or PCB’s are used in car there is a potential source



of lead in end-of-life of vehicles. These solder applications are spread throughout the car and identification of relevant lead content is difficult. The total lead amount in all PCB in Japanese middle class vehicles is estimated at 50 g [Lohse et al. 2001].

The housings of an ECU can be made of different kinds of plastics or metal depending on their location (e.g. to resist high temperatures in the engine compartment).

Smart Junction Boxes (with Power and Electronic PCBs)

This category includes the smart distribution junction boxes that contain printed circuit boards for power and signal distribution. These junction boxes are active (with control or intelligent management of the functions) and act like an intelligent connection between the actuator and the function to be operated. They also contain the needed protection devices (fuses) and actuators (relays). The parts contained in the junction box could be:

- Connectors- Terminals - Screws- Bus bars (copper alloy)- Fuses (plugged-in)- Relays (plugged-in and/or soldered to the PCB)- Plastic covers- Power printed circuit boards (210 - 400 µm copper thickness for power distribution)- Electronic printed circuit boards (usually 35 or 75 µm copper thickness multilayer for

signal distribution)

It is possible to realise the control and intelligent management of the different functions through this type of junction box.

The Figure 12 illustrates a typical PCB junction box. Basically it consists of a power printed circuit board (PCB), usually from 400 to 210 µm thickness of copper and CEM-31 substrate. The PCB could be single or double sided with terminals, short pins and THT or SMT components inserted and wave soldered. Long pins are used to connect two PCBs (sandwich layout). A plastic piece (insulator) is used to separate both PCBs.

The electronic PCB mainly consists of FR4 substrate (epoxy glass fibre) and it is connected to the power PCB using staples.

PCB CEM-3 1mm Cu 400-210µ D/S

Electronic PCB FR-4 1.2mm Cu35µ D/S

PCB CEM-3 1mm Cu 400-210µ D/S

Long Pins

24 Bus-bar

Soldered Relay

Fuse Female terminal 2.8mmMini Fuses

Relay Female terminal 6.3mmPlugged Relays

*Electronical Connector 0º

Blade terminal

Short pins

Short pins Blade terminal

Insolator

Figure 12: Typical Power Junction Box Configuration

1 CEM-3 is a substrate composed of a material made from nonwoven glass fibers and a woven fabric that is copper plated on both sides.



A first estimation of the material content for this kind of products is shown in Table 7:

Table 7: Smart Junction Boxes (with Power and Signal PCB’s)



Non-ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals

Precious metals

Plastics Others

Terminals 14.7 100.0Screws/nuts, etc. 0.4 100.0PCB's 28.1 60.0 40.0Relays 13.1 48.1 30.8 21.2Fuses 2.1 49.8 50.2Covers, spacers & frame 32.1 100.0Insolator 2.7 100.0Connectors 2.5 35.0 65.0Bus Bar 0.0Electronic Components 1.1 100.0Solder 3.2 100.0TOTAL 100.0 39.7 4.5 40.2 15.6

The weight of this type of junction box typically varies from 900 g to 1.5 kg, depending on the junction box complexity and location (engine or passenger compartment).

The following picture shows an example of this type of device. It includes relays (plugged-in and soldered), fuses, power PCBs and an electronic PCB connected to them.

Figure 13: Smart Junction Box

1.3.6 Integrated Mechatronic Components (IMC)

The word, mechatronics, is composed of “mecha” from mechanism and “tronics” from electronics. A preliminary definition is: “Mechatronics is the synergetic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacturing of industrial products and processes”. The idea is to incorporate electronics into mechanics to control them. This idea is not new but has been emphasised in the automotive sector in the last years.



Mechatronics has become a necessity for product differentiation in automobiles. Today, mechatronic features have become the product differentiator in these traditionally mechanical systems. This is further accelerated by higher performance price ratio in electronics, market demand for innovative products with smart features and the drive to reduce cost of manufacturing of existing products through redesign incorporating mechatronics elements.

With the prospects of low single digit (2–3%) growth, automotive makers will be searching for high-tech features that will differentiate their vehicles from others.

Seat Mechatronic

An example of mechatronics currently used in cars is the “seat switch mechatronic” showed in the Figure 14. It is used to control the seat and memorise the different users’ position.

Figure 14: Seat-switch Mechatronics

In this section a commercial seat mechatronic is considered as an example of weight and material composition. It could be representative of this kind of mechatronic, but more detailed information is needed for other types (e.g. windows, lights, overheads, etc.). Table 8 shows the analysis of this seat mechatronics.



Table 8: Seat Mechatronic Composition



Non-ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals

Precious metals

Plastics Others

Terminals 0.0Screws/nuts, etc. 0.0PCB's 20.0 37.0 63.0Relays 18.0 50.5 26.0 0.7 22.6 0.3Fuses 0.0Covers, spacers & frame 48.7 100.0Insulator 4.3 100.0Connectors 5.0 35.0 0.0 65.0 0.0Bus Bar 0.0Electronic Components 1.8 100.0Solder 2.1 100.0TOTAL 100.0 18.3 4.7 0.1 60.3 16.6

The weight could vary a lot depending on the mechatronic type (i.e. from 200 g to 500 g).

The following pictures show an example of a seat mechatronic unit:

Figure 15: Seat Mechatronic Unit

1.3.7 Batteries

Batteries store and provide electricity for all kind of applications. The main battery in today’s cars is usually a 12 V lead-acid battery. This battery consists of layers of positively and negatively charged lead plates that, together with their insulated separators, make up each of the six two-volt cells. The cells are filled with an electricity-conducting liquid (electrolyte) that is usually two-thirds distilled water and one-third sulphuric acid.



Figure 16: Lead-acid Car Battery[Tiscali Ref 2004]



Other types of batteries only play a minor role for specific car applications like anti-theft systems (to avoid easy deactivation of the system a second hidden backup battery is placed inside the car) and electrical hybrid drive vehicles that use NiMH or lithium ion batteries.

1.3.8 Motors and Generators

Electric motors of different size and for different functions are used in large number at different locations of today’s cars. The two largest devices of this group are the starter motor and the alternator, which is constructed like a motor but used in reverse.

Other types of motors used in cars are dc motors (e.g. for windshield wipers, radiators, electric side mirror and seat adjustment), step motors (for precise positioning), motor pumps (e.g. fuel pump) and compressors (e.g. in air condition system).

The basic composition of each motor includes a fixed stator, a rotor, carbon brushes for connecting electricity to the moving rotor and a housing. Coils are used for creation of the electromagnetic fields. Motors therefore contain a considerable copper fraction.

Figure 17: Starter Motor[Hillier 1987]

The carbon brushes, especially in high dc voltage motors, contain lead. Depending on the size of the motor the brushes contain between 10 g (starter motor) and 0.1 g (wiper motor) lead. Due to the wear of brushes during life time of a vehicle up to 6-10 g lead from starter motor brushes are emitted to the environment as fine particles. [Lohse et al. 2001]



Figure 18: Exploded View of an Alternator[Hillier 1987]

1.3.9 Lights

Lights are used in various locations of the car to illuminate the road when it is dark (head lights), to give optical signals to others (blinker and brake lights), to illuminate the interior of the car or to inform the driver about the car status or possible malfunctions.

The most common types of lights used are incandescent tungsten and halogen lamps for illumination and LED for information purposes. Due to new developments LED will probably increase in future use for illumination. One advantage of LED is their low power consumption.

According to lamp manufacturers, lamps in cars contain between 0.2 and 0.75 g lead in the glass bulb. The majority of the lamps additionally contain lead solder which contributes up to 0.2 g lead per lamp. As an average value 0.4 - 0.5 g lead per bulb is stated. An average car is equipped with 30 to 40 lamps. According to a calculation based on one special car model (Renault Megane 1.9D RTE 99) the lead glass from lamps contributes approximately 12 g lead per vehicle. [Lohse et al. 2001]

In some modern cars high intensity discharge (HID) lamps are used for head lights since they provide a very bright and white light. These HID lamps contain approximately 0.5 mg mercury per lamp [Lohse et al. 2001]. Discharge lamps containing mercury are also used for backlight of instrument panels or displays in cars.



1.3.10 Heating Units

Main applications of heating units in cars are window heating (rear window and in some cars also windshield), seat heating and cigarette lighter. They all use thermal resistors to transform electricity into heat.

The thermal resistors used in rear window heating are permanently fixed to the glass surface. They contain silver as the main conductor. Since the electric contacts are soldered to the glazing there is another potential source of lead (ca. 0.3 – 1.5 g per rear window heating, [Lohse et al. 2001]).

1.3.11 Displays and Screens

Displays and screens provide information to the driver (dashboard displays, navigation system, car computer) or entertainment for passengers (video, DVD).

Common technologies used are electronic analogue displays (e.g. for display of ground speed and engine rotation speed) and liquid crystal displays (LCD).

LCD screens mainly consist of a housing with glass or transparent plastics cover, a PCB and the LCD panel with organic crystals, glass and transparent electrodes (made of indium, for example). Depending on their function LCDs are located in the dashboard (for driver information) or in the backside of the front seats (for rear passenger entertainment). The cold cathode fluorescent lamps used in LCD screens for illumination usually contain around 1.2 mg mercury [Lohse et al. 2001].

In a few modern cars head-up displays (HUD) are used, based on a small LCD screen in the dashboard. Information from the dashboard is projected by optical lenses or mirrors and additional illumination onto the windshield. This enables the driver to read the information (e.g. current speed) on a virtual image in front of his car without moving his head while driving.

Some pictures of these devices are shown hereafter:

Figure 19: LCD Screens in Automotive Applications



1.3.12 Entertainment Devices

Entertainment devices are a group of very different devices that are becoming increasingly important in future cars due to customer demand. The most common devices are CD / cassette radio devices, trunk multiple CD changers, video and DVD systems. Additionally, amplifiers and loudspeakers belong to this group.

Their composition should be similar to the respective systems used for home entertainment. Main components are plastic housings, PCB, power supply / transformers and electrical motors. More detailed analysis will be needed to clarify the composition of these devices.

1.3.13 Communication and Navigation Devices

Another group of devices that has been emerging in the last years and will probably be widely used in the future are communication and navigation devices like telematic systems, GPS navigation systems and integrated cell phones.

The main components are plastic housings, PCB and radio receiver units. More research will be needed to clarify composition in detail since these devices are complex and still quite new in a fast developing market.

A GPS based navigation system unit has been chosen as a representative device from this group for further investigation in SEES since this seems to be the most common and best available device from this group.

1.3.14 Other Devices

All EES components that could not be assigned to any of the preceding groups should be covered in the following group, e.g. the horn and electronic security locks.

Other rare devices that could be mentioned are infrared units (e.g. for remote power lock), radar units (e.g. for obstacle detection) and ultrasonic units (e.g. for parking aid systems). These devices are still undergoing rapid development and will be probably more common in future. Therefore few information on material composition has been available so far. But it has been investigated that ultrasonic units in rear bumper contain 0.1 – 0.24 g lead [Lohse et al. 2001].

1.4 Main Strategies followed

1.4.1 Future Trends in Automotive EES Technology

Automotive EES has become increasingly important for the automotive industry and its consumers. This can be seen by the fact that the monetary value of EES in automobiles as a fraction of the total cost has risen significantly over the last decades. This trend is expected to continue for the foreseeable future. Three major factors can be identified which drive this growth: continual advances in semiconductor technology, demand for improved performance, safety, convenience and features and tougher environmental regulations [Washino 1997]. According to a report by the Freedonia Group, the world-wide original equipment manufacturer market for automotive electronics totalled $ (US) 75 billion in 2002 and the



CAGR is expected to grow by 7.1 % to $ 106 billion in 2007 [Freedonia 2003]. One estimate indicates that 90% of the innovation in vehicles will be driven by electronics [Rohringer 2003]. It is clear that the relative importance of EES in automobiles will continue to increase significantly in the coming years.

1.4.1.1 Inter-system Trends

Certain trends and technological developments can be recognised which are relevant for a wide array of electrical and electronic systems.

Wire Harness

The trends of wire harness for power distribution is to reduce as much as possible its volume and weight, optimising the copper content or reducing its complexity.

The trends for signal wire harness are more related to new materials (e.g. fiber optics) or new concepts (e.g. radio frequency, wire less technologies).

The trends for changing conventional wiring systems are focused on flat cable (cables or cable-like structures with flat conductors). Different technologies are available nowadays, for example [Engbring et al. 2003] :

- Flexible Printed Circuit Board (FPC). Laminated copper on a flexible substrate, structured by etching (subtraction) of the corresponding copper area.

- Flexible Flat Cable (FFC). General name for all flexible, parallel arrangements of isolated conductors. The two types of FFC considered here are FLC (Flexible Laminated Cable) and exFC (Extruded Flat Cable).

Concerning optical fibre, until recently, the only application of fibre optics were simple, low speed, point-to point links and lighting applications. With the increased demand for multimedia digital applications in cars, there will be an increasing demand for possible applications of fibre optic into the automobile industry.

X-by-Wire

Under X-by-Wire is meant the replacement of traditional hydraulic or mechanical systems with electromechanical systems. Examples include brake-by-wire, steer-by-wire, suspension-by-wire, power-by-wire, shift-by-wire, turbo-by-wire, wiper-by-wire and lighting-by-wire (see Figure 20).

In many cases it will be possible to increase efficiency and/or improve performance by implementing X-by-wire technology. For instance, using conventional braking systems, the kinetic energy of the auto is dissipated through frictional losses to the environment, primarily in the form of generated heat. With brake-by-wire technology it is possible to transform this energy into an electric current (using the same principles as a generator) to charge a battery. This aspect of brake-by-wire is especially interesting for hybrid and electric cars.

The implementation of some X-by-wire applications depends on developments in other areas of automotive EES. Steer-by-wire, for example, is considerably more feasible when implemented in conjunction with a 42-volt architecture. Other systems will benefit from



increased computing power of the micro-controller systems, allowing them to perform increasingly complicated calculations in real time.



Figure 20: Examples of X-By-Wire Applications[Rohringer 2003]

System Integration / Integrated Mechatronics / Microsystems Technologies

A typical control system consists of one or more sensors, a control unit, actuators, a power source and wiring connecting the elements to transmit information and electric power. In several applications a trend exists to bring these elements closer together either as integrated mechatronic systems or microsystems. One example is a seat mechatronic system which integrates the sensing and controlling functions for several axes of movement into a single unit. A look at microsystems is given by Washino: “Microsystems incorporate sensors, microactuators and micro-processors on a single chip, allowing entire control functions to be implemented in a single device. Micromachining technology has already given us semiconductor acceleration and pressure sensors [...] The near future is expected to bring intelligent sensor devices integrating microprocessors, memory, ASIC2 technology and sensor elements on a single chip” [Washino 1997]. Weight and cost can be optimised for the individual systems in question by employing system integration.

Central computing

Offering a technological contrast to decentralised system integration is the possible trend towards central computing. It has been estimated that today’s average vehicle contains 46 microcontrollers [ABI Research 2003] and that top-of the-line vehicles use over 80 microcontrollers [Frank 2001]. Instead of employing a multitude of individual systems, it is possible to centralise the computing power to one processing unit which would handle all computing tasks.

2 ASIC = application-specific integrated circuit



Figure 21: Concept of Central Computing [Rohringer 2003]

1.4.1.2 System Specific Trends

Trends can also be examined as they relate to specific electronic systems. An overview of many of the relevant system related trends and a prediction as to when they might be implemented is given in Figure 22.



Figure 22: Overview on System Specific Trends [Ploss 2003]



Generation, Storage, Distribution

Multiplexing is a technology which allows more than one control system to use the same wiring to transmit information. In this way the amount of vehicle wiring can be reduced. According to their report from 2002 Strategy Analytics “expects the total market for dedicated and integrated multiplexing controllers, together with transceiver devices, to reach $2.4 billion by 2006, growing at a compound annual average growth rate of 14,7 % over the period 2001 to 2006. By 2009 the market is expected to be worth $3.1 billion” [Riches 2002].

Most modern cars use controlled area network protocols (CAN protocol) for Networking or multiplexing. However, the new systems require highly reliable networks that have been developed to give some solutions to these demands, for example: Domestic Data Bus (D2B); Bluetooth; Mobile Media Link (MML); Media-Oriented Systems Transport (MOST); Time-triggered protocol (TTP); Local Interconnect Network (LIN); Byteflight; FlexRay; Time-triggered CAN (TTCAN); intelligent transportation systems data bus [Lupini 2003].

A current problem is that it does not exist a standard protocol used by all the car manufacturers and some authors proposed the idea that at least eight in-vehicle network protocols may be necessary – mainly on high-end vehicles in the next ten years. These categories include diagnostics, airbag, mobile media, X-by-wire, and wireless. Each area needs its own protocol and one or more networks running that protocol.

42-volt Architecture: “Increasing vehicle electrical loads have prompted a global effort to develop a standard for a higher-voltage power bus.” [Frank 2004] Driving forces include pressure to reduce emissions and to increase fuel efficiency, as well as the increasing demand for convenience features.

The switch to 42-volt architecture increases the efficiency of the electrical systems which has a positive effect on fuel-efficiency. Furthermore, it enables the implementation of other technologies that can increase efficiency and reduce emissions, for instance brake-by-wire or an integrated starter alternator (ISA).

Other applications that will be affected include “electric power steering, water pumps and door closures, advanced braking and suspension systems, hermetically sealed air conditioning, and further displacement of viscous fan drives” [Tier One 2004]. These developments could lead to the so-called beltless engine, where all major accessories are no longer engine powered.

It is expected that 10% market penetration of 42-volt architecture will occur around 2005-2006 and that by 2010 about 25-35% of new passenger cars/light trucks will employ 42-volt technology [Darnell.Com 2004].

Lead-acid battery technology is the only type of battery used by conventional, high-volume automobiles. Lead-acid battery technology is well established, the production costs are low and the recycling paths are established. However, there are drawbacks to this technology for use in alternative drive vehicles and therefore other solutions are being developed, including the following technologies: nickel-cadmium, nickel-zinc, nickel-metalhydride, zinc/air, aluminium/air, sodium/sulphur, sodium/NiCl2, lithium-polymer, lithium-ion and lithium-iron. The key parameters to be optimised are specific energy [Wh/kg], energy density [Wh/l], specific power [W/kg], cycle life [cycles], recyclability, and specific cost [cost/kWh].



According to the website of the US Department of Energy, nickel-metalhydride batteries are “touted as the best of the next generation of batteries” and the United States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) “considers Lithium Iron batteries to be the long-term battery solution for electric vehicles” [U.S. Department of Energy 2004a].

Lighting and Auxiliary

Development on high illumination LED’s has been ongoing in the recent years and it is expected that they will offer a viable alternative to incandescent lighting in the near future.

LED lighting allows for a more even light distribution at lower power rates, which allows for thinner section wiring and styling options, which are not possible with traditional light bulbs. Current developments achieve light intensity outputs of about 18 - 20 lumen per watt, where traditional bulbs provide about 12 - 15 lumen per watt. Devices up to 5 watt are commercially available, and light redirecting can be achieved through light-pipes and diffusers.

Furthermore, surface-mount devices LEDs (SMD LEDs) are available too, making it very easy to integrate the lighting system with the wire harness (either FPC or FFC) for distributed illumination. By doing so, all metal brackets, supports, connectors and fixations could be eliminated, with the corresponding weight (and cost, logistic, etc.) saving.

Powertrain

Electromechanical valve actuators are a feasible option to replace the mechanical camshaft system which opens and closes the engine valves. This would allow precise opening and closing pattern depending on the driving situation at hand. This could mean substantial fuel savings of between 10 and 18 percent while increasing engine torque at low speeds by 15 to 20 percent, improving acceleration. Standing in the way of implementation of electromechanical valves is their inability to decelerate before landing as desired, which avoids wear, vibration and engine noise. Currently several companies and institutions are working on hardware and software solutions to this problem [Fischetti 2002].



Figure 23: Schematic of Electromechanical Valve Actuators[Fischetti 2002]



Another fuel saving technology is direct injection, typically using piezoelectric injectors. Using this technology, the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, where it mixes with the air, as opposed to conventional indirect injection, where the mixing takes place outside the cylinder. The 2002 Volkswagen Polo improved fuel efficiency for city driving by 13 percent by switching to direct injection technology. [Fischetti 2002] For diesel engines, a market penetration of 30% is expected for the EU-market by 2005; for gasoline engines the technology is still under development [Lohse et al. 2001].

The goal of an adaptive powertrain control system is “the achievement of optimal vehicle operation with respect to fuel consumption, dynamic driving behaviour and emissions for all driving situations and operating conditions.” This is accomplished by solving a multi-criteria optimisation problem using the information from the varies sensors of the automobile. This solution determines the optimal powertrain operating state as well as a method for the co-ordinated control of drive assemblies for shifting operations [Löffler 2000].

An infinitely or continuously variable transmission (CVT) allows the engine to always operate at the optimal engine speed. There are various technologies that can be employed including friction CVT, hydrostatic CVT and variable-stroke CVT. The increase in fuel economy for the 2002 Saturn VUE due to its CVT is between 7 and 11 percent, according to General Motors [Fischetti 2002]. CVT is not a new technology, but is receiving increased attention due to its promise for increased fuel efficiency. There are other competing technologies that may offer similar or even greater fuel savings, for instance an “automated manual” system called dual clutch transmission (DCT) from BorgWarner. According to the manufacturer, fuel savings of 15 % compared to a conventional 5-speed planetary automatic transmission are possible [Ward’s Auto World 2000].

A hybrid drive vehicle combines a conventional gasoline engine drive with an electric motor. Petrol is the energy source for the car. A battery is used to power the electric motor and other electric applications. The battery is charged either by the generator or by the regenerative energy created from braking (see brake-by-wire). Hybrids can offer considerable improvements in fuel-efficiency and emissions. The Toyota Prius requires 4.3 litres of gasoline per 100 km, about half that of a comparable conventional car. Toyota is the current market leader in hybrid auto sales and expects to sell over 150,000 units in 2004 and believes sales could double that in 2006 [Fairley 2004].



Figure 24: Schematic Drivetrain Operation of a Hybrid Vehicle [Staedter, MacNeill 2002]

Although hybrid technology does not achieve zero emission in the use phase, it represents a significant ecological improvement in terms of emissions and may provide an important stepping stone in the development of technologies that are key to fully electric powered vehicles, including power electronics and battery technology.

An automobile which utilises solely an electric drive has the attractive feature of producing zero emissions in the area of use. There are several possibilities for supplying the necessary energy. One option is to use a battery which must be charged at a station as the tank of a conventional car must be filled. Currently all battery technologies have major drawbacks, including prohibitive price, insufficient specific energy, short lifetimes or toxic elements.

Alternatively, a fuel cell can be used to provide energy for an electric vehicle. A fuel cell produces energy through a process where hydrogen and oxygen react with one another to produce electricity and water. The manufacturing of fuel cells is currently too expensive for significant market penetration and other major issues stand in the way of implementing fuel cell technology including the low energy density of hydrogen and how to produce and distribute the hydrogen. Nonetheless essentially all major automobile producers are working to solve this and other problems associated with fuel cell technology for automobiles and there is considerable funding from the public sector. The US government announced recently



its intent to supply $1.2 billion in research funding for fuel cell technology [U.S. Department of Energy 2004b]. GM has produced a prototype fuel cell car that it says it will mass produce by 2010 [Fairley 2004].

Chassis / Safety

A clear trend can be observed in automotive electronics that new products are introduced in luxury cars, where the customers are willing to pay a premium for new technologies and then as the products become more mature they are integrated into the mass market. This holds true in chassis and safety electronics as, for instance, side airbags are expected to be implemented in middle class and economy cars. Further development in pre-crash recognition systems, night vision, driver alertness / status is expected in the future.

An increase and continuing development of parking aid systems can be observed. It is expected that in the long-term, various short, mid, and long range object sensors (ultrasonic, radar, camera, etc.) will be implemented, possibly simultaneously, to provide not only a parking aid function but also increased safety function, for instance through driver alert by impending collision or even active intervention such as braking. Such a scenario is presented in Figure 25.

Figure 25: Integration of Object Sensing, Parking Aid and Safety Systems[Ploss 2003]



It is likely that in the future pre-crash systems and object detection systems will increasingly work together. Some predictions of longer-term developments predict an integration of these systems with telematic and GPS systems to an increasingly automated driving environment.

An active suspension system attempts to improve both passenger comfort and handling of the automobile, two goals that contradict each other physically speaking, to an extent that passive systems cannot. A hydraulic active suspension uses acceleration sensors to detect changes in the vehicle body position (so-called bounce, pitch and roll). This information is given to the electronic control unit, which calculates output values that control a pressure control valve that regulates the actuator, which is essentially a hydraulic power cylinder. The actuator performs the damping functions of the suspension system.

Comfort Electronics

Similar to the chassis and safety systems, a path from introduction in luxury automobiles to a later mass production in midsize and economy cars can be seen in many aspects of comfort electronics. Climate control which regulates the temperature according to the occupant’s specification is one technology that is increasingly making this transition. Another area that is under considerable development currently is the comfort electronics in the door assembly.

Infotainment / Telematics

An area which is considered to have potential for considerable mid-term growth is automobile entertainment. Customer demand for video and multimedia systems is strong, especially in higher end vehicles. Due to currently high costs for software and service, the mid-term growth for mobile internet and telematics is considered not as strong, but in the longer term it is expected that this will be an important area of automobile electronics. As a result of these trends, the number of screens in the average automobile is expected to rise significantly over time. A vision of a possible future scenario of telematics integrating object sensing, active head-up-display, navigational aide (including GPS) & internet content is shown in Figure 26.

Figure 26: A Vision of the Future of Telematics[Ploss 2003]



1.4.2 Design, Manufacture, Assembly and Disassembly Strategies

1.4.2.1 Car Manufacture & Assembly

Current automotive industry seems to have completely deployed its production capabilities, oriented to a mass-production based on JIT (just-in-time) batches, sequenced from their suppliers. This results in an effective time of about 30 hours in the assembly of a fully finished car, including the validation and quality testing, at the original equipment manufacturer facility (OEM). However, “best” delivery times vary from one OEM manufacturer to the other, being currently the minimum average period (from the request at the car dealer to the delivery to the final customer) around 15 days. Typical values are around 40 to 55 days for a specific configuration, if it was not currently scheduled in the assembly line [Briz et al. 2004].

These long times may not be easily accepted by final customers – they do not want to wait one and a half months to get their cars. Furthermore, the wish of individuality and exclusivity usually leads to configurations, which were dismissed in the planning of a car family. That is why many tailor-made configurations take too long because of their specific configuration: the OEM manufacturers have to select the specific components, stop the current production, make a “personal” assembly and, maybe, modify the test procedure to adapt to this new configuration.

These two opposing concepts (fast mass-production and specific configurations) cannot be fulfilled at the same time with current processes and techniques. As a result, many car-configurations are assembled in small or medium series, which remain stored in huge parking lots near the OEM facilities. Current estimations say these finished cars’ stock may be around 10 M€ in value just in Europe.

However, the elimination of this “exclusivity & individuality” trend does not seem feasible and thus new concepts must be sought in the automotive industry to adapt to this new concept, the “build-to-order” (BTO) production. This adaptation will lead from the current “OEM-push” production, where the car manufacturers propose a discrete set of configurations to choose from, to a “customer-pull” manufacture, where the customer requests a specific product to be assembled.

The new strategies to be proposed must consider all production steps in the car manufacturing, and so changes have to be made in the global production chain, from the Tier “n” suppliers up to the OEM manufacturer itself.

All this can only be achieved effectively through systems integration, where a clear difference between interior (styling) parts and electric / electronic systems does not exist anymore: Big “building-blocks” are defined as interior modules, each one carrying an important load of electronics and, maybe, integrating wire harnesses, too. This concept comes necessarily along with several new techniques, from new fixation systems to universal communication protocols between devices. Common interfaces (connectors, guides, clips, etc.) and similar materials and finishing are required between different suppliers, as well as a common identification for single-car traceability.



1.4.2.2 The Modular Design

One of the simplest yet powerful strategies that can be proposed is modularity. If it is possible to develop different interchangeable systems, it will be possible to produce several different final products with small (or no) changes in the production line. Of course, a global modularity concept should be proposed for an optimal car family, where almost all parts can be substituted by similar ones, with different functionality and/or styling [Briz et al. 2004].

This concept, however, has to be extended to all possible parts in a car, so that a specific configuration can be obtained from a set of standard components, which do not require any special tooling for their assembly. Some manufacturers already deliver complex assembly units, which are sequenced in the normal assembly line of the car and are attached in several steps: location, adjustment, electrical connection, placement, fixation, electrical test, etc.

However, no optimisation process has been made: these complex systems are just sub-assemblies for the car, but they include all usual components used in a separate assembly – they merely spare assembly steps at the OEM line. It is here where great improvements can be achieved.

As a result, the idea of modular integration arises, where these complex systems are modified to reduce the number of parts and weight, enhance modularity, simplify the fixation process to the car and to include some new solutions, materials and/or technologies, which are difficult to implement in a normal assembly.

Traditionally, a car’s interior has been divided in several areas, which have been treated as separated systems by the OEMs and suppliers. These areas are currently: seats, cockpit, doors, headliner and floor. Some of these areas are easily delivered as a single piece (seats), but some others require the collaboration of several suppliers, like in the cockpit, where usually one supplier makes the heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system, another develops the electronics, a third one produces the plastics parts and a fourth one produces the wire harness. In any case, each of these areas is feasible for modularization, but each “integrated module” will have to be studied separately, and specific solutions may be proposed for each case.

The final target is to reduce the assembly process time of the car.

1.4.2.3 Electronics and Wire Harness Integration

Currently most electric switching (both signal and power) functions in a car are performed through electronics, to reduce the overall length (and weight) in power lines. Signal switches activate their corresponding power device (i.e. a relay or a transistor), either managed by a microcontroller or not. The inclusion of complex electronics (microcontroller, bus transceivers) allows for the introduction of new functionality, like diagnostics or remote operation, at a relatively low cost [Briz et al. 2004].

A possible strategy will be the distribution of the control of many functions, to place the electronics near the application of these functions. Smaller and simpler electronic units will be connected through hierarchical networks in master / slave configurations. Next to the cost reduction caused by the wire-harness simplification, these distributed control electronics will



be able to add value to current systems (plain service activation) like diagnostics, sensing and reporting to the master modules. LIN slaves are the current trend in small networks inside the modules (seat, door, headliner) and small cost-effective solutions are being proposed and presented.

A further step in system integration is the inclusion of the wire harness inside of the modules; there are several strategies to do so. In most cases, the logical decision is to change to flat wiring architectures (FFC, FPC, etc.) attached or embedded in the styling part, or rather to use 3D-MID technologies directly in the plastic parts.

These strategies are optimal solutions where big flat surfaces are available (door panels, headliners and cockpits), or where a simple interconnecting circuit can be realised. In some cases, like headliners or “floor” modules, the FPC or FFC can be embedded in the production process of the trim foam itself.

New system architecture proposals should lead to new routing techniques and simplification of harnesses, along with an improvement in modularity and variety. In this sense, the use of distributed electronics is helping in simplifying the harnesses, where only a few wires are needed (power, ground, bus) for the whole system. A common wire harness can be used if the control signals are transmitted through the same protocol bus.

1.4.2.4 Materials Strategy

Technologies like in-mould decoration or nanoparticle-coatings may eliminate traditional painting with increased performance in everyday use. Fibre (or even metal) plastic reinforcement is leading to the substitution of metal structural parts by complex injection-mould plastics, much lighter and in many cases much easier to produce. These reinforcements can sometimes avoid current two-shot moulding or metal inserts, used to ensure the fixation of screws or clips.

New materials are used to reduce car weight, changing the traditional materials for new alternatives. In some cases, this change could reduce the recyclability potential of the complete car, because plastics (defined separation and recycling process) replace metallic parts (with actual recycling process).

1.4.2.5 Disassembly and Recycling

With this modular strategy it would be easier to dismantle the complete module from the car, due to the standardisation of joints, modular wire harness, etc. However, this strategy could increase the number of different materials in each module, making more difficult their disassembly in the different components. With this approach, it would be a mixture of electronics, wire, plastics, etc. that should be separated in order to recycle the different materials.

Dismantling manually could be very time consuming, due to the high number of components integrated in a module or their accessibility. The strategy should be the improvement of the recycling separation methods, treating the complete module together and separating manually only some very specific components (which could contain hazardous substances).

The rest of the module could be ground in order to separate (using different methods) the valuable materials.



One important aspect to be considered in the design of the module is the use of compatible materials for recycling or materials that could be easily separated (e.g. very different density of magnetic characteristics).

Finally, the integration strategy would reduce the overall weight of the car (a main target for all OEMs and suppliers), bringing lower fuel consumption and thus a lower emissions rate to the environment.

1.5 Assessment of Automotive EES

The aim of the integrated assessment of automotive EES is to identify the most relevant and representative EES components to be focused on in the SEES project by considering legal, economic, environmental, dismantling and recycling aspects. In a second step the components to be covered in subsequent SEES workpackages will be selected based on their feasibility.

To perform an assessment, the various EES components were divided into 14 groups as described above. Grouping was mainly determined by physical properties of components and also by their function in the car. The resulting groups are:

1. Sensors (for sensing pressure, positions, flow, temperature, heat, humidity, exhaust gas, speed, acceleration and knock, torque)

2. Basic actuators (electro-magnetic actuators (e.g. solenoids, moving coils), electrical actuators (e.g. sparking plug), piezoelectric actuators (e.g. injection valves), thermal actuators, pyrotechnical initiators)

3. Wire harnesses and cables4. Connection and protection devices (cable connectors, passive junction boxes,

switches, relays, fuses)5. Electronic control units (ECU)6. Integrated mechatronic components (IMC)7. Batteries (lead-acid battery, NiMH batteries)8. Electrical motors and generators (starter motor, alternator, dc motors, step motors,

motor pumps, compressors)9. Lights (high intensity discharge (HID) lamps, tungsten / halogen bulbs, LED)10. Heating units (window heating, seat heating, cigarette lighter)11. Displays (electronic analog displays, LCD, head-up displays (HUD))12. Entertainment devices (CD / cassette radio, loudspeaker)13. Communication and navigation devices (GPS receiver, cell phone unit, telematic

system)14. Other devices (horn, security / anti-theft devices, IR light units (e.g. remote power

lock), radar / ultrasonic units (e.g. obstacle detection))

These groups can be further subdivided into different component types depending on their composition, function and location in the car. Examples of component types are given in brackets above.



The EES component types from these groups have been assessed by an assessment scheme that is described in the following section.



1.5.1 Assessment Scheme

One aim of the assessment is the selection of relevant and representative EES components to be covered in subsequent workpackages. These future project activities include dismantling, recycling, sustainability assessment, redesign and prototyping. Therefore the assessment scheme focuses on criteria that qualify EES components for these activities. To provide the needed information with efficient amount of data input it was decided to deploy a stepwise three filter assessment scheme (see Figure 27):

Filter 1: Qualitative assessment of groups / types of components(major legal, economic and environmental aspects)

Filter 2: Qualitative and semi-quantitative assessment of individual example components(dismantling, recycling aspects and future trends)

Filter 3: Assessment of feasibility of selected components for SEES workpackages(availability of components, technical requirements, costs, safety, etc.)

EES component types divided into 14 different groups

Selection of relevant EES component types for further assessment(at least one from each of the 14 groups)

+Identification of example components from selected component types

Proposal of EES components to be analysed in SEES workpackages

List of relevant and representative example components(at least one from each of the 14 groups)

Figure 27: EES Assessment Scheme

The components selected for assessment in the 2nd and 3rd filter depend on the results of the preceding filters – to focus assessment on most promising components. At this early stage of the project only qualitative assessment is possible for most of the criteria. Hence it was decided to use a qualitative A/B/C assessment in the first two filters and qualitative decision making for the 3rd filter. In each criteria the value “A” was given for highest relevance of component (with regard to SEES objectives) whereas “C” represents low relevance of component in that criteria.

Based on the qualitative assessment in the first two filters a score is calculated for each EES component by representing A/B/C by values of 2/1/0, multiplying this by a weighting factor assigned to each criteria and summing up all products from each filter. The calculation for one component “x” can be written as follows:



This calculation results in a score that increases with increasing relevance of component for the objectives of SEES project.

The 1st filter concentrates on major legal, economic and environmental aspects of EES component groups. For this filter the following criteria are used:

Legal duty to dismantle (according to EU directive 2000/53/EC on end-of-life vehicles)

Potential economic end-of-life value for recycling (considering material composition)

Potential economic end-of-life value for reuse (considering the use as a spare part or being a service part during use phase of the car)

Potential environmental relevance (estimating the environmental impact over the entire life cycle)

These criteria were chosen because they represent the basic motivations for considering an EES component for dismantling, reuse, recycling and redesign. The most promising types of components to be investigated in SEES are components that have to be dismantled due to legal obligations, that have a high intrinsic economic value for recycling or reuse, and that have a high potential impact on environment.

Within the 1st filter the highest weighting (20) is given to the criteria ‘legal duty to dismantle’ since EU obligation to dismantle a component from end-of-life vehicles is based on environmental and recycling issues related to it. Dismantling often is a pre-requisite for high quality recycling of EES components and to avoid contamination of other recyclable fractions. Therefore improvements in dismantling or recycling of these components with legal duty to be dismantled should have high priority. The other three criteria of this filter are considered to be equally important but each of them less important than legal duty. Therefore the same weighting (10) is assigned to them.

The following measures are used for assessment under 1st filter’s criteria:

Legal duty to dismantle

A: Component always has to be dismantled according to EU directive 2000/53/EC.

B: Component affected by regulation under directive 2000/53/EC, Annex II3, No. 11 and 14 (lead in solder and electrical components which contain lead in a glass or ceramic matrix compound): dismantling if an average threshold for these applications of 60 grams of lead per vehicle is exceeded.

C: No obligation for dismantling

3 Annex II was amended by Commission decision 2002/525/EC of 27 June 2002.



Potential economic end-of-life value for recycling

A: High precious metals content (e.g. gold, platinum, palladiuim, silver) or other large valuable fraction

B: Medium value metals (e.g. copper, nickel, zinc) or other valuable materials

C: Only low value materials

Potential economic end-of-life value for reuse

A: High value spare part

B: Service part or medium value spare part

C: No service part, no spare part

Potential Environmental relevance

A: High (impact on use phase of vehicle, esp. energy consumption, hazardous substances)

B: Medium (impact mainly on production/ recycling, esp. high energy and resource consumption for raw materials processing, precious metals production, etc. – only if big amount of material needed)

C: Low (relatively small amount of material and energy consumption during life cycle)

It should be noted that only the criteria ‘legal duty to dismantle’ is based on distinctive rules. The assessment for the other three criteria has to rely on qualitative estimations and the measures A/B/C have fuzzy boundaries.

After finishing assessment in the 1st filter only the following component types will be further investigated in 2nd filter:

All component types with a score of at least 70 points in 1st filter (represents A for ‘legal duty to dismantle’ and B in average for the other criteria)

At least one component type from each of the 14 groups (the one(s) with the highest score in 1st filter)

By this we include the most relevant component types and still keep a representative sample of the main component groups for further investigation.

The assessment continues in 2nd filter by looking more in detail on example components taken from the selected component types. Now more specific criteria are used to describe the suitability of certain EES components depending on their dismantling and recycling properties and their potential for fulfilment of end-of-life vehicle directive and increase of overall recovery rate of cars in future. Eight criteria have been selected to assess this. Again the assessment uses qualitative and in some cases semi-quantitative measures of A/B/C where A represents high relevance of component. The assessment criteria and measures for 2nd filter are:

Content of Heavy metals mentioned at the end-of-life vehicle directive (lead, mercury, cadmium or hexavalent chromium): An estimation of the total amount x of the relevant heavy metals in component is made. Although the specific impact and



critical amounts of different heavy metals are neglected this gives an impression which components contribute most to total heavy metal content in car and which components should be concentrated on to reach the 60 g lead target for dismantling. In EES the most relevant heavy metal used is lead (e.g. batteries, carbon brushes for electric motors, solder in electronic circuit boards and other electric applications, piezoelectric components, bulbs, pyrotechnic initiators). Only in some specific applications cadmium (e.g. electrical vehicle batteries) and mercury (e.g. discharge lamps for head lights or LCD screens) are used.

A: High (x > 5 g)

B: Middle (1 g < x <5 g)

C: Low (x < 1 g)

Total weight of component: This indicates the relevance of the component mass x to reach the overall mass target for reuse and recovery of end-of-life vehicles (ELV) according to ELV directive.

A: High (x > 10 kg)

B: Middle (1 kg < x < 10 kg)

C: Low (x < 1 kg)

Dismantling time: A short time x for dismantling of component from car promotes economic efficiency of recycling this component separately. Data for dismantling time is based on non-destructive dismantling tests of new cars at the car manufacturer recycling facilities and partners’ expertise. It should be mentioned that dismantling time can scatter on a wide range depending on car type and design and other factors. Therefore mean values of available data for two different car models or estimations have been used.

A: Low (x < 3 min)

B: Middle (3 min < x < 10 min)

C: High (x > 10 min)

State of the art reuse / recycling: Components that can can be recycled in existing recycling circuits are favourable for dismantling and separate recycling. As long as there is no reliable recycling or reuse scheme available, components will not be dismantled at large scale.

A: large scale recycling circuits available

B: recycling at lab scale or only for parts of component possible

C: no recycling technology available yet

Synergy with other dismantled parts: Some components if been dismantled enable or ease the dismantling of further components in the car. These synergies are useful to acquire other valuable and recyclable components more efficiently in shorter time.

A: Easier dismantling of several relevant components possible

B: Easier dismantling of few other components or less relevant components

C: No relevant component affected by dismantling



Contamination of other recycled materials when not dismantled: Some components if not been dismantled may contaminate other materials that are going to be recycled from car shredder output. This is especially the case for copper as a contaminant in steel recycling and for heavy metals that can accumulate or be spread during recycling. Certain plastics recycling processes also could be affected. Components with high danger of contaminating other materials are preferable for dismantling and separate treatment.

A: Small amounts of component already strongly diminish recycling quality

B: Large amounts of component diminish recycling quality

C: Low influence on recycling quality

Potential improvement of reuse / recycling / general design: Here we try to estimate the potential of foreseeable developments to improve the reuse, recycling or general design of this component. Some components might be in the focus of industrial research to improve its design or its recycling, and others less. Preference is given to components that already exhibit possible improvements that could be tested and implemented during SEES project.

A: Very promising new design options / recycling technologies under discussion

B: Redesign or improvement of recycling seems possible

C: Status quo of design / recycling probably hardly to be improved due to certain limitations or low interest of producers

Future Trend: This indicates the probable future use of this component. Because of upcoming development and foreseeable trends some EES components will have increasing importance in terms of increasing use or number of this component. Others are decreasing since they will be replaced by new alternative technologies. EES components that have increasing future importance are favourable.

A: increasing use / number of component

B: stable

C: decreasing use / number of component

The highest weighting that is assigned to 2nd filter criteria is 7 for heavy metal content, total weight and dismantling time. That is because these criteria have strong influence on reaching the targets of ELV directive and represent the major motivation for dismantling. Another advantage is that semi-quantitative data can be used for these criteria. A weighting factor of 5 is applied to the criteria that influence technical questions of recycling: state of the art reuse / recycling, synergy with other dismantled parts and contaminations. The remaining two criteria on future improvement options and general trend of the component get a weighting factor of 3 since they contain a higher uncertainty and can only be roughly extrapolated from current knowledge.

As the result of 2nd filter assessment we add the sub-total scores from 1st and 2nd filter for each component to obtain a total score. From each component type covered in the 2nd filter the representative example component with the highest total score is selected for further investigation in SEES project. The highest score represents the highest relevance for the



objectives of SEES. By choosing at least one component of each of the 14 EES groups we keep our further work representative for the whole EES in cars.

The 3rd filter assesses practical, technical and economic feasibility for SEES project consortium, especially for the workpackages conducting practical studies in assembly, dismantling, shredding and recycling. Practical implications result from the compartment where the selected components are located, the presence of selected components in available cars (depending on age and category of car), and the abundance of these components in end-of-life vehicles.

The car compartment where the respective component is situated influences dismantling activities. Depending of the general condition of an end-of-life vehicle (e.g. after a heavy traffic accident) some compartments of the car might be difficult to access for dismantling. In extreme cases components from passenger compartment could be not accessible for dismantling from old cars with damaged roof (pressed for easy transportation of the old car).

Presence of EES components in car depends on car age and car category. The car age range could be divided into three age categories:

1. > 15 years (oldest end-of-life vehicles arriving at car dismantlers / shredders today)

2. 5 – 15 years (most of the cars arriving at car recycling today and in near future)

3. < 5 years (present cars that will turn into end-of-life cars in future)

As car category it is considered the five standard Euro car categories commonly used: A (basic), B (small), C (Lower medium), D (Upper medium), E (Executive). To indicate the presence of the selected EES components again a qualitative A/B/C assessment was used:

A: In almost all cars (age 1-3 and category A-E)

B: In few old cars (age 1-2: some high equipped cars of categories C-E) but in most today’s cars (age 3: all categories A-E)

C: Only in few today’s cars (age 3: some high equipped cars of categories C-E)

Additionally it is decided by assessment of the workpackage leaders which of the selected components are feasible for which of the SEES workpackages.

1.5.2 Assessment Results

Applying the assessment scheme to the 14 groups of EES components leads to the results presented at a glance in the Tables 9, 10 and 11. The results of the assessment performed will be explained in the following text.



Table 9: EES Assessment Results: 1st FilterA = 2 1. Filter: determination of relevant and representative types of componentsB = 1 Weighting factorC = 0

2. Component type 1. sub-total

pressure C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0position (linear + angle) C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0flow C 0 C 0 B 10 C 0 10temperature, heat, humidity C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0

exhaust gas C 0 B 10 B 10 A 20 40

speed C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0acceleration / knock C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0torque C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0magnetic (solenoids, moving coils) C 0 B 10 C 0 C 0 10

electrical (e.g. sparking plug) C 0 B 10 C 0 C 0 10

piezoelectric (PZT ceramics, e.g. injection valves) C 0 C 0 C 0 B 10 10

thermal C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0

cable connectors B 20 C 0 C 0 C 0 20

switches B 20 C 0 C 0 C 0 20relays C 0 C 0 B 10 C 0 10fuses C 0 C 0 B 10 C 0 10

lead-acid batteries A 40 B 10 A 20 A 20 90NiMH batteries C 0 B 10 B 10 B 10 30starter motor B 20 A 20 A 20 A 20 80alternator B 20 A 20 A 20 A 20 80dc motors B 20 B 10 B 10 B 10 50step motors B 20 B 10 B 10 B 10 50motor pumps B 20 B 10 B 10 A 20 60compressors C 0 B 10 B 10 A 20 40HID (mercury) A 40 C 0 A 20 A 20 80tungsten / halogen bulbs C 0 C 0 C 0 B 10 10LED C 0 C 0 C 0 B 10 10

window heating B 20 C 0 C 0 B 10 30

seat heating C 0 C 0 C 0 B 10 10cigarette lighter C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0electronic analog displays B 20 C 0 B 10 A 20 50

head-up displays (HUD) A 40 B 10 B 10 B 10 70

Loudspeaker B 20 B 10 B 10 B 10 50GPS receiver B 20 B 10 A 20 B 10 60GSM / cell phone unit B 20 B 10 A 20 B 10 60telematic systems B 20 B 10 A 20 B 10 60horn C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 0security / electronic anti-theft system

B 20 B 10 B 10 B 10 50IR units (e.g. remote power lock) C 0 B 10 A 20 B 10 40

radar / microwave units (obstacle detection) B 20 B 10 A 20 B 10 60ultrasonic units (obstacle detection)

B 20 B 10 A 20 B 10 60

13. communication / navigation

14. other devices

9. lights / lamps

10. heating units

11. displays / screens

1. EES component group

1. Sensors

B 20

Qualitative categories

A = yes, alwaysB = probably (max. 60g lead in solder or glass/ceramic)C = noLegal duty to dismantle potential Economic EoL-

Value Recycling (material comp.)

20B

50

A = precious metals or large valuable fractionB = medium value metals or other valuable materials; C = only low value materials

A = high value spare partB = service part or medium valuable spare partC = no service part, no valuable spare part

A = high (impact on use phase of vehicle: energy consumption, Hazardous substances etc.)B = medium (impact on production/raw material/recycling - if big amount - esp. precious metals etc.) C = low

60

10 B 10

20

potential Economic EoL-Value Reuse (spare part / service part)

potential Environmental relevance

10 10 10

5. electronic control units (ECU)

6. integrated mechatronic components (IMC)

8. motors / generators

BA 20

B

7. batteries

3. wire harness / cables

4. connection / protection devices

pyrotechnical initiators

2. (basic) actuators

passive junction boxes (wired, without PCB)

passive PCB junction boxes

A

A 20 C

40

0C

10 A

0 B 30

B 10

C 0 70

50

10

B

LCD 40

20

A B

B

B 20 10

10

10

B 10

B

10 B 10 7010

12. entertainment

cd / cassette radio B 20

10B 10

10B

10 B 10 B

B

B 20 B

60

50

B 10 A 20



Table 10: EES Assessment Results: 2nd FilterA = 2 2. Filter: selection of relevant component examples from selected groupsB = 1 Weighting factorC = 0

2. Component type 3. Component (location) / example

2. sub-total

1.+2. total

pressureposition (linear + angle)flowtemperature, heat, humidity

exhaust gas Lambda control sensor C 0 C 0 B 7 C 0 B 5 C 0 B 3 B 3 18 58

speedacceleration / knocktorquemagnetic (solenoids, moving coils)

electrical (e.g. sparking plug)

piezoelectric (PZT ceramics, e.g. injection valves)

thermalairbag inflator C 0 C 0 B 7 C 0 B 5 C 0 B 3 A 6 21 91seat belt tensioner C 0 C 0 A 14 C 0 B 5 C 0 B 3 B 3 25 95Wire Harness I, engine comp. A 14 B 7 C 0 A 10 B 5 B 5 B 3 A 6 50 80

Wire Harness II, passenger comp. B 7 B 7 C 0 A 10 C 0 B 5 B 3 A 6 38 68

Wire Harness III, cockpit B 7 B 7 B 7 A 10 C 0 B 5 B 3 B 3 42 72Wire Harness IV, door front C 0 C 0 A 14 A 10 C 0 B 5 B 3 C 0 32 62Wire Harness V, door rear C 0 C 0 A 14 A 10 C 0 B 5 B 3 C 0 32 62Wire Harness VI, luggage comp. C 0 C 0 A 14 A 10 C 0 B 5 C 0 A 6 35 65

cable connectorsEngine Passive Junction Box C 0 B 7 A 14 C 0 B 5 C 0 B 3 C 0 29 79Passenger Passive Junction Box C 0 B 7 A 14 C 0 C 0 C 0 B 3 C 0 24 74

switchesrelaysfuses

Engine Passive PCB Junction Box A 14 B 7 A 14 A 10 B 5 C 0 B 3 C 0 53 103Passenger Passive PCB Junction Box

A 14 B 7 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 B 3 C 0 48 98

Airbag ECU C 0 C 0 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 C 0 A 6 30 90

Engine ECU C 0 C 0 A 14 A 10 B 5 C 0 C 0 A 6 35 95

Engine Smart Junction Box A 14 B 7 A 14 A 10 B 5 C 0 B 3 A 6 59 119

Passenger Smart Junction Box A 14 B 7 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 B 3 A 6 54 114Rear Smart Junction Box A 14 B 7 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 B 3 A 6 54 114

Seat mechatronics C 0 C 0 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 B 3 A 6 33 83

Door mechatronics C 0 C 0 B 7 A 10 C 0 C 0 B 3 A 6 26 76

Light Mechatronica C 0 C 0 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 B 3 A 6 33 83

lead-acid batteries lead-acid starter battery A 14 A 14 A 14 A 10 B 5 A 10 A 6 B 3 76 166NiMH batteriesstarter motor starter motor A 14 B 7 A 14 B 5 B 5 B 5 A 6 B 3 59 139alternator alternator A 14 B 7 A 14 B 5 B 5 B 5 A 6 B 3 59 139dc motorsstep motorsmotor pumpscompressorsHID (mercury) (HID) head lights C 0 C 0 B 7 C 0 C 0 B 5 B 3 A 6 21 101tungsten / halogen bulbsLED

window heating rear-window heating C 0 C 0 B 7 B 5 C 0 B 5 C 0 B 3 20 50

seat heatingcigarette lighterelectronic analog displays

in seat (rear passenger on-board entertainment) C 0 B 7 A 14 B 5 C 0 B 5 B 3 A 6 40 110

dashboard unit (autoPC / GPS / telematics) C 0 C 0 B 7 B 5 C 0 B 5 B 3 A 6 26 96

head-up displays (HUD) HUD (included in dashboard) C 0 C 0 B 7 B 5 C 0 B 5 B 3 A 6 26 96dashboard unit (CD / radio) B 7 B 7 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 B 3 B 3 44 104

trunk multiple cd changer B 7 B 7 A 14 A 10 C 0 C 0 C 0 B 3 41 101

LoudspeakerGPS receiverGSM / cell phone unittelematic systemshornsecurity / electronic anti-theft systemIR units (e.g. remote power lock)radar / microwave units (obstacle detection)ultrasonic units (obstacle detection)

13. communication / navigation

14. other devices

9. lights / lamps

10. heating units



1. Sensors

A = increasing use / number of component B = stable; C = decreasing use / number of component


Future TrendPotential improvement of reuse / recycling / general design

A = very promising new design options / recycling techn.B = redesign, improvement of recycling seems possibleC = status quo of design / recycling probably hardly to be improved

Dismantling Times (without tooling)

Contamination of other recycled materials when not dismantled

dismantling component enables easier or faster dismantling ofA = several relevant components B = few components C = no relevant component

A = small amounts strongly diminish recycling qualityB = higher amounts diminish recycling quality C = low influence on recycling quality

A: > 10 kg; B: 1 kg < x < 10 kg; C: < 1 kg

A = high (> 5 gr); B = middle (1 gr < x <5 gr); C = low (< 1 gr);

Total weight of component

A = low (<3 min); B = middle (3 min < x <10 min); C = high (>10 min)

A = large scale recycling circuits availableB = recycling at lab scale or only parts of componentC = no recycling technology available

State of the Art reuse / recycling

Synergy with other dismantled parts

777

Content of Heavy metals mentioned at the EoLV directive

33555




7. batteries







LCD

12. entertainment

cd / cassette radio

example component:GPS Navigation System (cockpit central unit)

example component:park pilot rear bumper units (microwaves or ultrasonics used for assisting driver in parking)

C 0

B 7 B 7 A 14 A 10 B 5 C 0 B 3 A 6 52 112

C 0 A 14 C 0 C 0 C 0 B 3 A 6 23 83



Table 11: EES Assessment Results: 3rd FilterA = 2 3. Filter: feasibility of selected components for SEES projectB = 1 Weighting factorC = 0

2. Component type 3. Component (location) / example

1.+2. Total Compart-ment of car

Presence in car (depending on car category and age)

WP 2Assembly

WP 3 Disassembly from new cars

WP 3 Disassembly from end-of life vehicles

WP 4EES recycling

WP 5Plastics recycling

WP 6 Shredding

pressureposition (linear + angle)flowtemperature, heat, humidity

exhaust gas Lambda control sensor 58 e A / B OK ok few cars, lots of effort MR / CR NRP FM yes / ok

speed maybe / not clear yet

acceleration / knock no / not possible / not available

torquemagnetic (solenoids, moving coils) MR = Mechanical Recycling

electrical (e.g. sparking plug) CR = Chemical Recycling

piezoelectric (PZT ceramics, e.g. injection valves)

NRP = No recoverable plastics

thermal PRP = Potential Recoverable Plastics: not clear yet

airbag inflator 91 p B assembled at supplier

ok dangerous ? NRP not available RP = Recoverable Plastics

seat belt tensioner 95 p B assembled at supplier

ok dangerous ? NRP not available FM = goes to ferrous metals fraction

Wire Harness I, engine comp. 80 e A OK ok ok MR PRP NFM - copper NFM = goes to non-ferrous metals fraction

Wire Harness II, passenger comp. 68

Wire Harness III, cockpit 72Wire Harness IV, door front 62Wire Harness V, door rear 62Wire Harness VI, luggage comp. 65

cable connectorsEngine Passive Junction Box 79Passenger Passive Junction Box 74

switchesrelaysfuses

Engine Passive PCB Junction Box 103 e A OK ok ok MR / CR PRP NFM / ASRPassenger Passive PCB Junction Box

98

Airbag ECU 90

Engine ECU 95

Engine Smart Junction Box 119 e B OK ok probably too few cars

CR / MR PRP NFM / ASR, few cars

Passenger Smart Junction Box 114Rear Smart Junction Box 114

Seat mechatronics 83 p B / C assembled at supplier ok too few cars MR / CR PRP not available

Door mechatronics 76

Light Mechatronica 83

lead-acid batteries lead-acid starter battery 166 e A OK ok ok Theoret. Outline RP (dismantled before)

NiMH batteries

starter motor starter motor 139 e A assembled at supplier ok ok MR NRP FM / NFM

alternator alternator 139 e A assembled at supplier ok ok MR NRP FM / NFM

dc motorsstep motorsmotor pumpscompressorsHID (mercury) (HID) head lights 101 e C ok (whole lamp) ok too few cars Theoret. Outline NRP not availabletungsten / halogen bulbsLED

window heating rear-window heating 50 p A assembled at supplier

okpossible, but not clear yet how to

dismantle

glass recycling out of scope

NRP not available

seat heatingcigarette lighterelectronic analog displays

in seat (rear passenger on-board entertainment)

110 p C assembled at supplier

ok not available ? PRP not available

dashboard unit (autoPC / GPS / telematics)

96 p C ok (integrated unit) ok not available ? PRP not available

head-up displays (HUD) HUD (included in dashboard) 96 p C not in Ford cars not in Ford cars not available ? PRP not available

dashboard unit (CD / radio) 104 p A ok (integrated unit) ok few old units MR / CR PRP NFM / ASR, few cars

trunk multiple cd changer 101

LoudspeakerGPS receiverGSM / cell phone unittelematic systemshornsecurity / electronic anti-theft systemIR units (e.g. remote power lock)radar / microwave units (obstacle detection)ultrasonic units (obstacle detection)

not available

Practical / Technical / Economic Feasibility for SEES project consortium

ASR = goes to mixed auto shredding residue (metals,

plastics, waste)

not available

PRP

PRP13. communication / navigation

14. other devices

9. lights / lamps

10. heating units



1. Sensors





7. batteries







LCD

12. entertainment

cd / cassette radio

t

e = engine

p = passenger

t = trunk

d =door

A = in almost all cars (also from the 80s)

B = in few old cars (80s) but in most today's cars

C = only in few (upper category) today's cars

MR / CRp C ok (integrated unit) not availableokexample component:GPS Navigation System (cockpit central unit)

example component:park pilot rear bumper units (microwaves or ultrasonics used for assisting driver in parking)

112

83 C not available MR / CRokassembled at supplier



For the 1st filter a uniform assessment for whole groups of components was performed as far as applicable based on similar physical component properties. Therefore the EES component groups wire harness, electronic control units (ECU) and integrated mechatronic components (IMC) are treated each as a uniform group whereas the other groups have to be sub-divided into different component types due to differences in their relevant properties. For the latter groups the different component types are assessed separately.

The ‘legal duty to dismantle’ delivers an ‘A’ for pyrotechnical initiators (have to be dismantled or neutralized) and lead-acid batteries. Also all components identified as containing mercury have to be dismantled as far as feasible. These are HID gas discharge lamps, LCD screens and head-up displays (HUD). Value B applies to several component types that contain lead solder in printed circuit boards (PCB) or other applications (e.g. window heating are soldered to connect wire harness and heating unit). For them it is not completely clear whether these components have to be dismantled or not. This depends on achieving the threshold value of max. 60 g lead in average per car for these applications. The remaining components do not have to be dismantled by rules of ELV directive (value C).

Looking at the material composition to assess the ‘potential economic end-of-life value for recycling’ the value A was given to the component types that have considerable precious metal content (especially in PCB components) or other large valuable fraction, like copper in wire harness and large motors (starter, alternator). Smaller amounts of these valuable fractions in small motors, solenoids, small and low-grade PCBs etc. were rated as B. Exhaust gas sensors contain thin platinum electrodes and therefore have been given a B. The remaining components with value C are very small or do not contain very valuable fractions.

The ‘potential economic end-of-life value for reuse’ identified some high-value spare parts (value A): electronic infotainment / navigation / comfort units in groups 12-14, HID lights, starter motor, alternator, battery and pyrotechnical initiators. Several other components have been rated as B if they can be used as medium valuable spare parts or if they are subject to regular service, especially where quality issues occur (e.g. flow sensors, engine ECU).

For assessment of ‘potential environmental relevance’ special attention was given to components which have a strong influence on environmental impact during the long lasting use phase of the vehicle or which contain very hazardous substances. Therefore an ‘A’ was given to exhaust gas sensors, lead-acid batteries, starter motor4, alternator, motor pumps, compressors and electronic analog displays. Most of the components rated with B contain printed circuit boards which show high energy and resource consumption during production (especially due to their precious metal content). The components rated as C do not seem to be as relevant in their environmental impact as the others mentioned before. Of course this is only a preliminary rough assessment and will need further clarification by LCA studies in workpackage 7.

The following EES component types have reached a score of at least 70 points in 1 st filter that qualifies them for in-depth investigation:

Pyrotechnical initiators

Lead-acid batteries

4 Moreover from starter motors 6 of 10 g lead from carbon brushes are emitted to the air during 10 years of use phase [Lohse et al. 2001].



Starter motor

Alternator

HID lights

LCD screens

Head-up displays (HUD)

Therefore these component types have been taken to the 2nd filter as well as the component types with highest score from each of the other groups not represented so far. This comprises exhaust gas sensors, passive junction boxes with and without PCB, ECU, IMC, window heating, CD / cassette radio, GPS / GSM / telematic units and microwave / ultrasonic units.

In the 2nd filter the selected component types are represented by relevant example components to enable assessment of more detailed individual dismantling and recycling aspects. The example components chosen for further assessment in the 2nd filter are the most common car applications from each selected component type and are listed in the Table 10 in the column ‘Component (location) / example’. For group 13 and 14 only one representative was chosen for each group (Navigation System and Park Pilot) since devices from these groups are less common in today’s cars than devices from the other groups. Main results of 2nd filter assessment are described in the following.

The ‘content of heavy metals mentioned at the ELV directive’ of different car components has been under detailed investigation in the studies “Heavy Metals in Vehicles I + II” by German Ökopol Institute ([Sander et al. 2000] and [Lohse et al. 2001]) on behalf of the EU commission. An overview on the results of the Ökopol studies is given in Annex A of this report. Results of these studies have been used as far as available for the selected EES components. For the remaining components the assessment was based on analogy to components with similar material composition. High heavy metal content (value A) in EES can be especially found in form of lead in starter battery, engine wire harness (lead terminals to battery), carbon brushes of large electric motors (starter and alternator) and in large PCB applications (engine PCB passive and smart junction boxes). Medium sized PCB applications with less solder are rated as B. Small PCBs and other components have been assessed with C. It is important to mention the mercury content of HID lamps and LCD (in cold cathode flourescent lamps for LCD backlight). Even if they contain only a small absolute amount of heavy metals (value C: mercury in the range of mg) the environmental impact of these components can be relatively high due to mercury’s toxicity. Anyway, HID and LCD will be covered by further investigation within SEES project due to their high score in the 1st filter.

Assessment of criteria ‘total weight’ shows that most of the single EES components are relatively light weighted. The starter battery is the only component with a mass of more than 10 kg (A). This clearly shows that it will be necessary to recover a wide range of different EES components from cars to substantially increase vehicle recovery rate.

The values for ‘dismantling time’ are based on previous non-destructive dismantling tests on new cars (times without tooling) of the car manufacturer and partners’ expertise. Already within different car models of the car manufacturer there are big differences in dismantling time depending on the assembly design. Therefore the values given here can only show rough estimations and only some of the differences between components that are very easy



to dismantle (e.g. battery) and others that are more difficult to dismantle (e.g. engine wire harness). Many single components can be dismantled in less than three minutes (A). But the times for single component dismantling can sum up to large total time for dismantling of many components. In contrast to new cars the dismantling times might be probably longer for old cars but could again be reduced by means of destructive dismantling where applicable.

Considering the ‘state of the art reuse / recycling’ the starter battery is the only EES component with specific large scale recycling circuits available (A). But other EES components also are given the value A if they are very similar to components from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and therefore could be recycled together with existing and upcoming recycling circuits for WEEE. These are wires, PCB and smart junction boxes, IMC, CD radio and navigation system. For other EES components that differ much from common WEEE adequate recycling circuits are often not yet available.

‘Synergy with other dismantled parts’ can be achieved by dismantling of certain components from engine compartment where EES and other parts of the car are packed in high density. In passenger compartment there are less synergies to be used for dismantling.

Danger of ‘contamination of other recycled materials if not dismantled’ is high (A) for starter battery since it contains a large amount of lead that can spread easily into other material fractions. But batteries are always dismantled due to legal requirements. Medium contamination sources mainly come from high copper content in large electric motors or large wire harnesses as a potential steel contaminant and from mercury in HID and LCD. Actual contamination of steel recycling by copper depends on whether the copper containing components end up in steel recycling or can be separated in the shredder process.

‘Potential improvement of reuse / recycling / general design’ could only be carefully predicted from known current development and research activities. Clear new design options (A) that will hit the market with high probability can be only seen for batteries (transition to 42 V systems) and starter motors / alternators (integration of starter motor and alternator). Most of the EES components were rated as B since improvements in recycling or recovering precious fractions seem possible.

The ‘Future Trend’ shows the EES components with increasing importance based on current developments (A). This is the case for airbags, parts of the wire harness, all kind of ECU and IMC, HID and infotainment / navigation devices. Passive connection devices and door wire harnesses will decrease in future importance due to their substitution by smart connection boxes and reduction of wire harness by use of IMC.

The total score calculated from the results in the 1st and 2nd filter assessment enables to select the most relevant EES components (highest total score) from all groups which did not reach 70 points in 1st filter. This results in a total list of 16 representative and most relevant EES components covering all 14 groups (total score in brackets):

Lambda control exhaust gas sensor (58)

Pyrotechnical initiators (airbag inflators (91) and seat belt tensioners (95))

Engine compartment wire harness (80)

Passive PCB junction boxes (engine compartment (103))

Smart junction boxes (engine compartment (119))



Seat mechatronics5 (83)

Lead-acid starter battery (166)

Starter motor (139)

Alternator (139)

HID head lights (101)

Rear-window heating (50)

LCD screens (dashboard (96), in seat (110))

Head-up display (96)

CD player / radio (dashboard unit (104))

GPS navigation system (112)

Park pilot (rear bumper ultrasonics sensors (83))

It should be noticed that the assessment leading to this selection of EES components is based on mostly qualitative and sometimes uncertain data based on current knowledge at an early stage of the SEES project. Probably the assessment of some of the components might slightly change in a later stage of the project when more detailed investigation on these components is conducted.

Our assessment results show clear differences between the representatives from different groups (from 50 points for rear-window heating to 166 for lead-acid starter battery). This indicates that the relevance of EES components like battery, starter motor, alternator and PCB containing junction boxes is substantially higher than other components like window heating and sensors.

To assess the practical, technical and economic feasibility of the listed components for further SEES workpackages the 3rd filter assessment has been used. This is to decide how far these components can be covered in different workpackages. There are obvious differences between the workpackages. Some of the more modern components cannot be obtained from end-of-life vehicles dismantled today but only from dismantling tests on new cars. For several components other sources outside of the SEES consortium would be needed to get sufficient input for recycling tests.

Most of the selected EES components are from engine compartment, some from passenger and few from trunk compartment of the car.

Applying the above mentioned qualitative assessment on presence of the selected components in cars it is obvious that some of the selected components are widely present also in old cars (A): battery, starter motor, alternator, engine wire harness, passive junction boxes, radio, exhaust gas sensors. Most difficult will be to obtain components from the groups screens / displays, communication / navigation and other devices since they are not yet standard equipment in today’s cars (C).

5 Light mechatronica have reached the same total score as seat mechatronics. But seat mechatronics have been selected as a representative for the group of integrated mechatronic components.



Results of the feasibility assessment by the SEES workpackage leaders can be found in Table 11. Feasibility for assembly study (WP 2) depends on how far certain components are pre-assembled in modules coming from the suppliers. Pre-assembly at supplier will make it more difficult to obtain the needed information for analysis of the assembly process. The feasibility of components for disassembly study (WP 3) first of all is a question of availability of different components in new cars dismantled at the car manufacturer facilities and in old cars dismantled at the car dismantler facilities. Feasibility for recycling studies (WP 4+5) is determined by material composition and available amount of selected components. Depending on their material composition the selected components and parts of them will rather suit to mechanical recycling, chemical recycling or plastic recycling.

1.5.3 Conclusions and Implications for SEES Workpackages

In this section some general conclusions from our assessment are drawn. Furthermore implications for further work in SEES project are proposed.

The assessment revealed the following general issues related to automotive EES:

The wide variety of different components of different size at different car locations makes it necessary to concentrate redesign and dismantling on identified hot spots. Dismantling of single components is limited by the dismantling costs due to their large number and spreading throughout the car.

EES components containing heavy metals have high environmental relevance. Especially lead in solder is a very dispersive source of lead in today’s cars due to the use of solder in PCBs and other applications throughout the car.

Reuse of EES components is limited to devices with high economic value (e.g. starter motor, alternator) that outweighs disassembly costs. Due to the fast innovation cycles of car electronics most of the electronic EES components from end-of-life vehicles will not be suitable for reuse in new cars but could only be used as spare parts.

Disassembly times (and costs) for the same component type may vary in a wide range. This shows that car design and other factors can have strong influence on disassembly times. WP 3 will investigate these influences.

Recovery of precious metals from EES could pose a major economic incentive for dismantling and separate recycling of components containing PCB.

The approach to cover all 14 EES groups with the selected components has lead to a selection of components that vary in their relative importance for SEES objectives. Different priorities for further work in SEES should be assigned to the selected EES components. The assessment revealed differences in relevance of components for dismantling, reuse and recycling. High priority should be given to components that have to be dismantled according to ELV directive (containing mercury or high amounts of lead) or that have a high reuse / recycling value. Components that are present in most of the cars which are recycled and produced today are more relevant and feasible for SEES project than new developed components that are only present in few modern cars. Figure 28 shows a graphical representation of the relevance of the selected EES components.



GPS Navigation Unit

Park Pilot Unit

Smart Junction Box

HUD

Disman

tling

(Lega

l Duty

) High Value for

Reuse / Recycling

Presence(Available in Most Cars)

LCD

HID Front Light

Battery

PyrotechnicalInitiator

Seat Mechatronic Unit

Passive PCB Junction Box

Wire Harness

Starter Motor

Alternator

CD Radio

Lambda ControlSensor

Rear-windowHeating

Figure 28: Relevance of Selected EES Components

Assessment of feasibility (3rd filter) is the basis to decide which components can be covered in the SEES workpackages 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Other components that are limited in their feasibility within the consortium should be covered as far as possible on a theoretical basis in the respective workpackage. Further work in SEES has the following practical limitations:

WP 2 (Assembly Study) has to concentrate first on parts assembled in-house at the car manufacturer facilities because some of the selected EES components are pre-assembled at suppliers and information on assembly process will be more difficult to obtain from suppliers.

WP 3 (Disassembly Study) studies the disassembly of new cars at the car manufacturer facilities and disassembly of end-of-life vehicles at the car dismantler facilities. Therefore only EES components present in new cars of the car manufacturer or old vehicles of the car dismantler can be respectively covered. In preparation of recycling studies in WP 4 and 5 a sufficient amount of the components to be recycled is needed. This can be only achieved for components that are widely present also in old vehicles. Priority will be given to components that have to be dismantled by law.

WP 4 (E&E System Recycling) depends on the recycling technologies that can be used at the facilities of the EE products recycler (mechanical recycling), the EE products recycler (chemical recycling) and the waste/plastics research centre. The planned mechanical and chemical recycling in WP 4 cover a wide range of components and parts of components that can be recycled. For final decisions on which components can be recycled physical samples of the components will be needed. Sufficient amount of input material will be needed to enable recycling studies



at least at laboratory scale (see Table 12). Components that cannot be dismantled in sufficient amount at the car dismantler facilities have to be acquired from other sources, e.g. production scrap or local scrap dealers / car dismantlers.

WP 5 (Plastic Recycling) depends on a plastic fraction coming from WP 4 as input. Plastic parts in the selected components are e.g. coatings of wires, covers and housings of junction boxes and other units. Therefore enough plastic containing components have to be treated in WP 4. The composition and quality of the plastic output from WP 4 and further requirements for WP 5 plastics recycling have to be defined. Additionally, the ASR from shredding tests should go to the plastic recycler.

WP 6 (Shredding Study) can only cover EES components present in the cars to be shredded at the car shredder facilities. In general the cars at the car shredder facilities are even older than the cars at the car dismantler facilities and have less electronic equipment. ASR from shredding tests should go to the plastic recycler.

Table 12: Estimated Amounts of EES Components Needed for Recycling

Recycling group SEES Component Group

Amount of material [kg]Mechanical recycling Chemical recycling

Laboratory (Plant) (1) Laboratory (Plant) (2)

Cables 3. Wire harness / Cables

10-20 (3,500) --- ---

Electric motors and alternators

8. Motors / Generators 10-20 (500) --- ---

Printed circuit boards containing devices

4. Connection / Protection devices

10-20 (1,000) 10-20 (~ 300)5. Electronic control units (ECU)

6. Integrated mechatronic components (IMC)

12. Entertainment

13. Communication / Navigation

Mixture of others devices

1. Sensors10-20 (1,000) 10-20 (~ 300)

2. Actuators (basic)

10. Heating units --- --- --- ---

11. Displays / Screens --- --- --- ---

14. Other devices --- --- --- ---

7. Batteries --- --- --- ---

9. Lights / Lamps --- --- --- ---

(1) EE products recycler (mechanical recycling) estimation(2) EE products recycler (chemical recycling) estimation



The practical limitations taken together with the relevance of the selected components as described before leads to the following proposals for further work in SEES project. An overview of the proposals for all selected components is given in Table 13.

Very relevant components for recycling that can be obtained in sufficient amount from old vehicles at the car dismantler facilities are wire harness, passive PCB junction boxes, starter motor and alternator. These components should be covered in WP 3 and 4.

The lead-acid battery is a highly relevant component but recycling circuits are already well established. Also HID head lights use established recycling and disposal circuits. Expertise from the EE products recycler (mechanical recycling) as an authorised manager of these components should be used for giving a theoretical overview of state of the art of recycling these components in WP 4 instead of practical studies.

For some components it is not clear yet if obtaining a sufficient amount of material from disassembly at WP 3 for recycling in WP 4 is feasible. To decide about disassembly of lambda control sensor and seat mechatronics more experience from disassembly studies at the car dismantler facilities will be needed (see remarks in Table 13). For recycling of CD player / cassette radio additional third party sources of material have to be checked because there are only few old devices at the car dismantler facilities. Additional material source of smart junction boxes could come from production scrap.

Components less feasible for recycling studies due to their presence in only few modern cars are LCD screens, GPS navigation unit and park pilot. For these components a rather theoretical discussion of recycling possibilities based on their material composition could be given. But additional third party sources of material should be checked to do some recycling tests if possible.

A special problem due to safety concerns arises for pyrotechnical initiators. Therefore they should be analysed in disassembly study but they seem not feasible for disassembly from old cars and for recycling tests in SEES.

Two of the selected components are proposed to be excluded from further investigation in SEES. The rear-window heating is mainly a glass part with very small amount of metallic conductor on the window surface. Because the heating wires cannot be removed from the glass during disassembly the whole window including the conductors has to be directed to glass recycling where it is usually downcycled to glass of lower quality (e.g. for bottles, fibreglass). This glass recycling is assumed to be out of scope of SEES project.

The second component to be excluded is the head-up display (HUD). It is the least common component in today’s cars from all the selected ones. HUD technology originates from aircrafts and military applications. Only few upper class vehicle already use HUD today. Within the SEES consortium no HUD will be available for assembly or disassembly studies. But parts of the HUD – the LCD and fluorescent lights – will be under further investigation in SEES.

Table 13 also lists the components to be prioritised in WP 2 (assembled in-house), the components that can be covered in WP 6 and the sources of sample components that will be needed in WP 4 to decide about the recyclability of the selected components.



Table 13: Proposals for Further Work in SEES

Selected component

Assembly Study (WP 2)

Dis-assembly

Study(WP 3)

Disassem-bly for

Recycling (WP 3 - car dismantler)

EES Recycling

(WP 4)

Fraction for Plastic

Recycling (WP 5)

Shredding Study(WP 6)

Samples for

Recycling Tests from

Problems / Remarks

Lambda control exhaust gas sensor

X X ? ? XCar

dismantlerFeasibility of recycling and dismantling to be checked. Small component containing Platinum.

Pyrotechnical initiators

(assembled at supplier)

X (obligatory)

(safety problems)

(safety problems)

Safety problems for dismantling from old vehicles and for recycling tests.

Wire harness (engine comp.)

X X X X X XManufacturer

of EE products for automotive sector / car dismantler

Wire harnesses from other compartments also needed for getting sufficient amount of material for recycling? To be discussed between WP 4 and 3.

Passive PCB junction box (engine comp.)

X X X X X XJunction boxes from other compartments also needed for getting sufficient amount of material for recycling? To be discussed between WP 4 and 3.

Smart junction box (engine comp.)

X X X XManufacturer

of EE products for automotive

sector

Production scrap should be used as input material for recycling because there are too few old cars containing smart junction boxes.

Seat mechatronics(assembled at supplier)

X ? ? XOnly available in some cars. To be checked if sufficient amount for recycling can be obtained.

Lead-acid starter battery

XX

(obligatory)Theoretical

outline

(dismantled before

shredding)

No recycling tests because recycling circuits are already well established. The EE products recycler (mechanical recycling) is an authorized manager for disposal of batteries.

Starter motor(assembled at supplier)

X X X Xcar dismantler

Reuse options also to be considered.

Alternator(assembled at supplier)

X X X X Reuse options also to be considered.

HID head lights X X

(obligatory)Theoretical

outline

No recycling tests because recycling circuits are already well established. The EE products recycler (mechanical recycling) is an authorized manager for disposal of HID lights.

Rear-window heating

The rear-window heating (very small amount of metal) is permanently joined with window glass. This



Selected component

Assembly Study (WP 2)

Dis-assembly

Study(WP 3)

Disassem-bly for

Recycling (WP 3 - car dismantler)

EES Recycling

(WP 4)

Fraction for Plastic

Recycling (WP 5)

Shredding Study(WP 6)

Samples for

Recycling Tests from

Problems / Remarks

is mainly a glass part and glass recycling circuits are out of project scope.

LCD screensX

(Integrated unit *)

X (obligatory: containing mercury)

Discussion of recycling

options

LCDs contain PCB, fluorescent lamp (Hg), organic liquid crystal, glass, plastics. Some of the parts are already covered by other selected components. Recycling of liquid crystals is not feasible for SEES.

Head-up display (HUD)

HUD are only used in few modern cars that are not available for assembly / disassembly study. Major parts of a HUD – LCD and additional light source – are covered by other WPs. Therefore excluded.

CD player / cassette radio

X(Integrated

unit *)X

? (few old

units only)? X

?(few cars)

car dismantler /

scrap dealers

Third party sources to be checked to get sufficient amount of material for recycling. Reuse options to be considered.

GPS navigation system

X(Integrated

unit *)X ? X

scrap dealers ?

Only in few modern cars. The car manufacturer could provide additional information from disassembly on main material fractions and weights. Third party sources to be checked to get sufficient amount of material for recycling. Reuse options to be considered.

Park pilot (rear bumper sensors)

(assembled at supplier)

X ? Xscrap

dealers ?

Only in few modern cars – rather small component. Third party sources to be checked to get sufficient amount of material for recycling. Reuse options to be considered.

X = Component to be investigated in the respective workpackage

? = Further investigation and tests are needed to decide if component can be covered in the respective workpackage

* = An integrated unit (LCD + radio + navigation system) will be analysed



2 End-of-life Processes for Automotive EESThis chapter is aimed to give an overview of the current end-of-life processes of end-of-life vehicles in general and its electrical and electronic systems in Europe. It is aimed to look at the processes collection and disassembly, comminution, separation and material recovery of end-of-life vehicles with focus on the EES materials.

Other sources for waste automotive EES are the production waste from EES producers and EES components dismantled at garages. Therefore also re-use opportunities of spare parts as a result of the disassembly process are exemplified.

2.1 Collection of End-of-life Vehicles in Europe

One obligation of the European directive 2000/53/EC on End-of-life vehicles is to implement a national collection system for all end-of-life vehicles and an adequate availability of collection facilities within the territories of the automobile producer for the withdrawal of end-of-life-vehicles and automotive waste used parts.

If an end-of-life vehicle is delivered or picked-up, the collection facilities should fulfil specific requirements. In the first place a separate facility of collection and storage is to be set. Storage sites should fulfil minimum technical requirements as the existence of impermeable surfaces and provision of spillage collection facilities, decanters and cleaner degreasers and water treatment equipment. Moreover cars should not be stockpiled or not stored in an inverted way, to avoid the discharge of fluids from the car.

A further responsibility of the collection facilities is to transfer the vehicles to dismantling facilities and to issue certificates of destruction if authorised by dismantlers and to achieve the recycling of these vehicles. Also no de-pollution and pre-treatment should be performed at the collection sites.

European countries use different concepts for the collection of end-of-life vehicles. Three organisational approaches: the company-by-company approach, the fee-based approach and the liberal approach are pursued. The company by company approach describes an ELV system where the producers responsibility fund the collection and the treatment of ELV’s and are responsible to show evidence for recycling, recovery and re-use targets. In the fee-based approach fees are collected which subside dismantling, transport and recycling activities. In the opposite to a liberal approach, where only limited governmental intervention is incorporated into a free market mechanism to achieve the ELV objectives of the European directive [PWC, 2002].

2.1.1 Company-by-company Approach

The United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom the last vehicle owners are responsible for the recycling costs of their car until 2007. From then on the car producing industry is responsible for the costs.

Here several ways exist to retake ELVs (scrap yards, dismantlers, authorised dismantlers or shredders) with different costing systems (expenses or compensation). A Certificate of Destruction can be received from the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) by every



permitted treatment facility, but is not a requirement for the de-registration in the United Kingdom. The Automotive Consortium on Recycling and Disposal (ACORD) requests from the European Executive Board to ensure the take-back route of ELVs to authorised dismantling facilities by setting an economic incentive for last car owners to do so, because with the implemented system nearly no improvement was experienced in terms of collection rates, existence of controlled dismantlers and abolishment of ELV in nature [Kim; 2002].

Germany

In Germany the opportunity of a gratis take back system for End-of-life-vehicles is realised through a re-acceptance network system organised by each car-producer.

Collection facilities, purchasers or dismantling stations are designated and authorised by car manufacturers and organised to be available within 50 km from the place of the last owner.

The vehicle is taken back and a disposal certificate provided to the last owner, if :

the vehicle was first registered on or after the 1st July of 2002,

there are no significant parts missing such as e.g. engine, gearbox, catalytic converter(s), electronic control units,

the vehicle is not loaded with refuse and

the original vehicle registration document is handed over together with the vehicle.

From January 2006 the manufacturer must take back all cars of their brand, irrespective of their age. This represents the significant step of the German ELV collection system, because Germany was one of the few European countries where the last owner was asked to pay the dismantler for taking back the vehicle.

2.1.2 Fee-based Approach

The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, the first car owner pays a “flat waste disposal” fee (45,- €/t) to a private limited liability company Auto Recycling Nederland BV (ARN). The fee covers the costs for dismantling, collection, transport and recycling activities of ELVs.

The last car owner on the other hand is only exempted from car tax paying, when a certificate of destruction can be presented to the National Vehicle Registration Authority (RDW). Certificates can only be received by authorised dismantlers. The ELVs can be delivered to ARN participants or picked up with a possible transport fee.

For the period of 1 January 2004 - 31 December 2006 all car manufacturers and importers are binding to pay a waste disposal fee to ARN for each new registered car, irrespective of type or brand. This makes an economic recycling of non-marketable materials from end-of-life vehicles feasible, but on the other hand does not motivate the automotive industry to improve vehicle design for recyclables [Stiba, 2004].



Sweden

To increase collection rates of End-of-life vehicles and to avoid abandoned cars in nature the Swedish ELV collection system has designed an economic incentive for last car holders – a car scrapping premium system. Fees are charged from the first owners to producers and collected as a fund by the Swedish government. Last car owners receive a premium when a certificate for destruction is submitted to the government [Kim, 2002].

2.1.3 The Liberal Approach / Market-based ApproachFrance

In France the ELV system is organised by “The Accord Cadre”, the first national voluntary agreement on self regulation on ELV management between the governmental authorities and the relevant industrial associations. One distinctive target of the French ELV decree is to follow the physical flow of ELV throughout all economic operators. Therefore last car owners must address the destination of their car to an authority, by declaring sales or transferring for destruction.

The National Automotive Council (CNPA) initiated a certification process of ELV treatment facilities. The manager distributor system (MD), was set up by the relevant recycling industries. The MD buys cars from contracted producers (car dealers) and sells them to contracted dismantlers. The car producer takes a passive role of observing the performance of the MD system and contracting them for the collection of ELV’s from their car dealers. It was estimated by ADEME (French State Agency for Environment and Energy Conservation Work) that 70-75 % of ELV’s are treated by uncontrolled scrappers and directly by shredders. The system does however not cover all ELV collection activities in France [Zoboli et al. 2000].

An example was found in [Zoboli et al. 2000], where a trial group commitment aims to control the life cycle of its automotive products. They manage networks of certified dismantlers and collect ELVs from the networks and process them [Zoboli et al. 2000]. Reconditional scrap (engines, gearboxes, transmissions, alternators and starters) is controlled prior to collection from this network. The selected parts are sent to 20 regional logistic platforms. The parts are grouped as part families and reconditioned by equipment suppliers. The reconditioned parts are then sent back to the network where they are certified and sold as standard equipment.

As a summary of the collection systems in Europe the mentioned administrative key points of the collection systems are listed in Table 14.



Table 14: Collection and Dismantling of ELV in Europe [Kim et al.2000, Acea 2004, Sander et al. 2002, Zoboli et al. 2000]

France Germany UK Sweden The Netherlands

ELV co-ordination

Accord Cadre

Committment of involved parties

VDA

German car producers association

SMMT

Car producers association

BIL

Automotive Producer Responsibility Sweden

ARN

Auto recycling nederland

Certificate of Destruction

No Yes No Yes Yes

Financial incentive for last car owner

No No Have to pay until 2007

Yes Yes

Dismantling/

shredding network

MD (Manager distributors

Networks of each company

Co-operation between return stations and dismantlers

CARE

Consortium for automotive recycling

BIL

Automotive Producer Responsibility Sweden

ARN

Network

Landfilled shredder residue

~17 % ~18-22% ~19 % ~20% ~15%

Control

system

CNPANational Automotive Council

KBAFederal institute of vehicles

DVLADriver and vehicle licensing agency

Swedish National Road Administration

VROM Ministry of housing, spatial planning and environment

Monitoring: indicators

ADEME

- Rate of recovery

- Vehicle recyclability rate - ELV collection

ARGE

- Vehicle recyclability rate

ACORD

-Recovery rates

Swedish EPA

- Producer collection points

- Recycling and recovery rates

ARN

- Recycling and recovery rates

- Export of used cars

Obstacles - Missing financial incentives for last owner for delivery

- Co-ordination of recycling chain other than metal

- Negative economic balance of certain recycling operations

- Automatic deregistration of cars from temporary deregistration

- Export of young cars

- Documentation system lacking an complete overview of the ELV status by the government

- Weak gov. monitoring- No arrangement on the treatment organisation

- Effectivness problem by car producers

- Dismantling incentives to low

- Authorisation procedure is loose

- No motivation for car producers to reduce recycling costs



As observed by Kim [2002] none of the European collection systems use an indicator for monitoring the effectiveness of the collection system in terms of collection by certified dismantlers for end-of-life vehicles. A collection rate would allow to evaluate the efficiency of the systems and to monitor the problem of abandoned cars in nature and transboundary export of ELVs. Applying this instrument would allow to reduce the number of ELVs sent to uncontrolled dismantlers or scrappers and shredders, who accept untreated ELV for the shredding process [ACEA, 2004].

It was observed that car manufacturers did perform an extended producer responsibility (EPR) in the ELV management system. It was mentioned that besides the existing communication networks between producers, dismantlers, suppliers, shredders and recyclers the co-operation aiming to ensure the prescribed procedure of pre-treatment and dismantling before shredding needs still to be improved.

2.2 Disassembly and Shredding

Disassembly and shredding are the methods considered in the car recycling process. The purpose of the disassembly is to strip spare parts or aggregates and/or to recover waste and materials for recycling or disposal for legal or customer demands.

It consists of the pre-treatment, where all fluids are removed from the vehicle and the parts removal, the disassembly where both interior and exterior parts are stripped. One alternative of a dismantling procedure is described in 2.2.2. This procedure focuses only on treating undamaged cars. However damaged cars may be received because of transport reasons (cars piled up on trucks) or the application of tools as grippers for movement of ELVs. The disassembly of damaged cars bears some specific conditions which are mentioned in section 2.2.2.

An international dismantling information system (IDIS) has been developed by vehicle manufacturers as a guideline for the de-pollution and the dismantling steps of ELVs. IDIS represents one method for providing dismantling information on every new produced car to designated dismantling companies. It was developed by 20 different automobile producing companies and represents the procedure for 350 types of vehicles. Apart from the IDIS guide for disassembly, guide books are provided from automotive producers (e.g. Volvo). The applied IDIS system includes also information on the disassembly of a few electronic and electric components, e.g. battery, pyrotechnical initiators, head and rear lights.

2.2.1 Pre-treatment

The environmental harmful substances to be removed in this process are batteries and liquefied gas tanks, explosive components (e.g. air bags) and any fluid contained such as vehicle fuel, motor oil, transmission oil, gearbox oil, hydraulic oil, cooling liquids, antifreeze, brake liquids and air conditioning fluids for the depollution efficiency. The depollution time takes around 30 min.

The subsequent processes of the ELV depollution are illustrated in a sequence in Figure 29. As the scheme in Figure 29 shows, several time consuming handling steps are required to



execute the depollution. A decreasing de-pollution time with an increasing annual operational capacity (500-1500 vehicles per year) is expected due to an increasing level of automatisation of the de-pollution equipment [tec4U; 2002]. Interviewed recycling companies did apply professional equipment for de-pollution from systems as Flaco, Seda and Tamming [tec4U; 2002].

Figure 29: A possible pre-treatment sequence for end-of-life-vehicles after [DTI 2003]

The neutralization of air bags via central deployment is the recommended approach by industry. A dismantling/removal of airbags include the danger of a re-use of these components that cannot be supported due to safety reasons. The contamination of interior parts is not anymore a concern for the further disassembly in most cases (see Figure 30).



Figure 30: Deployment of air bags

2.2.2 First Level Disassembly

The disassembly is defined [Gungor, Gupta, 1999] as: “a systematic method for separating a product in its constituent parts, components and subassemblies”. It includes all actions to remove components from an individual part; a unit or an amorphous material, attached earlier for a product interconnection without changing the geometrical form of the object. The disassembly must not be considered as the reverse of the assembly, because 1. it is often unprofitable to avoid destructive operations, 2. for the target of maximisation of profits and minimisation of environmental impacts the disassembly depth has to be determined and 3. The components disassembled are often damaged due e.g. alteration and corrosion [Gungor et al. 1999].

For damaged cars depending on the rate of damage the disassembly is limited to certain car compartments. Pressed car ceilings for example complicate or even inhibit the disassembly of interior electrical and electronic vehicle components. The role of damaged and undamaged cars will be analysed in WP 3.

To differ between the disassembly of components from the vehicle (first level) and further disassembly of components into single parts (second level) the terms first level disassembly and second level disassembly are used in the SEES project.

According to minimum technical requirements in the European directive on end-of-life vehicles it is prescribed to remove the following components in first level disassembly:

the catalyst

tyres and large plastic components if these materials are not segregated in the shredding process in such a way that they can be effectively recycled as materials

glass (if not segregated in the shredding process)



metal components containing copper, aluminium, magnesium if not segregated in the shredding process

Also all parts, that contain mercury have to be disassembled as far as feasible. As identified in the research study “Heavy Metals in vehicles II” by Ökopol, the components gas discharge headlamp and the lightning of the navigation system would be included as EES components.

Additional parts are disassembled and either resold and re-used or recycled, depending on the market value and the time and cost spent for the disassembly. As listed in table 15 the highest economic benefit of disassembled components can be gained by electric and electronic components. But the benefits are strongly dependent on the stock market prices for metals, which incur momentous changes, and depend on disposal costs, which differ nation wide. Therefore the listed benefits in table 15 are directional and may differ from the current situation in EU 25.

Table 15: Benefits of disassembled vehicle components [tec4U, 2002]

Component Benefit*

Tyres -1,25 to 2.90 €/piece

Bumpers (PP and PC)

0 to 50 €/t

Elastomere -75 to 0 €/t

Oil filter -120 to –60€/t

Metalls (iron) 15 to 70 €/t

Fuel (petrol/diesel) -0.21 to 0 €/l

Glass -5 to 10 €/t

Coolants -0.64 to 0 €/l

Oil -0.10 to 0.07€/l

Braking fluid -0.43 to 0.22 €/l

Windscreen washer fluid

-0.10 to 0.07€/l

Rear lights and indicators

0 to 25 €/t

Cable 50 to100 €/t

Electric motors 10 to 75 €/t

Catalysts 29 to 30 €/piece

(*Note that if a negative benefit occurs, additional costs result for the dismantling company. Current situation in EU 25 may differ.)

The disassembly of cables, electric motors and rear lights/indicators could be profitable for dismantling operators if the additional benefit of dismantling (compared to shredding) outweighs the costs for further processing (logistics including storage, cleaning/repair and/or recycling). This is a question to be further investigated in the SEES project.



A disassembly procedure should start with the removal of glass, deployment of airbags and obtaining accessibility to the motor, the inner and the heck room. Then the first level disassembly could remove components from the outside to the interior parts of the car. This procedure could include EES components that are accessible and feasible for dismantling. A more detailed analysis of optimum disassembly procedures for EES will be done in WP 3.

2.2.2.1 Qualitative overview of the disassembly of EES Components

In the following electronic and electric components are listed, which are studied for their ability of being reasonably disassembled from end-of-life vehicles. Please note that the limiting factors for a disassembly are the possible benefit gained by dismantling companies and the storage capacity.

1.+2. Sensors / Actuators

These spare parts are operating with less wear and therefore can be re-used. Otherwise they are separately collected as electronic scrap fraction. But sensors and actuators are very small components spread throughout the car and require therefore a high disassembly depth.

3. Wire harness

The wire harness can only be removed in an non-destructive way at the end of the dismantling process. Therefore a re-use of the wiring harness is limited. The amount of copper per wiring harness can reach the amount of 10 kg and a copper recovery is very profitable.

4. Connection / protection devices

A removal of switches from the car body occurs to be ineffective to be re-used in different vehicles. The whole unit switch and electric motor is collected as electronic scrap.

Fuse and junction boxes

Fuses, relays and boxes can be re-used in same models of cars, however only relays would be disassembled because of a relatively high price. Junction boxes containing printed circuit boards might have a high intrinsic material value for recycling.

Ignition system

The ignition system is designed as a replacement part and therefore easy to disassemble for re-use. Non-reusable and distorted are collected for the copper fraction. The ignition distributor is easy to be replaced and removed. It should be considered to collect the hood and the rotor separately from the distributor because it contains polyester. Also the ignition switch can be removed easily and reused if not defective. The main attention is focussed on the recovery of the zinc die casting alloy of the chassis.

5. Electronic control units

The refurbishment of the ECU is partly realised for the components: motor control unit, anti-block system, anti-slip control (ABS), central locking system (ASR), limited slip differential (ASD) and the servo valve. These components are disassembled for reuse in other vehicles.



They also contain PCB that could be subject to precious metal recycling. Smart junction boxes, included in this category, usually cannot be reused due to possible safety risks.

6. Integrated mechatronic components

Integrated mechatronic components could be disassembled for reuse as a spare part or for recycling of precious metals from PCB.

7. Battery

Batteries have to be dismantled according to the ELV directive. They are typically dismantled prior to depollution of fluids. The battery is deconstructed for the recovery of lead. Either the batteries are treated prior to the smelting process and separated by material category (lead, plastic, acid etc.) or the batteries are processed directly after separation of the acid.

8. Motors/generators

Electric motors are suitable spare parts and can be re-used in cars of the same type. Because some of the electric motors are of minimal size, the bulk is not dismantled and remains in the car body for the shredding process. An industrial re-use has not been realised yet.

The motor and the gear box can be treated separately and support in this way higher purity of the material fraction, because this component consists of major amount of cast iron, with aluminium, copper, magnesium, zinc and tin fractions.

Starter motor

The dismantling process of the starter from the car body is non-problematic and has been realized to a high extent. Before the dismantling process starts a quality check is performed. The starter is dismantled, reusable parts cleaned and wear parts substituted.

Alternator

The alternator is also commonly dismantled from the car body and a industrial refurbishment established. If the alternator is in a bad condition, the recycling is characterised by a copper recovery.

Motor pumps

Also pumps are designed to be re-used again. Defect pumps are to be collected for copper recovery.

9. Lights

It is possible to remove all headlights completely from the vehicles. The bulbs can be re-used again and are separately collected from the glass and polymer fraction. Due to current insurance schemes in most European countries there is more demand for headlamps than for the rear lamps (as the latter ones are paid by insurance companies). They are separated according to their composition in cable, main board, reflector, bulbs and chassis, which consists of glass and/or thermoplastics. The glass and polymer fraction can also be re-used separately.



Interior lightning

This component consists of the chassis, the switch, the bulb and the cable. The parts switch, bulb, and chassis are not bearing abrasion and can therefore be re-used as spare parts in the same modells. If these parts are defect, the separation to electronic scrap and polymer is undertaken.

10. Heating Units

Integrated heating units are hardly dismantled from the remaining car. The disassembly depth for heating units in rear windows and in seats appears not to be economically benefiting.

11. Display/screens

Because of the mercury content in discharge lamps in LCD screens, these are required to be disassembled from the remaining car body if feasible.

12. Entertainment

Radio

It is not only common to re-use the whole radio system, but also separate components are re-used as substitute parts, e.g. electric antennas or speakers. The CD/cassette/radio unit is mostly disassembled and repaired to be resold afterwards. If irreparable defect then it is collected as electronic scrap. The probe antennas are collected for the copper recovery.

13. Communication/Navigation

Navigation and communication devices which are not integrated in the car body shell are assumed to be disassembled for re-use, because of their high value.

14. Other devices

Mainly the disassembly of the horn and the switches is pursued. If the function is defect the horn is collected as a copper part and the switches are collected as electronic scrap.

Anti-theft-system

The anti-theft systems are often retrofitted and designed to be disassembled. Sets can be easily re-used in different vehicles.

The disassembling of an original integrated anti-theft system is on the other hand limited, because several parts are not apparent and a recognition implies several obstacles [Kurth, 1995].

The table 16 shows project results of two experiments for assessing times for non-destructive disassembly of EES components from new cars.

Major differences in dismantling times were observed e.g. for the wire harnesses which differ already within two vehicles models of the same company depending on the actual layout and fixation of the wire harness. This shows the need of a detailed investigation on dismantling times and the factors influencing them which is a task of the WP 3 of the SEES project.



Table 16: Dismantling times for EES components (non-destructive disassembly from new cars for two different car models)

Component Dismantling Times (without tooling) [min]

Starter motor 2:50

Fuses and fuse box 1:20; (engine: 3:14)

Wire harness I, engine compartment Car A: 8:30; car B: 28:09

Wire harness II, passenger compartment Car A: 16:29; car B: 9:02

Wire harness III, cockpit 9:25

Wire harness IV, door front 1:50

Wire harness V, door rear 1:14

Wire harness VI, luggage compartment 1:00

Engine control unit 0:05 to 3:56

Restraint system I, seat belts 1:04

Restraint system II, airbag sys. 6:56 (passenger airbag); 0:35 (driver airbag)

Airbag ECU 2:17

Window regulator PCB 0:41

Seat adjustment module 1:15

Instrument panel sys. (speedometer, tachometer, clocks, odometer, on-board computer, ...)

0:37 to 1:22 (high end)

Voice control 6:53

Communication sys. 0:16 min (Luggage Voice Module)

Navigation sys. 1:03

Video / multimedia entertainment sys. 0:15 (DVD); 0:14 (rear seat screen + control system)

Radio 1:03 + 0:22 (disassembly of navigation system + separation of radio)

CD-changer 0:25

Loudspeaker 1:06



2.2.2.2 Non-destructive Disassembly

As described in [Floel; 2002] the disassembling technologies are characterised as disassembling line systems or disassembling islands, depending of whether the target is to pursue a material-oriented (recovery) or component-oriented method (re-use). The procedure of disassembling consists of the steps: handling, identifying, separating objects, handling and conveying of the components and other additional auxiliary activities.

The separation of the objects are classified in the non-destructive disassembly, the partly destructive disassembly (destroying joining elements) and destructive disassembly (destroying assembled parts).

The element-oriented working process at disassembly islands is illustrated in Figure 31. This performance is characterised by a high flexibility considering a differing disassembling depth, unpredicted disruptions and states of the ELV. Moreover this concept is suitable for unsystematic and selective disassembly.

Figure 31: SYMO disassembly plant [http://www.amd-alfeld.de/html/altautodemontage.html]

Because of the low transfer rate, the high required space volume and inefficient material flows, materials are mainly removed for the purchase of spare parts applying non-destructive or partly destructive methods.

Lifting tools, overhead cranes, pneumatic tools, electric saws and forklifts are typical disassembly tools for the island disassembling plants. To achieve the predefined disassembling depth each module has to include the necessary tools as well as energy and pressure supply. A further segmentation of the components can be implemented on benches.

On the other hand the material-oriented method aims to 1. separate genuine materials for recovery, 2. improve the quality of the shredder residue and to 3. remove and separate hazardous substances.


http://www.amd-alfeld.de/html/altautodemontage.html


At line plants end-of-life vehicles are disassembled at several workplaces which are connected through a transfer line. The major advantage is the time efficiency, considering the transfer rate of vehicles. A negative effect is the fact that mostly destructive dismantling practices have rigid working tacts, the flexibility is very limited concerning the variety of vehicle types and the differing conditions of the ELV. As described in [Floel; 2002] none of the mentioned disassembly systems (island or line disassembly system) justify an effective disassembly to a high standard. Therefore a combination of disassembly island and line systems is proposed.

In this concept changing disassembly depths, changing technologies and different market situations could be implemented. For a further increase of the efficiency of industrial disassembly plants the degree of automatisation for the depollution and material-oriented process needs to be improved. In order to minimize the time spend for the disassembly of especially electronic goods a partially automated disassembly plant was also found to be economically attractive [Floel 2002].

2.2.2.3 Destructive Disassembly

The destructive disassembly includes the removal of components involving the destruction of basic parts, loose parts or joining elements. Destructive disassembly can be performed by applying flexible tools to cut off screws, to countersink, to trepan or by hydraulic jetting to separate basic parts, loose parts or joining elements.

For destructive methods, e.g. hydraulic scissors are applied for the separation to achieve a fast removal.

One station of the line disassembly system is illustrated in the Figure 32, where the engine from the vehicle body is disassembled in a partly destructive way by hydraulic pliers.

Figure 32: The removal of the motor block by hydraulic gripping pliers [http://www.lsd-gmbh.com/daten/l_fachb/l_adema.html]


http://www.lsd-gmbh.com/daten/l_fachb/l_adema.html


2.2.3 Second Level Disassembly

Second level disassembly comprises all operations to further disassemble the separated EES components, e.g. the separation of plastic covers and printed circuit boards from junction boxes. This will be necessary if the removed component cannot be reused or recycled in whole. Then second level disassembly aims at:

reducing hazardous substances content or contaminants before recycling,

separation of valuable single parts or materials, or

improving the economic efficiency and quality of subsequent material recovery

Again the second level disassembly can be non-destructive or destructive. Feasibility of second level disassembly depends on cost-benefit ratio.

2.2.3.1 Disassembly of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)

The disassembly of circuit boards represents an important step in the recycling chain and the main tasks are to ensure the removal of all toxic substances and consequently the reduction of possible transfer ways to the environment and the removal of elements for re-use. Also the high content of precious metals (see also chapter 1.3.5 table 6) is a good incentive for the material-recovery and determining the extent of the disassembly of the circuit boards [Schütte 2002].

Two concepts for the disassembly of circuit board exist. In the method “see and pick” only targeted compounds are identified and selected for the disassembly. These components are either removed to separate electronic components, bearing hazardous substances, before disposal or to separate components for the re-use The recognition of components is initiating this process. It is performed by the comparison of the actual circuit boards to provided models. However, due to the variety of the circuit boards however, the recognition is hampered and only certain sized components (e.g. electrolytic capacitor) are identified [Schütte 1997].

In the manual disassembly of printed circuit boards, the PCBs are sorted according to the characteristics of the categories low grade, medium grade and high grade:

Low grade PCB: power supply units, consisting of heavy ferrite transformers, large aluminium heat sink assemblies, laminate offcuts.

Medium grade PCB: high reliability equipment with precious metals from edge and pin connectors, aluminium capacitors

High grade PCB: discrete components with gold containing circuits (ICs), opto electronics, high precious metal content boards, gold pin boards, palladium pin boards

In this respect precious metal connectors, precious metal ICs, tantalum condenser, aluminium cooling units and transformer and solenoids (out of copper) are of main interest.

For the dismounting process, pieces of the PCB (e.g. mercury containing elements) are cutted off and put into a desoldering bath, where the desoldering joints are melted, elements are dismounted, the ends tin-plated again and brushed for the reuse. It requires a large operating effort and an adapted operation for each component and therefore transfer rates are low.



With the enormous increasing amounts of products to be recycled disassembling plants are directed to improve effectiveness through automatisation. As mentioned in 2.2.2 the disassembly in a semi-automated form represents an optimal solution [Knoth et al. 2002]. The automated part consists of a recognition system, which identifies re-usable and toxic components on the PCB. It compares the shape of the parts and the labels with information provided by the manufacturers. It must have an accuracy of 0.1 mm to localise and identify the components. Once identified robotic grippers or laser are desoldering them [Knoth et al. 2002].

The Austrian SAT system realises a selective removal of boards within 31 s. The components are scanned, desoldered by dual beam and a robotic removal in a vacuum. The desoldering laser system is based on a 2x50 watt diode emitting at 350 nm [Goosey/Kellner 2002].

The second method named “pick all and sort” aims to disassemble all components and selects the material fractions afterwards. Surveying the complete disassembling method “pick all and sort”, the following obstacles have to be considered to choose suitable operations:

1. Prevention of the damage of the component box, to avoid an outlet of hazardous substances

2. Exclusion of a deformation of components to obtain the ability of fractionation

3. Avoidance of up above the de-soldering temperature to prevent unwanted chemical reactions

4. Targeting the detach of screwed and revetted components

As suggested in [Schütte 1997] only the procedures deconstruction, trenching and shipping with a set geometrical active edge can be used for the disassembly of EES components. Here the de-soldering process for whether a selective or a simultaneous detachment of the component from the circuit board represents a non-destructive disassembly method.

For shipping components from circuit boards the operations boring, countersink and sawing are applied to extract the component without degrading them. However, all joining connections and components parts are destructed by the boring tool. Stark Engineering GmbH developed a method for the detachment of circuit board by two vertical running band saws [Kurth 1995]. All components on circuit boards are sawed-off on both sides and transferred by an assembly line. It separates the fractions circuit board and electronic components. The cutting time is 4 m/min with a transfer rate of 150 kg/h. As a negative effect off this technology is the dust emission and the abrasion of the band saws.

2.2.4 Shredding

Most End-of-life vehicles arrive at the shredder operators as pressed and sheared material or as flattened vehicles from dismantling companies [Zoboli 2000]. This allows the amount of 20-30 vehicles to be transported per 20 tonne load and improves transport economics.

An approximate number of 170 shredder locations exist in Europe. According to a survey by ACEA [2002, 2004] there still exists the problem that untreated vehicles are accepted by shredding operators bearing the risk that no depollution is accomplished prior to shredding.



In France on the other hand the dismantling companies are paying for transportation and flat prices for the End-of-life-vehicles and receive subsidies in order to ensure that shredders receive pre-treated ELVs [Kim 2002].

The shredders are powerful hammer mills of a 1000-2000 hp motor that are capable to reduce vehicles (approx 25%) and other input material (WEEE, community and industry scrap) at a rate of 100 units per hour [Sander et al. 2004]. The input material is placed into a infeed conveyor that feeds a breaker plate and a hammer area. While the material is hammered, the distance between the hammers and the breaker plate is continuously decreasing and the particle size reduced.

A scrapped car is reduced to pieces of 150 mm or less in a hammermill. If that size is reached, the particles pass through a grid. The grids are allocated above and below the rotor at a zerdirator. An environmental problem at the shredding operation is the generation of dust, fume, grease and the danger of explosion. Air cleansing systems are required for the dust/fume extraction: To protect the scrubber plant also against explosion the alternative of semi-wet or wet shredders are applied.

The Figure 33 illustrates that the separation steps air classification and magnetic drum separation are used to segregate the material into a light fraction (non-ferrous metallic, plastics and other material), a heavy fraction (mixture of non-metallic and non-ferrous metallic materials) and a ferrous-metallic fraction directly after the shredder process.

Figure 33: Shredder plant [Thomé-Kozmiensky 1995]

The materials are classified by density separation in the air separator. When mixed material is moving through an air stream and settles gradually to the bottom, lightweight materials are carried away (light fraction). To ensure the transport between each processing step a reliable and effective conveyor system is of importance. Systems include friction or a chain of vibratory motion. Speed, capacity, co-ordination with the other systems and extreme operating conditions need to be considered when selecting a conveyor system.



When the feed comes to the magnetic drum, an internal magnet separates ferrous metals from non-ferrous metallic materials. The magnets are either designed as electromagnets or permanent magnets. Configurations of the magnet are the suspended belt magnet, the magnetic head pulley and the suspended magnetic drum. The system design is depending on the physical relationship of the conveyors, the material size and operating requirements. The application of these separators can achieve an efficiency of 95-99% of the recovery of magnetic materials. An approximate composition of the heavy fraction after shredding and magnetic separation is illustrated the table 17.

Table 17: Range of composition of a typical non-magnetic fraction [Rousseau Melin 1990]

Material Composition %

Copper 2-10

Zinc 6-15

Aluminium 0-40

Lead 0-2

Iron 0-16

Stainless steel 0-0.2

Rubber 20-30

Glass 30-50

As a next step the non-magnetic fraction is either hand-sorted or passed through a variety of automated processes (described in section 2.3) to separate copper, brass, zinc, magnesium, aluminium and non-magnetic steel from the non-metallic part, which contains road dirt, plastics, rubber, vehicle glass (Figure 34). Together with the shredder light fraction, consisting of plastics, glass and non-ferrous metals this named automotive shredder residue (ASR) is mostly disposed or incinerated. The illustrated car shredding process in figure 34 shows that 70 % of the weight represents the metallic fraction, consisting of iron and minor amounts of plastics, non-ferrous metals and glass. Housings and structural parts made of iron as well as magnetic cores in coils, solenoids, motors and transformers could be a representative part of the electronic & electric components in this fraction.



Figure 34 : Description of material flows in the car shredding process [Lohse et al. 2001]

The heavy fraction, containing 51% of non-ferrous metals and plastics, represents EES components like electric motors, alternator and ceramic sensors. As the shredder light fraction represents most plastic parts of the vehicle, electric control units and connection/ protection devices as well as lamps, displays and screens could be expected within this fraction. The non-ferrous materials within the shredder light fraction represent wire harnesses, components of printed circuit boards, discharge lamps, heating units and integrated mechatronic components (IMC). As EES components are found in the mixed automotive shredder residue (ASR), which is the fraction currently under discussion in order to minimise the disposal rate to 5% for fulfilling the objectives of the directive 2000/53/EC on end-of-life-vehicles, two main technological alternatives exist 1. the dismantling of EES components or 2. the ASR recycling. The composition of the shredding fractions also seems to depend on the location of EES within the car. As currently no quantitative data exists, the fate of EES parts within the different shredder fractions will be in focus of workpackage 6.



2.3 Separation Technologies

The sorting of materials (metals and plastics) of EES parts and components coming from dismantling and/or car shredding is a fundamental part of recycling because of:

In the case of metals, EES contains a number of metals that have to be separated from each other and from other contaminants to prepare for material specific recycling. Mainly the metals have to be separated into ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Then, the remaining metals alloys and other EES contaminants (plastics, textiles, etc.) require further purification processes. Among the non-ferrous metals a further separation is needed for recycling of specific metals, e.g. copper, aluminium, zinc. In the case of EES and ELVs, the copper that reaches the ferrous-fraction reduces the quality of the recycled steel. In the case of the non-ferrous fraction the copper recovered has a lower quality than the original copper used in wire harnesses due to the contamination with other alloys (e.g. bronze) and additional refining processes (electrolytic) to obtain purer copper are needed. The table 18 shows contaminants that reduce or nullify the recycling value of metals if not separated before recycling.

Table 18: Metals compatibility table

Metal(foundry process)

Elements that nullify the recycled metal value.

Elements that reduce the recycled metal value.

Copper (Cu)

Mercury (Hg)

Beryllium (Be)

Polychlorobenzene

Arsenic (As)

Antimony (Sb)

Nickel (Ni)

Bismuth (Bi)

Aluminium (Al)

Aluminium (Al)

Copper (Cu)

Iron (Fe)

Polymers

Silicon (Si)

Iron (Fe) Copper (Cu)Tin (Sn)

Zinc (Zn)

(Source: Design for Environment Research Group, Manchester Metropolitan University)

Precious metals (e.g. gold, silver, palladium, platinum) are the most valuable material fraction in EES although they only occur in small amounts that are spread on many small components (mainly on printed circuit boards). Separation also aims at concentrating precious metals before applying specific recovery processes for precious metals.



In the case of plastics, sorting is required due to the fact that many different types of plastics are used in EES components and parts and the fact that most of them are not compatible with each other. Table 19 shows some examples of the most common plastic types used in some EES components. On the other hand, the price that polymers fabricators are willing to pay for recycled plastics depends on the relative market price of the virgin materials versus recycled resins and the quality of the sorted product. Generally speaking, mixed or contaminated plastics have lower value and produce products with poor and variable properties, whereas sorted, purified and upgraded streams can be used in higher value or closed-loop applications ([Rich 2001], [ELV 2, 2002]).

Table 19: The most common plastics types used in the different EES components

EES components Most common plastic types used

Cables PVC, nowadays also PP + PE

Channels PP + PA

Tapes PVC + textiles

Tubes PP

Connectors PBTP + PA

Covers / housings PA, nowadays also PP in passenger compartment, ABS

Cable terminals Rubbers

PCBs Different configurations of thermosets (glass re-inforced)

Lighting PP, PC, ABS, PMMA, UP

Dashboards PP, ABS, PA, PC, PE

Batteries PP

(SEES partners expertise, [Bingham 2001], [ANFAC 1], [ANFAC 2])

As it has been introduced, some few plastics (thermoplastics) are compatible for recycling, or in other words, they do not need to be separated because the resulting blend will be a usable alloy. This removes the need to dismantle an EES component into all its parts for recycling and so reduces the cost of recycling. Consequently, it makes sense to work, if possible, with types which are from the same family or compatible with each other. Several compatibility plastics studies and/or tables are available in the literature. These tables indicate the relative compatibility of the main thermoplastics with each other (e.g. CS-9003 Change E of DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Plastics Compatibility Table of General Motors Corporation, Compatibility Table of Plastics of Bras and Rosen (1997), Compatibility Table of Plastics of VDI-2243, Plastics Compatibility Table of Dow Green Guide, etc.) (sources: [Daimler], [General] and [Rodrigo et al. 2002]). The figure 35 shows an example of compatibility table of thermoplastics.

As it has been commented, contamination seems to be a bigger problem for plastics than for metals due to a large variety of plastic materials with similar properties which makes it difficult to separate them but at the same time they cannot be recycled together (material recycling). Therefore, a more detailed view on identification methods (2.3.5) and



contaminants removal methods (2.3.6) mainly for plastics follows at the end of this chapter.

Figure 35: Example of plastics compatibility table (Adapted from [Bras and Rosen 1997])

Generally speaking, sorting or upgrading processes for EES materials (metals and plastics) dismantled and/or shredded could require some of the following processes which are covered and described in these chapters:

- particle size reduction methods - for EES parts in general - (2.3.1)

- basic sorting methods - for separation of major EES material fractions - (2.3.2)

- mechanical sorting methods - for plastics and metals separation & purification - (2.3.3)

- non-mechanical sorting methods - mainly for plastics separation & purification - (2.3.4)

- plastics identification methods (2.3.5)

- contaminants removal methods - mainly for plastics purification - (2.3.6)



The table 20 presents the main separation technologies described in this chapter and summarises the main applicability of each technology.

Table 20: Main separation technologies and their applicability

PROCESS (chapter) APPLICABILITY

Shear-shredder (2.3.1.1) size reduction of EES plastic parts

size reduction of EES metallic partsHammermill (2.3.1.2)

Granulator (2.3.1.3)size reduction of EES plastic parts

Rotary grinder (2.3.1.4)

Cryogenic grinding (2.3.1.5 and 2.3.6.2)size reduction of EES metallic parts and separation

paramagnetic - ferromagnetic metals

removal of coatings (paint, plate, glue) from plastics

Screening or sifting (2.3.2.1)

separation of major EES material fractions

purification of EES major fractions, metals or plastics

Magnetic separator (2.3.2.2)

Eddy current separator (2.3.2.3)

Air classification (2.3.2.4)

Sink-float separation (2.3.3.1)

Separation & purification of EES plastics

separation & purification of EES metals

Near-critical and supercritical fluids (2.3.3.2)

Centrifuging (2.3.3.3)

Hydrocylone (2.3.3.4)

Wet tabling (2.3.3.5)

Ballistic classifier (2.3.3.6)

Fluidized bed table (2.3.3.7)

Electrostatic separation (2.3.4.1)

Separation & purification of EES plasticsMelting temperature (2.3.4.2)

Selective dissolution (2.3.4.3)

Magnetic separator (2.3.6.1) removal of ferromagnetic metals from plastics

Eddy current separator (2.3.6.1) removal of paramagnetic metals from plastics

Hydrolysis (2.3.6.2)

removal of coatings (paint, plate, glue) from plastics

Chemical stripping (2.3.6.2)

Liquid cyclone (2.3.6.2)

Compressed vibration (2.3.6.2)

Melt filtration (2.3.6.2)

Mechanical abrasion (2.3.6.2)

Dry crushing (2.3.6.2)

Roller pressing (2.3.6.2)

Friction washer (2.3.6.2)



2.3.1 Particle Size Reduction Methods

Most of the present particle size reduction technologies come from the mining industry. These were developed for homogenous feeds having well-established breaking characteristics. The appliance to scrap is an exceptional challenge, whose significant differences of the configuration demands a greater control over the particle size of the product.

The particle size reduction methods (PSR), colloquial known as shredding, may not be mistaken for the volume reduction (compaction) being employed in quite different cases (e.g. land disposal). PSR methods rely on mechanical forces to produce stress in a particle leading to breakage. To obtain this, shredders employ three basic types of forces: shear, grinding and crushing. Besides, folding, bending and tractive forces occur but they only have an inferior impact.

- Shear is the action of scissors; blades rotate in different directions, forcing two parts of an item in different directions.

- Grinding can be described as friction applied to the surface of an object. Trough indirect applied forces, abrasive materials act on the surface of stones through agitation.

- Crushing uses direct applied forces on compressive materials leading to size-reduction.

The objective is to prepare the EES for subsequent resource recovery processes like chemical, biological or thermal procedures. Therefore, a free large specific surface is needed, also preferably homogenised materials. The products must be well defined, particularly the grit size and its configuration. Optimal characteristics must be accomplished to improve the efficiency of following steps. In most cases the next procedures taking place are a sorting method to separate the materials accordingly to their substantial properties or direct a thermal treatment.

In practice, no continuous-feed particle size reduction method uses one described action exclusively. Because of interactions between the materials to be shredded and the components of the shredder, various actions develop which cannot be controlled completely. With the knowledge of measurement, engine power and inserted materials, these characteristics determine the capacity of a shredder.

Similarly, several size reduction techniques are available. They can be summarised in the below-mentioned types: jaw-crushers (single and double toggle), impact crusher, cone crusher, roller crusher, hammer crusher, ball grinder and shredder. Following, the established and for this study interesting size reduction methods (shredding) are described.

It should be mentioned that all discussed size reduction methods are very noise-intensive and for this reason subjected to national prevailing case law. Furthermore, conditional upon the size reduction methods – especially the destruction of the Electronic and Electrical Systems – toxic acting or corrosive substances can be released from the treated materials (e.g. plumbiferous dust can be dispersed during the process or later). Also explosions are possible. Other problems associated with shredders are the extensive hammer or scissors wear and great power consumption.



2.3.1.1 Shear-shredder

Its function is the size reduction of plastic objects and cables to a smaller particle size more appropriate for subsequent recycling processes. Shear-shredders can be defined as rotor shears and their operating principle is usually based on 2 asinchronysed (Figure 36) or 4 synchronised contra-rotating shafts (Figure 37) equipped with cutting discs and distance collars. The shredding action occurs between adjacent discs and the degree of shredding is determined by the number of hooks on the circumference of the cutting disc and the width of the cutting disc. Rotor speed is usually less than 100 rpm. Another possibility is a one-shafted shear-shredder in which instead of the counter-rotating blades, stator blades are interspersed. This last type of shredders is not qualified for the processing of EES. In all cases, mechanical provision must be made to prevent damage in the event of jamming, this can be achieved by using mechanical load sensors ([ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

Figure 36: Shredder with 2 Cutting Shafts

[home.snafu.de/kurtr/images/shredder.jpg]

Figure 37: Shredder with 4 cutting shafts

(Anton Unterwurzacher Maschinenbau GmbH in [Scheirs 1998])

Shear-shredder is at best suitable for all sorts of cables. Heterogeneous materials are ripped up and copper can be separated from plastics and others metals in following processes.

From a plastics point of view, shear-shredders can be considered adequate mainly for sheets and hollow plastic parts of EES. Shredding generally reduces plastic materials to


http://home.snafu.de/kurtr/images/shredder.jpg


flakes of less than 50 mm which are suitable for use in down-stream processes. Shear-shredders should also be able to crush small metal inserted items [Scheirs 1998].



The throughput of a shredder mainly depends on: (i) the density, shape and nature of the material being processed, (ii) the characteristics of the cutter (e.g. the width of the cutter, the number of cutting teeth and the size of the cutter opening) and (iii) the diameter of the exit sieve raster [Scheirs 1998].

2.3.1.2 Hammermill

Its function is the size reduction or pulverisation (plastic objects, printed circuit boards, etc.) and the destruction of the appliance casing of electrical and electronic elements. The pulverisation of materials, especially non-brittle such as plastics, can be achieved by rotary crushing machines. The vertical and horizontal shaft swing hammer mills are the most popular and powerful shredders. First step in this size reduction of electrical and electronic elements is the destruction of the appliance casings, making the diverse components accessible. The open laying materials, upon which now several forces are exerted, are transformed to granulate. The hammer mill consists of a central rotor on which are pinned radial hammers which are free to swing on the pins. The rotor is enclosed in a heavy-duty housing, an integral part of the shredding operation (Figure 38).

Figure 38: Mode of Operation

[ www.sturtevantinc.com/Products/Hammermill/Hammermill.gif]

In the horizontal shaft mill (Figure 39), the rotor is supported by bearings on either end and the feed is done by gravity (free drop) or conveyor (force fed). A discharged grate placed below the rotor determines the size of the product, since a particle cannot pass through this grate until it is smaller than the grate opening in two dimensions. Some hammer mills are symmetrical so that the direction of the rotor can be changed to alternate wear surfaces without necessitating hammer maintenance after each run.

Figure 39: Horizontal shaft mill


http://www.sturtevantinc.com/Products/Hammermill/Hammermill.gif


[ www.pallmann-online.de/bilder/chemie/phm_hammermuehle.jpg]


http://www.pallmann-online.de/bilder/chemie/phm_hammermuehle.jpg


The vertical hammer mill, as the name implies, has a vertical shaft and the material moves by gravity down the sides of the housing. These mills usually have a larger clearance between the housing at the top of the mill, and progressively smaller clearances toward the bottom, thus reducing the size of the material in several steps as it moves trough the machine. Since there is no discharge grate, the particle size of the product must be controlled by establishing a proper clearance between the lower hammers and the housing.

The desired size of the granulate is determined by subsequent treatments. Accordingly this can be adjusted by the type of the hammer, the mesh-size of the grate and the material composition.

2.3.1.3 Granulator

Its function is the size reduction of plastics objects or shredded material to a particle size between 2 to 20 mm. These machines employ a system of rotating knife blades (Figure 40). Knife mills or rotary knife cutters are characterised by multiple rotating knifes and three or four stationary knifes. The plastic scrap is reduced in size by the cutting action between rotor knifes and stationary bed knifes. The rotating blades are set at slight angle with respect to the rotor shaft and the fixed blades are set at the same angle but in the opposite direction. This configuration ensures a constant cutting nip across the knife width [ELV 3, 2002].

Figure 40: Granulator

[Pallman GmbH in [Scheirs 1998]]

A range of knife configurations can be used depending on the type of plastic to be granulated (e.g. for materials with high bulk density a rotor with many small knifes should be used to give small cuts and to avoid clogging). Granulators generally employ one of three common types of rotor designs: (i) the open high shear rotor adequate for EES plastic mouldings with wall thickness up to 12 mm, (ii) the open steep angle rotor adequate for sheets and films and (iii) the closed helical hog rotor adequate for very tough plastic up to wall thickness of 150 mm ([ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

Wet granulation or wet size reduction, as its name suggests, uses water in a combined cutting and washing stage. In these processes, the cutting edges of the knife cutters are



cooled by direct water cooling and this helps prevent contaminants adhering to the plastic from being rubbed into the plastic. The use of water extends the service life of the knives. By feeding water into a granulator, both size reduction and intensive washing occur simultaneously and with synergistic results because the friction arising during granulation intensifies the washing effect. In addition, it prevents clogging of the sizing screen and it protects the polymer from additional thermal stress ([ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

2.3.1.4 Rotary Grinder

A rotary grinder is equipped with steel blocks about 2.5-5 cm in size, mounted on a rotor. These steel blocks chip fragments from the incoming material as it is forced into the teeth by a ram. Rotary grinders thus produce a smaller particle size than conventional shredders. It has been found that rotary grinders are well suited to the size reduction of automotive and durable plastics in general [Scheirs 1998].

2.3.1.5 Cryogenic Grinding

A cryogenic shredder technology reaches the embrittlement of component for a very high metal recovery rate. Overall this method is often used for the separation of copper containing components like motors and alternators. Using the phenomena of different brittlement temperatures also iron can be separated from aluminium and copper. The iron is much more brittle at –120 °C than copper and aluminium and gives very small pieces after shredding the mixed metals.

In the Inch process, developed by George et Cie metals are cooled to –7°C at the beginning of an insulated tunnel. At the end metals are immersed in a liquid nitrogen bath where temperature reaches –120°C. Passed through a hammermill it reaches coin-size pieces. The consumption is 0,3 litres per kg of steel scrap produced. Major advantages are the lower capital and operating costs for the shredder, the high purity steel scrap and the removal of non-ferrous metals from non-magnetic residue [Veasey et al. 1993]. It is mentioned in the literature that this recovery method is suitable for the recovery of copper from small electric motors, a nearly complete separation of copper and insulation from scrap wire, good separation of zinc from copper and aluminium components at (-65°C).

2.3.2 Basic Sorting Methods

The following basic sorting methods (screening, magnetic separator, eddy current separator and air classification) are mainly used for separating major material fractions of shredded and/or dismantled & size-reduced EES: ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, plastics and other materials fractions. These methods are particularly very important and used for separating metals from other materials just behind the car shredder. These methods can be also appropriate, in some cases, for purifying particular material fractions.

2.3.2.1 Screening or Sifting

Its function is the removal of particles bulk streams with a size larger or smaller than desired or the division of mixed bulk streams in fractions in order to improve the efficiency of the following processes. It could be a dry or a wet process [ELV 3, 2002].



In metal separation the remaining non-metals have to be separated as a preliminary step using vibrating or rotating screens and bar sizers. This technique is based on the separation of materials depending on their fraction size, passing through a certain size opening. It has become an important unit process in resource recovery facilities separating different waste fractions by size. The efficiency can be evaluated in terms of the % of recovering of the material to be separated from a feed stream.

The material fed into a screen is separated into a least two sizes:

- Undersize material, which passes through the screen opening

- Oversize material, which is retained on the screen surface

Screening can be used as a rough sorter and as a pre-concentration stage of separation to obtain different materials and fraction size, as for example many of the metals concentrate in the plus 4 mm fraction. The most common screen used in waste separation is the rotary trommel, but there are several types of screens available, such as flat deck vibrating screens, rotating disc screens, sifting screens, grizzly screens, etc.

Trommel or revolving screens

A trommel or revolving screen (Figure 41) is a rotary cylindrical screen that is typically inclined at a downward angle that, combined with the tumbling action of the trommel, separates materials of different density that primarily use a combination of rotation and screening to clarify previously shredded waste materials.

Figure 41: Trommel or revolving screen[ http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/silicacrystalline/dust/chapter_2.html]

Shaking screens

Shaking screens (Figure 42) have a reciprocating movement mechanically induced in the horizontal dimension and are mounted either horizontally or in a gentle slope. Shaking screens are available to handle applications involving separation and classification of bulk materials, solids and powders.


http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/silicacrystalline/dust/chapter_2.html


Figure 42: Shaking Screen[http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/silicacrystalline/dust/chapter_2.html]

Vibrating screens

Vibrating screens (Figure 43) combine vibratory action with screen separation. The vibratory action causes the smaller particles to fall through and separate from the larger, recoverable materials. Stacking screens of assorted opening sizes into double and triple decks allows for multiple separation of various-size materials. In order to make the eccentric vibrating screens operate continuously the screen surface has to be inclined concurrently. The interaction of the vibrating movement and gravity causes the material layer to move towards the feed end.

Figure 43: Vibrating screen[http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/silicacrystalline/dust/chapter_2.html]

Grizzly screen

A grizzly (Figure 44) is composed of a group of parallel or nearly parallel grizzlies or bars; they are supported from both ends and appropriately inclined. The vibrating grizzly is composed of a group of parallel grizzlies attached to the frame. Some grizzlies are shaken or vibrated by means of the eccentric mechanism. The surface formed by grizzlies is inclined. They are ideal for coarse separation upstream of a crusher.





Figure 44: Grizzly Screens[http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/silicacrystalline/dust/chapter_2.html]

2.3.2.2 Magnetic Separator

Magnetic separators are usually directly situated after the primary shredder or after the air classifier [Veasey et al., 1993]. There are two general categories of magnetic separation: for the purification of feed streams containing unwanted magnetic impurities and for the concentration of magnetic materials, e.g. the separation of ferromagnetic particles from plastics. The layout of the separation depends on the concentration of iron particles. The design parameter are field intensity and field gradient systems, the mechanical feed and the type of magnet. Equipment that removes the iron particles out of a material mix (e.g. top belts magnets) is used in case of high concentrations. Equipment that splits ferrous and ferro-materials (e.g. drum magnets) is used in case of low concentrations (Figure 45).

In an overband magnetic separator the feed is conveyed trough a relatively strong magnetic field. A high intensity magnetic separator, capable of handling feed sizes up to 15 cm is capable to automobile scrap application. It consists of a water-cooled electromagnet which surrounds a magnetic pulley with an open faced high gradient magnetic field. This method offers a low running costs process for concentrating the non-ferrous fraction of autoshredder residue [Veasey et al. 1993].

Figure 45: Illustration of a magnetic drum separator



The high-intensity ring-magnet separator is a holding-type drum separator with magnetic field being generated electro-magnetically.

Rings of material of good magnetic conductivity have been pushed onto the drum shell. They have been oriented such that they rotate between the poles of the magnet system and bridge the air gap between the poles. This results in a high field of high gradient. The manner in which the rings have been fitted creates grooves into which the material is fed via specially configurated funnelling outlet pockets.

2.3.2.3 Eddy Current Separator

Its function is the separation of paramagnetic materials from plastics (aluminium, lead, copper, etc.). More of the industrial separators consist of a conveyor belt with a rotating magnet installed in the head drum of the belt. This rotor is equipped with a number of zones of alternating north and south oriented permanent magnetic material. The rotor produces an alternating magnetic field. If conductive particles are exposed to this alternating magnetic field, within them eddy-currents are generated. On the other hand, these eddy-currents effect magnetic fields which act against the inducing fields, whereby repulsive forces are generated and the non ferrous metals are deflected from the main particle stream. And the material leave the drum in several splits as the non-ferrous metal, the ferrous metals and the non-metallics (Figure 46).

The repulsive eddy current separator allows also the separation of components with low differences in densities (e.g. copper and lead, stainless steel). The repulsive separator depends on the ration of electrical conductivity to specific weight. In practice as mentioned in [Zoboli et al 2000] the separation additionally depends on particle size and shapes.

Figure 46: Schematic diagram of an eddy-current separator

2.3.2.4 Air Classification

Its function is the separation of material mixtures into two different fractions with different aerodynamic properties: light and heavy particles. This process is based on laws about the movements of solids in the air. Air classification is known also under synonyms as elutraiton, winnowing and windsifting ([ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

Separation is mainly based on differences in density, while particle size and shape also have influences on the separation process. Separation is achieved by subjecting the material mix to an air stream (vertical or horizontal). The main part of the system consists of a blower to



deliver the air stream. The different classifiers are the following: air classifier (vertical, zig-zag, horizontal air knife, etc.), elutriators and cyclones ([ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

The air classifiers consists of a sorting column, where the air is rising at a constant rate and the particles either sink or rise according to their velocities in the air as illustrated in the Figure 47. Air classifiers can be applied for a wide range of feeds, which are granulated. Air classifiers separate heavy materials from light and can be located for the first separation after the shredder and a subsequent separation of each fraction (e.g. the separation of metals from the automotive shredder residue). The air classification for the non-magnetic fraction showed a recovery rate of 100 % for lead, 99% for iron, 85 % for aluminium, 97 % for zinc and 70 % for copper [Zoboli et al. 2000]. It implies low capital and operational costs [Veasey, 1993].

Figure 47: Illustration of an zig-zag air classifier [Veasey, 1993]

It works well to clean off the fines particles and also foams and other contaminants from rigid plastics used in EES. In the separation approach the material purity is high but the efficiency is not often so good (max. 70-80%) [ELV 3, 2002].

2.3.3 Mechanical Sorting Methods

Mechanical sorting methods, mainly density-based sorting methods, have been used widely for many years and were the only technologies available for sorting waste plastic flake in the early years of recycling. They are also very important technologies to separate metals from other fractions; light and heavy shredder residue, etc.

The major limitation of density-based methods is that many polymers have virtually equivalent or fairly similar densities. Furthermore, these methods are of limited use in the case of plastics with fillers, pigments and reinforcing agents (common in EES plastics), since these additives modify polymers density.

2.3.3.1 Sink-float Separation

Its main function is the separation of mixed plastic scraps into two fractions on the base of differences in density. It is usually accomplished with a fluid medium with an intermediate density to that of the plastics being separated. Plastics less dense than the medium will float and those heavier will sink. Typical fluids that are used for the medium are water, water-



methanol (to sort polymers with specific gravities less than unity), NaCl solutions and ZnCl 2

solutions (for polymers with specific gravities greater than unity). The sedimentation basin usually consists of a tank filled with medium (water) and equipped with a feeding section, paddles and machinery that remove the flakes from the basin (some separators could be more sophisticated: cone or drum separators). With this technique anything that floats or sinks is a potential contaminant ([ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

Most mixed plastics are usually notoriously difficult to separate by this method because of the small gap between their densities. This method can be slow (a typical settling velocity for 0.5 mm particles is around 6 mm/s), difficult to control and may yield low-purity product streams. The density of the aqueous solution can be difficult to control precisely, due to variations in ambient temperature. The evaporation of binary solutions leads to changes in composition and thus solution density. Surface tension effects can also plague sink-float processes. Very small quantity of surfactant could be of interest in avoiding the presence of air bubbles at the particle surface. The agglomeration of different flakes can force a lighter particle to sink when flanked and clustered by heavier particles. To achieve good separation, high retention times are required and this lowers the throughput and cost effectiveness of the process. Large separation tanks and large quantities of water (or medium) are required. The process can be affected by the particle size and plastic flake geometry. To achieve high degree of selectivity, only flake of comparable size and shape should be used during one separation. This process may include intensive washing steps to detach dirt and adherent labels, in that case a considerable quantity of polluted water are generated, which requires special treatment ([ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

As the first enrichment step of non-magnetic fractions the sink-float process predominate for dense medium separation [Zoboli et al. 2000]. Therefore the non-ferrous metals are separated from plastics, rubber and magnesium in a first sink-float step. In a second step the separation of light metals Al, Mg from heavy metals Cu, Zn, Pb can be accomplished because materials other than aluminium are sinking in a higher density fluid medium (e.g. ferrosilicium).

Instead of the classical method for sink and float separation a drum separator is often applied for economic reasons. In example the three product drum separator comprises low gravity and high gravity separate compartments. Float material (aluminium) overflows at one end of the drum. While the sink is continuously removing the sink product of each compartment (heavy metals). The drum separator allows pieces of 6-150 mm and recovers the metal fraction to a rate of 85-90 % [Zoboli et al 2000]. An industrial version of this type of separator, the newell industries water current separator (WCS) consists of a steel tank structure with an internal conveyor (Figure 48). In an upflow of water the non-ferrous metals are separated from waste and washed out over the side onto a dewatering screen. The non-ferrous particles sink and are collected on a conveyor. The metal content of a non-ferrous fraction is increased to 40-60% of a non-magnetic autoshredder reject [Veasey et al. 1993]. An experimental water elutriating column resulted in the following recovery rates of non-magnetic residues: 49% copper, 97% zinc, 52 % aluminium, 100 % lead and 96 % iron.



Figure 48: Illustration of a sink and float separator [Veasey 1993]

A two magnetic separation cell operating with two different fluid densities is also used in a pilot test for the separation of copper, zinc and lead from each other.

2.3.3.2 Near-critical and Supercritical Fluids

Separation of plastics on the basis of density can also be accomplished by using near-critical and super-critical fluids such as liquid carbon dioxide - sink-float process - (Figure 49). This method can separate plastic flakes with density differences as small as 0.001 g/cm3. The advantages of using a near-critical or super-critical liquid as the separation medium are: (i) the dependency of fluid density on pressure permits easy and precise control of the fluid density over a wide range of values, (ii) the very low fluid viscosity increases the rate at which particles rise or settle and thus decreases the time to effect complete separation [Scheirs 1998].

The use of near-critical liquids, however, does bring disadvantages, not least of which is the need for high-pressure equipment. Apart from this, the system has many advantages over other density-based recovery techniques. The carbon dioxide medium is inexpensive, readily available, non-toxic, non-flammable and is not classified as a VOC [Scheirs 1998].



Figure 49: Sequence for sorting mixed plastic flake using near-critical liquid CO2

(R. Enich, University of Pittsburgh – USA in [Scheirs 1998])

2.3.3.3 Centrifuging

Its main function is the separation of mixed plastic scraps on the base of differences in density. The process can be compared with a horizontal decanter centrifuge. A mixture of plastic flakes in a separation medium (water or medium with a specific density) is fed to the centrifuge. Due to high speed of the centrifuge bowl a large centrifugal force works on the fluid particles. The particles with a density higher than the separation fluid move towards the outer side of the bowl. The lighter particles will stay in the inner part of the bowl and will be extracted at a different place. Generally in hydraulic classification it can be used also some fluids with different densities, salt solutions in water, dynamic suspensions (water + barite, water + sand, water + ferro silicium, etc.) [ELV 3, 2002].



KHD Humboldt Wedag (Germany) has developed a novel centrifuge. The centrifuge known as the CENSOR (Figure 50) can distinguish between plastics that differ in density by as little as 0.005 g/cm3, while separation of plastics with density differences of the order of 0.05 g/cm3 can be routinely performed. Using the appropriate medium, the sorting centrifuge can perform difficult separations. The basis of this sorting technique is a double-cone, solid-bowl screw centrifuge, which can selectively separate, wash and dewater, mixed plastic flakes in the one separation (rates of 1t/h an purity > 99.5% are possible). The apparatus produces a centrifugal field of 1,000-1,500 times the acceleration due to gravity. The average residence time of particles is 25 seconds. The sorting centrifuge is indifferent to the flake size and geometry. The CENSOR shows good sorting capability for car components such as dashboards, cables, bumpers, etc. The main disadvantage of centrifugal sorting is its high price (US$1.6 million for a two-stage system in 1998) [Scheirs 1998].

Figure 50: The CENSOR sorting centrifuge(KHD Humboldt Wedag in [Scheirs 1998])

2.3.3.4 Hydrocyclone

Its function is the separation of mixed plastics scraps into two fractions on the base of differences in density. It uses the principle of centrifugal acceleration to separate plastic mixtures and contaminant particles. Even the most contaminated polymers can be processed into a high-purity stream by using a number of hydrocyclones arranged in a cascade configuration. Hydrocyclones (Figure 51) can remove dissimilar plastics and foreign material from a granulated input stream at throughputs far in excess of those achievable with float-sink separation. Variations in size and shape in the input material will influence the separation process. The system consists of a stirring tank in which the flakes are suspended in water, a pump to convey the suspension, pipes, the hydrocyclone itself, plane screens to allow separation of the two produced fractions from the suspension water, basins to collect the separated water and pumps to convey the water back to the stirring tank ( [ELV 3, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).



Figure 51: Hydrocyclone for separating recycled plastics from one to another and from dirt(Refakt Anlagenbau GmbH in [Scheirs 1998])

The feed of the hydrocyclone is limited to a size of 50 mm. If hydrocyclones are applied for the separation of non-ferrous metals a previous screening is required. Non-metal and magnesium are separated before by hydrocycloning in a dense medium tank [Veasey et al.1993].

2.3.3.5 Wet Tabling

Its function is the separation of two or more different materials on the base of differences in density and to a lesser degree on the shape and size of the particles. This process is known as water elutriation, wet classification, water current separation or rising current separation [ELV 3, 2002].

The concentration and/or separation is effected by flowing particles across a riffled plane surface inclined slightly from the horizontal, differentially shaken in the direction of the long axis and washed with an even flow of water at right angles to the direction of motion. The heaviest particles in a table feed are the least affected by the current of water washing down over the table and they collect in the riffles along which they move to the end of the table. The lighter materials ride abode the heavy and tend to be washed over the riffles to the low side of the table. Suitable launders are placed at the end of the low side of the table to catch the various products as they are discharged.



2.3.3.6 Ballistic Classifier

Its function is to separate mixed plastics into two different fractions. This technique which is not often used works in using incline plans where the particles slide and can get different trajectories which depends on some factors like shape, density, weight and the slippery properties over the incline plans. Also the classifier could operate in accordance with two more criteria: particle size and rigidity or elasticity. The rigid or elastic particle can bounce down the incline and get a different trajectory (Figure 52) [ELV 3, 2002].

Figure 52: Illustration of an ballistic classifier after [Veasey et al. 2003]

In principle it is to differ between the separation by counter current and cross current of the particles. If the process is designed with a cross current several fractions can be separated [Jung 1995].

2.3.3.7 Fluidised Bed Table

Its function is to separate mixed plastics into a light, a heavy and a fine fraction or to separate metals and plastics (e.g. fine granulate products as copper/plastic electrical scrap). The classifier operates in accordance with two criteria: particle size and rigidity. It consists of an incline vibrating table which is like a screen. Some air is blown through the screen and creates a fluidised bed of particles. The fines are extracted trough a metal housing covering the table. As the material is fed into the table the light particles are carried by the moving down the incline table and the heavy particles are going up [ELV 3, 2002].

The range of effective densities is from < 1 g/cm³ to > 4 g/cm³. An example of practical use is the separation of aluminium and copper from shredded car radiators.

A pneumatic pinched sluice uses air fluidisation. The feed which is separated by low air pressure. The heavier particles sink and move at lower velocity than the lighter one, which follow a different discharge path. The fluidised bed separator succeeded especially in recovering a aluminium rich and a copper rich fraction. Both the pneumatic pinched sluice and the fluidised bed separator have been used successfully to separate plastic and metal from granulated insulated wire scrap.



2.3.4 Non-mechanical Sorting Methods

In the following, the most adequate and common non-mechanical sorting methods – electrostatic, melting temperatures and selective dissolution – mainly for those plastics commonly used in EES are briefly presented. It has to be pointed out that those technologies are less developed than the basic and mechanical ones which were described before.

2.3.4.1 Electrostatic Separation

Continuous electrostatic-based sorting processes have also been developed. These are based on the principle that if two different non-conductive materials are brought into frictional contact, electrons are transferred from one contact partner to the other. If the connection is torn off very quickly, the electron distribution is “frozen”. If the material is non-conductive, those charges will remain on the particle surface for a certain time. In this case the different particles are charged selectively and can be separated in a high-voltage field according to their polarity. The particle with the higher dielectric constant is charged positive against the particle with the lower constant. This principle can be used to separate metals from plastics and even to separate different polymer types [Scheirs 1998].

The differences in conductivity between plastics and metals can be used as the basis for separating plastics in a continuous manner. The triboelectrical charging process involves charging the contaminated polymer with a corona electrode followed by passing the charged material over a grounded drum. Metal contaminants and polymers filled with carbon black are separated from non-conductive plastics [Scheirs 1998].

Electrostatic sorting can also separate different polymer types. With an electrostatic separator, dry plastic flake is dumped onto a rapidly revolving drum. It then passes by an electrode which exposes the flake to a corona discharge that electrostatically charges the polymer. Depending on how quickly a material loses its charge, it will be ejected from the drum at a different point in time. Electrostatic separation of polymers is based on the fact that various polymers exhibit different behaviour when subjected to electrostatic charge. Electrostatic separation overcomes many of the problems associated with separating heavily soiled plastics and it also has the potential to separate polymers of equal density such as PE and PP [Scheirs 1998].

A rotating drum triboelectric separator (Figure 53) has been developed by the firm Hamos GmbH and a corona charging belt separator has been developed by Chilworth Technology (United Kingdom). The advantages of electrostatic sorting methods are that electrostatic separation is a dry technique requiring no dewatering or drying of the finished product. The total power consumption is very low (processing is done with high voltage but the intensity of the current is very low). It can separate a variety of different polymers if triboelectrical charging of the material is possible. Normally only a mixture of two different plastics can be separated with good results. A suitable application is the separation of ABS/PC blends and PVC from recycled car dashboards. This technology is currently widely used to reclaim plastic insulation from cables [Scheirs 1998].



Figure 53: Principle of the triboelectrical drum separator(Hamos GmbH in [Scheirs 1998])

2.3.4.2 Differential Melting or Softening Temperature

Polymers can also be separated on the basis of differences in their softening (melting) points, when this difference is significant. The firm Resource Energy Ventures (USA) have developed and patented a system for separating resins sequentially on the basis of melting temperature. The system (Figure 54) consists of a three-tiered PTFE conveyor belt which is heated with a temperature gradient increasing along the length of the belt. The top belt is heated to a temperature around 100ºC which makes the lowest melting polymer soften and become tacky. This causes it to adhere to the conveyor and to travel to the underside of the belt, where it is scrapped off and removed on a separate conveyor. Higher-melting flakes sticks to the next conveyor section and so on. Trials have shown the unit has a separation efficiency of 99%. The main advantage of this system lies in its low operating costs, while the main disadvantages is the requirement that plastic particles must form a mono-layer. (Remark: other firms have also developed and patented separation systems based on melting temperatures: separation of PVC from PET (Refakt, Germany); separation of PET-HDPE (TransTech Research and development Corporation), separation of PVC wire insulation from other thermosets (Geon Co, USA); etc) [Scheirs 1998].

Figure 54: Apparatus for sorting mixed plastic flake sequentially by melt temperature(Resource Energy Ventures – USA in [Scheirs 1998])



2.3.4.3 Selective Dissolution

Generally speaking, plastics can be dissolved in suitable organic solvents. It is also possible to use organic solvents as a cleaning agent to remove unwanted impurities from a plastic (e.g. inks). The solubility behaviour depends on the nature of the organic solvent, the temperature and the pressure. The dissolution properties of polymers can also be used for the separation of different polymers. The choice of the organic solvent is directed by different factors: the polymer to be dissolved (polarity, crystallinity), necessity to separate integrated parts of the polymer (plasticizer, stabilizer, flame retardants, etc.), dissolution properties of the other polymer/s, safety data of organic solvent (e.g. peroxide formation), recoverability of the organic solvent and environmental behaviour of the organic solvent [ELV 4, 2002].

Several solvent processes for plastic separation purposes, for applications other than packaging, have been developed on a laboratory scale for the recycling of different plastics and mixtures of plastics (e.g. recycling of PVC from cables, PVC/ABS cover slush from dashboards, PVC with metal inserts, PE/PET laminates, etc.) [ELV 4, 2002].

One commercial plant recovers plastics from ELVs using solvents. The Wietek facility is located at Nohfelden in Germany and has a capacity of 4,000 t/year of input material. They offer expertise in the recycling of PVC cables, SMA from dashboards, PMMA and ABS from rear lights, ABS from radiators grills, PVB from windscreen safety glass, etc. Wietek claims that the process can be operated economically if the polymer price exceeds 1 €/kg [ELV 4, 2002].

Argone National Laboratories (ANL) has developed a process to separate defined polymers from the heterogeneous mixture of shredder light fraction by using different organic solvents. PU foam, ABS, PVC and PP have been identified as potential candidates amongst the plastics suitable to be recovered. Based on some assumptions and on a cost basis of year of 1993, ANL calculated an investment pay-back of 3 years for a plant ready to treat roughly 90,000 t/year shredder light fraction and ready to provide “clean” PU foam, ABS, PVC and PP/PE. The basic investment was calculated to be 7.8 $ million [ELV 4, 2002].

Solvay Laboratories has developed and patented a solvent-based process (vinyloop process) that can be applied to recycling a wide number of PVC-based products. This process separates PVC from the other materials (selective dissolution using a ketone). The calculation for a 5,000 t/year plant bring a recycling cost of 0.4 €/kg which could be in the 50 to 60 % of the cost of the virgin material. The applications currently looked at are dashboards (with FIAT). Door panels and wire and cables can be further tested. The process has a colour limitation, in the sense that organic pigments will remain [ELV 4, 2002].

2.3.5 Plastics Identification Methods

As it has been introduced at the beginning of this chapter, contamination seems to be a bigger problem for plastics than for metals due to a large variety of plastic materials with similar properties that makes difficult to separate them but at the same time they cannot be recycled together. Therefore, a more detailed view on identification methods and contaminants removal methods mainly for plastics follows.



To enable easy identification of plastics, marking of parts has been done systematically since some years following International Standards (Table 21). These markings are intended to be read by human dismantlers. However there is a need for more advanced identification technologies mainly because human labour is expensive and automation of plastic identification is preferred, especially when large scale recycling is sought.

Due to the fact that different plastics have distinguishable light absorption spectra, a simple way to identify them out is accomplished by electromagnetic absorption and reflectance measurements. The plastic specimen is illuminated mainly by infrared light, but also can be illuminated by a YAG laser or an X-ray light, and the reflected spectrum is detected and analysed to determine the type of plastic. This is possible because each type of plastic has its own fingerprint in the electromagnetic spectrum ([Hendrix et. al. 1996], [ELV 1, 2002]).

Infrared spectroscopy is one of the most widely used analytical techniques for identifying different types of polymers in the plastics industry (Table 22) and, in some cases, different grades and/or additives within the same polymer family. It is considered quite accurate and precise. Instruments specifically developed for plastics identification operate in the short wave near infrared range (SWNIR) from 700-1,100 nm wave length, in the near infrared (NIR) range from 700-2,500 nm or in the mid infrared range (MIR) from 2,500-15,000 nm. Generally speaking and considering the advantages and disadvantages of each IR technique (Table 22), it can be concluded that the FT-MIR is the most used and adequate technology to identify engineering plastics commonly used in EES components ([Hendrix et. al. 1996], [ELV 1, 2002]).

Another relevant identification technique for plastics is the plasma emission spectroscopy technique, it scorches the plastic with a plasma spark generated between two metal electrodes. The emission is then collected and analysed by a spectrometer interfaced to a PC. The system can be calibrated for a wide range of plastics and can even identify whether the polymer contains heavy metals or halogenated additives. The technique, known as sliding spark spectroscopy (SSS) was developed as a technique for the fast survey analysis of plastic materials. This technique was developed mainly to facilitate the sorting of waste engineering plastics (e.g. automotive plastics or electronic housings). The technique is insensitive to colour, surface impurities, surface roughness and sample geometry. This gives it important advantages over IR reflectance techniques. Additionally, the apparatus is small, mobile, and easy to use. The SSS is based on the atomic emission spectra generated by a surface discharge to identify the polymer and to detect inorganic additives. The identification of most plastics by SSS can be performed in less than 10 s [Scheirs 1998].

The plasma emission spectroscopy is applied on the analytical identification of non-ferrous metal fractions, too. The particles are placed in line on a conveyor. To prevent a misdetection because of surficial impurities the particles are cleaned before beamed by the laser. Because of prior measurement of the electrical conductivity non metal fractions are excluded from the analytical identification. Is the position of each metal piece registered an impulse laser whose beam is directed to the material activates. This creates a plasma at the surface of the particles, which reflects the atomic emission spectra. These are detected within a short time period and the analytical information of each piece directed to the control logic of the separation sector of the machine. Here the particles are diverted to the sorting channels.



Depending on the material input 3-5 t of non-metals can be sorted in one hour, while the purity of each metal fraction can reach a higher level than 96% [VDI 1991].



It must be said that other advanced spectroscopic techniques are available but they are less adequate for the identification of plastics commonly used in EES, e.g.: colour sorters, laser acoustic sensing, Raman spectroscopy, laser-induced emission spectral analysis, polarised light, phase contrast illumination, UV light, X-ray fluorescence for sorting PVC, etc ([Hendrix et. al. 1996], [ELV 1, 2002], [Scheirs 1998]).

Generally, automated identification technologies are means of identifying plastics type, after which some action must be taken to actually separate the different types of plastics. Current industry separation practice is either to eject the discovered plastic type via air jet or to route the detected plastic via an actuated gate in the material flow path [Hendrix et. al. 1996].

The Tribopen is another interesting and portable device intended for the discrete identification of plastic components. The Tribopen (Figure 55) can identify different plastic types on the basis of electrostatic charging which occurs when the pen is rubbed against a plastic component. The Tribopen was developed jointly by the University of Southampton and the car manufacturer Ford and is intended for hand-held use by car dismantlers and recyclers. This device is particularly useful for identifying automotive plastic types since it can effectively distinguish between PE, PP, ABS and nylon (the most common plastics found in motor vehicles) [Scheirs 1998].

Figure 55: The hand-held Tribopen(Dr. P. Mucci, University of Southampton in [Scheirs 1998])

Finally, it should be also mentioned that tagging of plastics with fluorescent dyes in order to facilitate their identification has been suggested. However, such strategies are not likely to receive widespread acceptance and commitment. The criteria that such markers or tracers would have to meet include non-toxicity, no effect on polymer processing or performance, they should be economical and have no false positives. There are still concerns over the correct use of this marker technology, e.g. mistakes can be made in marking resins in the manufacturing plants and during blending of various resins, etc. (Remark: Eastman Chemical Company claim to have developed a range of proprietary marker compounds which meet the above criteria and have a high signal-to-noise ratio in the NIR spectrum) [Scheirs 1998].



Table 21: ISO standards for marking plastic components

STANDARD TITLE SUMMARY

ISO 11469 Plastics – Generic information and marking of plastic products

This is a generic ISO standard that specifies a system of uniform marking of products that have been fabricated from plastic materials.

ISO 1043-1Plastic – Symbols and abbreviated terms - Part 1: Basic Polymers and their special characteristics

This first part of the ISO 1043 provides abbreviated terms for the basic polymers used in plastics, symbols for components of these terms and symbols for special characteristics of plastics. Its aim is to prevent the occurrence of more than one abbreviated term for a given plastic and to prevent a given abbreviated term being interpreted in more than one way.

ISO 1043-2 Plastic – Symbols and abbreviated terms - Part 2: Fillers and reinforcing materials

This second part of the ISO 1043 provides uniform symbols for terms referring to fillers and reinforcing materials. Its aim is both to prevent the occurrence of more than one symbol for a given filler or reinforcing material and to prevent a given symbol being interpreted in more than one way.

ISO 1043-3 Plastic – Symbols and abbreviated terms - Part 3: Plasticizers

This third part of the ISO 1043 provides uniform symbols for components of terms relating to plasticizers to form abbreviated terms. Its aim is to prevent the occurrence of more than one abbreviated term for a given plasticizer.

ISO 1043-4 Plastic – Symbols and abbreviated terms - Part 4: Flame retardants

This fourth and last part of the ISO 1043 provides uniform symbols for flame retardants added to plastics materials. The symbols are written with the abbreviated term “FR” and one or more succeeding code numbers. They are used in addition to the symbols for the plastics materials, for plastics material designation and for identification and marking of plastics products.

ISO 1629 Rubbers and lattices nomenclatureThis ISO standard establishes a system of symbols for the basic rubbers in both dry and latex forms, based on the chemical composition of the polymer chain. Its purpose is to standardise the terms used.

([ISO 11469], [ISO 1043-1], [ISO 1043-2], [ISO 1043-3], [ISO 1043-4] and [ISO 1629])



Table 22: Advantages and disadvantages of the infrared (IR) identification techniques for plastics

IR TECHNIQUE MAIN ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

SWNIR(700-1,100 nm)

Main advantages:

- Commercial instruments are compact, robust, easy to use and of relatively low in cost.

- It is possible to use conventional fibre optic probes, fixed ratings and charge coupled device detector arrays.

- It can differentiate between ABS and HIPS.

- In future, it may be able to identify more plastic types by means of improvements of the software and the reference library.

Main disadvantages:

- It is not possible to identify dark or black-pigmented plastics commonly used in EES components.

- It is a surface-sensitive technique. It cannot see through typical paints, metallic coatings, labels or most other common surface coverings on plastic parts of ESS parts. Coatings must therefore be removed or an area free of coatings must be examined.

- The used range of frequencies is poor in spectral information and the range of plastics types that can be identified is limited.

- It will hardly be able to differentiate between more than a few plastics at a time because of the limited information it extracts.

NIR(700-2,500 nm)

Main advantages:

- A high number of commercial, portable and robust units are available.

- Measurements require less than 1 second and less than 100 milliseconds in some cases.

- It is possible to use conventional fibre-optics detectors allowing easy and inexpensive remote (without contact) sampling.

- Instruments have no moving parts and they can operate in vibration-prone environments.

Main disadvantages:

- It is ideal for plastic bottle identification and sorting (transparent or lightly coloured plastics).

- Nature of peaks is not always clear since they are due to overtones and not fundamental peaks.



(continued)NIR

(700-2,500 nm)

- It is not possible to identify dark or black-pigmented plastics commonly used in EES components.

- It is a surface-sensitive technique. It cannot see through typical paints, metallic coatings, labels or most other common surface coverings on plastic parts of ESS parts. Coatings must therefore be removed or an area free of coatings must be examined.

- Prices of NIR instruments are in the range of 10,000-70,000 €.

FT-MIR(2,500-15,000 nm)

Main advantages:

- It is a proven and established technology for plastics identification.

- Absorption peaks are due to fundamental vibrations and are well documented (good precision and accuracy).

- It is an adequate technology to identify engineering plastics (commonly used in EES components).

- It can identify blends, dark and black-pigmented polymers, a range of fillers and even some additives.

- Several commercial MIR spectrometers are available.

Main disadvantages:

- It is a surface-sensitive technique, more than the SWNIR and NIR techniques. It cannot see through typical paints, metallic coatings, labels or most other common surface coverings on plastic parts of ESS parts. Coatings must therefore be removed or an area free of coatings must be examined.

- In most of the cases using MIR, the sensor must be in close proximity to the plastic item (within a few centimetres) and it must be essentially motionless for at least 1 second. Within approximately 2 further seconds a clear identification is usually made.

- Some old FT-MIR instruments operate in diffuse reflectance (DR). This mode usually requires that a powder sample be placed in the spectrometer being this task quite time consuming.

- New spectrometers operate in specular reflectance (SR) and it requires a relatively smooth surface for good measurements. The SR mode usually requires little or no sample preparation. The plastic part is brought into contact with a conical probe affixed to the instrument, a switch is activated (often with a pedal), and the identification displayed within a few seconds.

- Usually conventional glass fibre-optics detectors cannot be used.

- Prices of FT-MIR instruments are about 30,000 €. ([Hendrix et al. 1996], [ELV 1 2002] and [Scheirs 1998])



2.3.6 Contaminants Removal Methods

Some commonly-used materials, especially from assembly and finishing processes of EES plastic parts, can produce problems or contamination at the recycling stage. The most obvious are the following [Murphy 1996]:

- Additives: the presence of other materials in the compound, particularly fillers and reinforcements, will also limit the options in re-formulating any recycled material. It would be prohibitively expensive to remove additives, and the new recycled compound therefore still contain them. In some EES plastics flame-retardants could be also encountered.

Glass fibre presents no difficulty (e.g. from PCB laminates). In thermosets, it may be ground with the matrix material, while in thermoplastics (apart from possible abrasive effect on recompounding equipment) it simply goes to make up new glass-reinforced compound, with the proviso that the length of the fibre (which plays an important role in the mechanical properties of the compound) will probably be further reduced in recycling, down-grading the properties. Long-fibre reinforced compounds, however, can be recycled to compounds with a fibre-length approaching conventional length and properties. In all cases of direct material recycling, however, there is likely to be some loss of mechanical properties (up to about 20%), which can be offset in the new compound by adding new material and/or corrective additives [Murphy 1996].

- Metal inserts: since the moulded product will be chopped or ground up, any metal in it can cause contamination and/or damage to the size-reducing machinery. Soft metals are to be preferred. Plastics inserts are also available (see section 2.3.6.1 Methods for removing metals inserts from plastic parts) [Murphy 1996].

- Coatings: many plastics commonly used in EES are painted, plated and/or glued. Since those contaminants can act as stress concentrations if the polymer is simply reprocessed, techniques for the removal of such coatings are of particular relevance (see section 2.3.6.2 Methods for removing coatings) [Murphy 1996]. Coatings may also lead to problems in hydrometallurgical recycling and therefore must be removed also from metals in this case.

The table 23 shows the most common contaminants in plastic parts of ELVs and their difficulty for being removed:



Table 23: The most common contaminants in plastic parts of ELVs

EASY TO BE REMOVED: - Magnetic separation

- Metallic insertions (screws, bolts, nuts, rives, wires, etc.)

- Water dissolution:- Labels (+ adhesive, if they can be removed and dissolved with water)

- Paints (if they can be removed and dissolved with water)

- Glues (if they can be removed and dissolved with water)

- Adhesive tapes (if they can be removed and dissolved with water)

DIFFICULT OR IMPOSSIBLE TO BE REMOVED:- Additives (halogenated flame-retardants, glass fibre, etc.)

- Labels (+ adhesive, if they cannot be removed and dissolved with water)

- Paints (if they cannot be removed and dissolved with water)

- Glues (if they cannot be removed and dissolved with water)

- Adhesive tapes (if they cannot be removed and dissolved with water)

- Textile covers and sound absorbers

[Rodrigo et al. 2002], [Murphy 1996]

2.3.6.1 Methods for Removing Metal Inserts from Plastic Parts

Magnetic separator

From a contamination perspective, its main function is the separation of ferromagnetic particles from plastics. The layout of the separation depends on the concentration of iron particles. Equipment that removes the iron particles out of a material mix (e.g. top belts magnets) is used in case of high concentrations. Equipment that splits ferrous and ferro-materials (e.g. drum magnets) is used in case of low concentrations (note: see also chapter 2.3.2.2) [ELV 3, 2002].

Eddy current separator

From a contamination point of view, its main function is the separation of paramagnetic materials from plastics (aluminium, lead, copper, etc.). More of the industrial separators consist of a conveyor belt with a rotating magnet installed in the head drum of the belt. This rotor is equipped with a number of zones of alternating north and south oriented permanent magnetic material. The rotor produces an alternating magnetic field. If conductive particles are exposed to this alternating magnetic field, within them eddy-currents are generated. On the other hand, these eddy-currents effect magnetic fields which act against the inducing fields, whereby repulsive forces are generated and the non ferrous metals are deflected from the main particle stream (note: see also chapter 2.3.2.3) [ELV 3, 2002].



2.3.6.2 Methods for Removing Coatings

There is a variety of methods for the removal of coatings (paint, plate and or glue) from plastics, ranging from the mechanical to chemical ones. In some cases the polymer can be reground and reprocessed with the paint coating, by using additives to upgrade it.

Removal of coatings from metals in some cases is also necessary before hydrometallurgical recycling. In pyrometallurgical recycling paints and similar coatings usually are oxidised and go to slag without problems. Problems may occur from zinc coatings on iron that reduce the recycling value of iron if not removed before.

Because coatings are more common and problematic for plastic parts in EES, some methods for removal of coatings from plastics are exemplified.

Hydrolysis

The coating film (paint, glue, etc.) can be hydrolysed in water at elevated pressures and at high temperatures which causes fine cracks to be generated all over the coated surface. Eventually delamination of the coated flakes occurs and the contaminant breaks down into minute particle. This method works best for melamine-based coatings and it is not recommended for hydrolysable polymers [Scheirs 1998].

Chemical stripping

It involves the use of solvents or aggressive chemicals to remove the coating of the polymer. Coatings are most often stripped from plastics using proprietary solutions based on alkaline cleaners, tensides and inorganic salts, and is generally performed at elevated temperatures. These techniques require the use of potentially harmful solvents and expensive chemical recovery equipment. Furthermore, there is the possibility of interactions between the solvent and the polymer [Scheirs 1998].

Liquid cyclone

The coated plastic parts are crushed and ground to a particle size of a few hundred microns and then the fine contaminant chips are separated from the polymer on the basis of their differing specific gravity, using a hydrocylone [Scheirs 1998].

Compressed vibration

The coated polymer is deformed using a cone press (that is, compressed vibration between a fixed cone and liners). Any residual coating film which resists deformation is crushed and removed centrifugally with a pin mill [Scheirs 1998].

Melt filtration

It can remove coatings without needing to use hazardous stripping chemicals. In this process the plastic parts are first granulated and processed in an extruder after which the melt is forced through a fine series of filters to remove any non-molten contaminants [Scheirs 1998].

Mechanical abrasion

Coatings can also be removed by mechanical abrasion. This process is especially adequate for flat plastic parts, quite uncommon in EES, due to they are directly exposed to a rotating wire brush. The advantages of this technique are that it is easily adapted for the



manufacturing environment, the equipment involved is easy to operate and it is relatively inexpensive, and the process does not involve hazardous chemicals. In this process, compressed air or a water mist can impinge at the wire brush surface, to facilitate the stripping process. The stripped debris are then removed using a vacuum filtration system [Scheirs 1998].

Dry crushing

A novel method for removing coatings (mainly paints) is dry crushing. This is done in an apparatus resembling a disc impact mill. The coating is essentially knocked of the plastic particles as they collide with one another due to extreme turbulence [Scheirs 1998].

Roller pressing

The coated plastic parts are shredded and passed between two rollers with different revolution speeds which peel and remove the coating film. The basic principle is that the coat films are peeled by a combination of compressive draw stress, shear stress and heating effect. The coating film adhering to the rollers is then removed with a special scraper. It has some advantages over the chemical stripping methods in that it uses no hazardous chemicals, while relative to the liquid cyclone and cryogenic grinding methods, coating removal roller pressing requires a comparatively low equipment investment [Scheirs 1998].

Friction washer

Its function is the removal of impurities from grinded plastic materials. The friction separator consists of a conveyance paddle system in a cylinder. Polluted plastic flakes are compressed by the paddles and rubbed against the cylinder and together. The friction between flakes and wall rubs off coating which can be separated through the cylinder (holes of 2 mm in case of turbo washer) or after with the water trough a sieve [ELV 3, 2002].

Cryogenic grinding

Cryogenic recycling has been used form more than 15 years to separate chrome plating from ABS resin from automotive parts. The basis of this technique is delaminating of the plating which occurs due to the different embrittlement temperatures of the components present. At liquid nitrogen temperatures, the ABS becomes brittle and shatters, releasing the chrome plating. The chrome and copper sub-plating can then be separated electrostatically, using a charged rotating drum. While cryogenic recycling is rather costly, it obviates the need to use caustic cleaners and there are no waste-water problems. This process is only economically viable for high value plastics [Scheirs 1998].

2.4 Recycling Technologies

2.4.1 Metal Recycling Technologies

Electronic scrap consists of highly multi-component wastes containing besides steel, plastics mostly all main non-ferrous metals such as aluminium, copper, zinc, tin and lead, ferrous metals and precious metals like gold, palladium and silver. Next to the extraction of harmful components as lead, cadmium, hexavalent chromium and mercury are the high trade prices for gold, copper and silver the determining factor for recovery of the precious metals of electrical and electronic systems. Nonetheless metal recycling technologies are demanding



high requirements to achieve an efficient output, a proper disposal of problematic substances and a reliable evaluation of the precious metal contents has to be provided, too.

As exemplified in table 24 precious metals are used in components such as pin connectors, contact points, silver coated wire, terminals, capacitators, plugs and relays (PCB components).

Table 24: Metal compounds in EES components

Metal compound Main use in EES components

Copper Conductors (wire harness, coils, electric motors, PCB)

Iron Housings and structural parts, magnetic cores (in coils, solenoids, motors, transformers)

Aluminium Housings of components, heat sinks

Lead Battery (lead acid), piezoelectrical components (sensors + actuators), solder (PCB, junction boxes and all components soldered to wires), pyrotechnical initiators, carbon brushes of electric motors

Tin Solder (PCB, junction boxes and all components soldered to wires)

Nickel Battery (NiMH), PCB

Zinc Battery, metal coatings

Magnesium Aluminium alloys, castings

Mercury Discharge lamps (also used in LCD screens)

Silver PCB components, batteries, heating wires of window heating

Gold PCB components and electrical contacts, relays, connectors

Palladium PCB components

Platin PCB components, electrodes of sensors / actuators

Metallic alloys (CuZn, CuSn)

Wire harness

Lithium Battery (Li-ions)

Tungsten Decandescent lamps

Indium LCD panels

Zr (ZrO2) Ceramics (e.g. lambda control sensor, piezoelectrics)

Titanium (TiO2) Ceramics (e.g. lambda control sensor, piezoelectrics)

Other (bismuth, antimony, tantalum)

PCB

In the following chapter the pyrometallurgical processes, which are applied for the recovery of the major amounts of metals from end-of-life vehicles – copper, aluminium, iron and steel



– and the hydrometallurgical processes, which are applied for the recovery and refinement of secondary non-ferrous metals and precious metals, are described.

2.4.1.1 Pyrometallurgical Processes – Smelting

Smelting consists of separation and purification of specific metals by means of heating and treating the scrap fractions. The non-ferrous metals alloys can be treated by means of pyrometallurgical processes by taking advantage of their different smelting point meaning that the material is processed in high-temperature reactions to separate metals from impurities. The heavy fraction of scrap consisting of lead, copper and zinc can be extracted by selective smelting processes. In general, the extraction of metals from electroscrap is a complex process, integrated with several process lines to refine various primary and secondary metals.

The recovery of metals in a selective smelting process is done on special sweating furnaces (rotary, reverberatory, or muffle furnaces) where the metal fraction is slowly heated. The oxidation of the finely divided scrap is minimised by a multi zone temperature control, which allows the controlled melting of the different metals present [Rosseau 1991].

The TS-process (Trennschmelz-Verfahren) described by Rosseau (1991) for metal recovery is based on the selective smelting of a particular metal by partial immersion of the previously dried scrap in a bath consisting of the same metal. Consequently only one metal can be recovered in each step, starting with the lowest melting point, followed subsequently by the rest of the components. The most frequent metals recovered by this process are lead-rich (90 % Pb), zinc-rich (92 % Zn) and copper-rich (45 – 50 % Cu) products by the performance of two subsequent TS-treatments.

A variety of furnaces can be used for melting metal scrap. The choice of furnace depends upon the quality and composition of the metal scrap, the desired production rate, and the mode of operation desired. Other factors influencing furnace selection are capital costs, refractory lifetime, and metal losses.

The processing of several metals by smelting processes as listed in table 25 will be described in the next paragraphs, on the basis of the different furnace descriptions :

Table 25: Overview of pyrometallurgical processes for the recovery of metals

Pyrometallurgical process MetalsSmelting Cu, Al, Zn, Pb, Mg

Reverbatory furnace Cu, Al, Zn

Electric furnace steel, Fe

Multichamber furnace Al, Zn, non-ferrous metals

Blast furnace steel, Cu

Crucible furnace Zn, Mg

Gas fired furnace Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Al

Rotary furnace Cu, Al, Zn

Induction furnace Al, Zn



Blast oxidation furnace steel

Electric arc furnace steel

Reverberatory Furnace

Reverberatory furnaces heat the required metals to melting temperatures with direct fired wall mounted burners. The primary mode of heat transfer is through radiation from the refractory brick walls to the metal scrap, but convective heat transfer also provides additional heating from the burner to the metal. Reverberatory furnaces are available with capacities ranging up to 150 tons of molten metals. The advantages provided by reverberatory melters are the high volume processing rate, and low operating and maintenance costs. The disadvantages include the high metal oxidation rates, low efficiencies, and large floor space requirements.

Figure 56: Reverberatory Furnace [http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/leadsmelter/popups/blastfurnacelleadtap_popup.html]

Electric Reverberatory Furnace

Electric reverberatory furnaces are used primarily as holding furnaces. These furnaces are refractory lined vessels using resistance heating elements mounted in the furnace roof above the hearth. These furnaces are used for smaller melting applications where limitations on emissions, product quality, and yield are of high priority.

Advantages over gas-fired reverberatory furnaces include low emissions, low metal oxidation, and reduced furnace cleaning. Disadvantages include high fuel costs, low production rates, higher capital costs, and frequent replacement of heating elements.

Multichamber Furnace

This type of furnace consists of two rooms. The scrap is fed into one of the chambers. In the other room, the metal is heated using a flame, identical to the reverberatory furnace. Through a system with natural or forced convection, the warm metal is transported to the room with



the scrap. By circulating the liquid metal through it, the scrap is melted. This type of furnace is mostly used for melting moderately polluted types of scrap.

Blast Furnace

A blast furnace is a smelting furnace consisting of a vertical cylinder atop a crucible, into which lead-bearing charge materials are introduced at the top of the furnace and combustion air is introduced at the bottom of the cylinder. It operates in temperature greater than 980°C in the combustion zone that metal compounds are chemically reduced to elemental metals (e.g. lead and elemental lead).

Figure 57: Blast Furnace [http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/leadsmelter/smelting/blastfurnace.html]

Crucible Furnace

The crucible furnace consists of a crucible of refractory material in which the metal is melted by direct heating with a flame, or by an induction spiral. In order to tap the furnace, it is turned over manually or by using a hydraulic device. This type of furnace is used in the recycling industry to remelt thin-walled, clean types of scrap. Advantages provided by the electric crucible furnace is the near elimination of emissions and low metal oxidation losses. Disadvantages include increased fuel costs and size limitation.



Figure 58: Diagram of a crucible furnace with an inward radiating metal fibre burner [http://www.acotech.com/appl10.htm]

Gas Fired Crucible Furnaces

Crucible furnaces are small capacity, indirect melters/holders typically used for small melting applications or exclusively as a holding furnace. The metal scrap is placed our poured into a ceramic crucible which is contained in a circular furnace which is fired by a gas burner. The energy is applied indirectly to the metal by heating the crucible. The advantages of crucible furnaces are their ability to change alloys quickly, low oxidation losses, and their low maintenance costs. Disadvantages include low efficiency, (as low as 12 %), high emissions, and size limitations [Metal Advisor 2004].

Energy efficiency can be improved by 50 % by adding a ceramic matrix recuperator to the exhaust system to recover waste heat for preheating the combustion air.

Rotary Furnace

Rotary furnaces are used almost exclusively for reclaiming low grade scrap. The Furnace operates by rotating the charge through the furnace which comes in direct contact with a gas burner or with a refractory wall which was directly heated by the burner. Typical rotary furnaces have holding capacities of 2 to 5 tons and are usually charged with salt which acts as a flux to improve metal recovery and reduce oxidation.

The advantage provided by rotary furnaces is their ability to process dross and low-grade scrap which is difficult to process in other types of furnaces. The disadvantages are low efficiency, higher maintenance requirements, and considerable salt cake production which must be disposed of as hazardous waste.



Figure 59: Rotary Furnace [http://www.alliedmineral.com/products/rotaryfurnaces.htm]

Induction Furnace

There are two general types of induction furnaces: channel and coreless. Channel furnaces are used almost exclusively as holding furnaces. Channel furnaces operate at 60 Hz where the electromagnetic field heats the metal between two coils and induces a flowing pattern of the molten metal which serves to maintain uniform temperatures without mechanical stirring. Coreless furnaces heat the metal via an external primary coil. Coreless furnaces are slightly less efficient than channel furnaces, but their melt capacity per unit floor area is much higher. Coreless furnaces are used mainly for melting of finely shredded scrap where they are most cost competitive with gas-fired furnaces. Advantages of induction furnaces include high melting efficiency (50–70 %), low emissions, low metal oxidation losses, and high allow uniformity due to increased mixing. Disadvantages are primarily their high capital and operating costs.

Figure 60: Coreless Induction Furnace [http://www.alliedmineral.com/products/corelessinductioncopper.htm]



Figure 61: Channel Induction Furnace [http://www.alliedmineral.com/products/channelfurnacecopper.htm]

Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)

The BOF is a pear-shaped furnace, lined with refractory bricks, that refines molten iron from the blast furnace and scrap into steel. Up to 30 % of the charge into the BOF can be scrap, with hot metal accounting for the rest. Scrap is dumped into the furnace vessel, followed by the hot metal from the blast furnace. A lance is lowered from above, through which blows a high-pressure stream of oxygen to cause chemical reactions that separate impurities as fumes or slag. Once refined, the liquid steel and slag are poured into separate containers. The main advantages include its rapid operation, lower cost and ease of control.

Figure 62: Diagram of the Basic Oxygen Furnace [http://homepage.tinet.ie/~jcelce/subjects/metalwork/pages/bop.html]



Electric Arc Furnace

An Electric Arc Furnace is a steel melting furnace in which heat is generated by an arc between graphite electrodes and the metal. The basic material is metal scrap in place of molten metal, and both carbon and alloy steels are produced. Furnaces with capacities up to 200 tonnes are now in use. The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) offers an alternative method of bulk steel manufacture, utilising scrap as a metal source, e.g. car scrap.

The EAF has evolved into a highly efficient melting apparatus and modern designs are focused on maximising the melting capacity of the EAF. Melting is accomplished by supplying electrical or chemical energy to the furnace interior. The melting point is reached at around 1520 °C and the steelmaking efficiency is about 55-65 % [Jones, 2004].

The first step in the production is to select the grade of steel to be made. Many operations add some lime and carbon in the scrap and supplement this with injection. After the scrap is loaded in the furnace, the roof is lowered and then the electrodes are lowered to “strike an arc” on the scrap, this commences the melting portion of the cycle.

Once the final scrap charge is melted, flat bath conditions are reached. The analysis of the bath chemistry will allow the melter to determine the amount of oxygen to be blown during refining and arrange the alloy additions to be made. Refining operations in the electric arc furnace have traditionally involved the removal of phosphorus, sulphur, aluminium, silicon, manganese and carbon from the steel with the addition of oxygen throughout the cycle, as a result some of the melting and refining operations occur simultaneously. In recent times, dissolved gases, especially hydrogen and nitrogen, has been recognised as a concern. Other operation include the oxidation of impurities by de-slagging [Jones, 2004].

Once the desired steel composition and temperature are achieved in the furnace, the tap-hole is opened, the furnace is tilted, and the steel pours into a ladle for transfer to the next batch operation (usually a ladle furnace or ladle station).



Figure 63: Electric Arc Furnace [http://www.steel.org/learning/howmade/eaf.htm]

The following section characterises the individual smelting procedures by metal type present in automotive EES:

Copper Smelting

Low-grade copper scrap is melted in either blast or rotary furnace resulting in slag and impure copper. The smelting point of Cu is approximately 1080°C. In the blast furnace, the copper is charged to a converter, where the purity is increased to about 80 to 90 %, and then to a reverberatory furnace, where purity levels of 99 % are achieved [EPA 1995]. In these fire-refining furnaces, flux is added to the copper and air is blown upward through the mixture to oxidise impurities. Then by reduced atmosphere, cuprous oxide (CuO) is converted into copper. Fire-refined copper is cast into anodes, which are used during electrolysis. The anodes are submerged in a sulphuric acid solution containing copper sulphate. As copper is dissolved from the anodes, it deposits on the cathode, with a purity up to 99.99 %, where it is extracted and recast.

The facilities for a low grade copper (less than 80 % copper) need to have in addition a converter step and fire-refining to obtain high grade recycled copper. Further processes may include alloying with other metals.



Aluminium Smelting

Aluminium smelting takes place primarily in reverberatory furnaces, but also in tower, rotary and sweating furnaces. Usually these recovery facilities use batch processing in melting and refining operations. The aluminium fraction is mostly remelted under the addition of fluxing salts to prevent oxidation in a temperature range from 585°C - 650°C depending on the amount of alloying elements.

The induction smelting and refining process is designed to produce aluminium alloys with increased strength and hardness by blending aluminium and hardening agents in electrical induction furnace. The process include charging scrap, melting, adding and blending the hardening agent, skimming, pouring and casting into notched bars. Hardening agents include manganese and silicon [EPA 1995].

Zinc Smelting

Zinc scrap is processed by selective smelting in rotary, crucible, reverberatory, and electrical induction furnaces. Flux is used in these furnaces to trap impurities from the molten zinc. The impurities float to the surface of the melt and dross, and is subsequently skimmed from the surface while the remaining molten zinc is poured into molds or transferred to the refining operation in an molten state [EPA 1995]. A sweating furnace slowly heats the scrap containing zinc and other metals to approximately 364 °C. This temperature is sufficient to melt zinc but is still below the melting point of the remaining metals [Rosseau 1991]. Molten zinc collects at the bottom of the furnace and is subsequently recovered. The zinc alloys produced from pre-treated scrap during sweating and melting processes may contain small amounts of other metals like copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead or others present in the mixture.

Lead Smelting

Lead scrap with Zinc and other metals may be extracted from the heavy fraction by selective smelting. In a selective smelting lead is the first metal smelted at 350 °C. In a second furnace zinc is smelted at 425 °C and the remaining copper rich fraction with precious metals is further separated in a copper smelter [Dalmijn, Witteveen 1991].

Magnesium SmeltingMagnesium scrap is sorted and charged into a steel crucible furnace maintained at approx. 675 °C. To control oxidation of the melt fluxes of chloride salts, magnesium, barium, magnesium oxides and calcium fluorides must be added. This fluxes float on the melt preventing air contact. The composition of the melt must be carefully monitored, once the molten metal reaches the desired levels of key components, it is poured, pumped, or ladled into ingots.

Iron and Steel SmeltingThe two basic types of furnace used in steel making and recycling are the electric arc furnace, and the basic oxygen furnace. While the electric arc furnace is almost entirely designed to operate on steel scrap, the oxygen furnace is able to use only 20 to 30 % of the



melt capacity of steel scrap. The remaining 70 % to 80 % consists of molten pig iron which is used in a blast furnace from iron ore, limestone and coke.

2.4.1.2 Hydrometallurgical ProcessesThe hydrometallurgical recycling is characterised as a multistage process where acquired metals are dissoluted and recovered by methods like electrolysis, extraction, cementation, ion-exchange or precipitation. Therefore hydrometallurgical processes are also named under wet-chemical processes.

Figure 64: Overview of the main hydrometallurgical recovery methods [Modified from http://147.96.1.15/info/metal/qprep.htm]


Solvent ExtractionIon Exchange

Carbon AdsorptionAu, Ag, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, V, Mo,

W, Re, U, Th, Pu

ElectrolysisAu, Ag, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn

CementationAu, Ag, Cu, Cd

Gaseous ReductionCu, Ni, Ag, Mo, U

CrystallisationAl, Cu, Ni, Mo, W

Ionic PrecipitationFe, Cu, Be, Co

Metal Solution

Concentrated Solution

Diluted solution


Compared to pyrometallurgical processes it uses much less energy. Its industrial scale is more than 10 times smaller than the conventional pyrometallurgical smelter plants.

Dissolution

After a thermal and mechanical treatment, the metals are dissolved at pressurised vessels using water, oxygen and other substances at ambient temperature. The objective of the leaching process in the recycling process is to produce a metal from impure metal or metal compounds, which have been prepared by a pyrometallurgical process. The leaching process can be performed by two methods: the heap leaching and the agitation leaching.

In the heap leaching process the solids are brought in contact to the leaching solution by pumping or evenly spraying the solution over the top of the heap [Boyer, Gall 1985]. As the solution percolates through the heap it dissolves the metal. The agitation is either performed by bubble action using compressed air or mechanical movement using impellers. The standard equipment is the Pachuca tank. Through a central pipe an air lift pushes the solution in an upward direction increasing the contact of solids to the leaching solution. The maintenance and operating costs are lower then for mechanically working agitators.

For mechanically working agitating tanks the main difference is the type of impeller, depending on the flow pattern by the type of tank. The major types of impellers used are marine propellers, paddles and turbines. Here pressure leaching has the objective to decrease the dissolution time of metals by permitting higher operating temperatures. This supports the solubility of oxygen and further the rapid oxidation of metals. The standard equipment used for pressurised metal leaching is the autoclave (see Figure 65). They are made out of metal for strength and often are of stainless steel or titanium because of severe corrosion that can occur at high pressure and high temperatures. Most autoclaves have agitators for mixing combined with heating and cooling coils for temperature control of the process.

The schematic below shows the components of a horizontal acid leach autoclave:

Figure 65: Illustration of an autoclave for metal dissolution



(1.Motor Drive Assembly for Agitator, 2. Compartment Divider, 3. Agitator Shaft, 4. Service Nozzle, 5. Support Saddle, 6. Carbon Steel Shell/Lead and Brick Lined )



The process of the selective dissolution of silver, platinum and base metals by nitric acid is still used today. It was temporarily substituted by sulfuric acid, but because of the costly equipment and considerable off-gas problems it changed back again.

(Me)solid + 2 HNO3 + ½ O2 Me(NO3)2 dissoluted + H2O

Not only the high consumption of expensive and complex reagents also the disposal of the non-metallic fraction and the treatment of solvents and sludges are concern of hydrometallurgical processes.

Recent research focus on a single dissolution stage, which excludes interstage pollution and contamination problems [Goosey, Kellner 2002]. Here various metals are dissoluted at once, with highly concentrates of HCl + NaCl electrolytes (ph1). Chlorine is leaching metals of electronic scrap via oxidative dissolution and produces a de-metallised waste:

2CL- 2Cl + 2 e-

Mscrap + Cl - MCl -

MCl- M+ +Cl –

Dissolution of Gold

The recovery of gold containing compartments of PCBs are whether edge connectors or gold coated assemblies (edge, pin connectors) from manually separated scrap boards. Gold is separated as a metal flake via the acidic dissolution of copper substrates or the dissolution of gold in cyanide/thiourea based leachants:

2 Au + 4NaCN + O2 + 2H2O 2 Na[Au(CN)2] + H2O2 + 2NaOH

Conventional methods for gold and silver recovery are based on the dissolution in cyanide leaching media over the entire pH range [Reprints, 1991]. The fine grinded gold is dissolved by sodium cyanide or calcium cyanide which then reacts under oxygen and lead to a cyano-complex. To increase the velocity of the solubility Lurgi proposed a process where the operation is put under pressure of 40 bar where the reaction time is reduced to 2 h [Rousseau 1991]. To fasten the reaction even more an additional oxygen donor, such as hydrogen peroxide is added. These reaction processes are efficient within a pH range of 10 and 12 and in the presence of catalysts as Fe(III) and Cu(II), which enable the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide and consequently the oxidation of cyanide (CN2-) to cyanate (CN4+).

The gold recovery takes place by precipitation or electrolysis. It can also be extracted from solutions with a very low gold content ( 0,1 g/L) by ion exchange resins or activated charcoal extraction [Habashi 1997].

Ion Exchange

The ion-exchange process involves an adsorption and an elution process in an ion-exchange column. Its aim is whether to separate selectively dissolved metals or concentrate metals.

In the adsorption process metal-ions are removed from an aqueous solution while passed through a bed of resins. These resins can be cationic or anionic. The cathodic resins are strong or weak acids, which exchange H+ ions. Anionic resins are strong or weak basis. Here



mostly Cl- ions are exchanged with anions in solution [Boyer, Gall 1985]. The phenomena of the affinity of the resins towards specific metal ions realise the selection of specific metal ions from a complex solution.

For the recovery of copper, nickel and lead sodium-based resins weak-acid chelated resins are applied. The metal ions are captured by the resins and backwashes with an acid solution, which supplies hydrogen ions and exchanges with the metal ions and returns as metal salts in a acid holding tank.

In the REMCO metal recovery process ion exchange (MRIX) process 10 gallons of solution per cubic feet of resin is produced (ca. 1,400 litre per cubic meter resin) [http://www.remco.com/ix-procs.htm]. Some metal salts are easily removed by evaporation (sodium forms of cyanide and chromium, sulphate or chloride salts of copper and nickel), for metals as copper, nickel, zinc it is better to recover by electroplating. To prepare the column for the next operation a thorough fresh water rinse is arranged and a solution of 5 % sodium hydroxide is passed through the column to replace the hydroxide ions with sodium ions. A second backwash is generated to remove the remaining caustic soda. The generation cycle takes about 3-5 h.

The ion-exchange plant require high capital costs and a large plant area, because of the large amounts of input material and enhanced process technology [Boyer, Gall 1985]. Ion exchange system are able to recover from a concentration of 10-50 ppb.

Extraction

The extraction of metals is a method to prepare the process products of preceding treatments (decomposition) for following procedures (electrolysis). It is a chemical process which selectively exchanges metal species between an impure feed solution and a pure aqueous feed solution. The metal dissolves in an organic solution and is stripped from the organic solution (alcohol, ethers, ketones etc.) by an aqueous solution. One objective is to separate the desired precious metals from interfering components. A complete extraction of a metal is normally not to achieve. A small fraction of precious metals always remains with the base metals and cannot be recovered. But to deduce the loss, the process can be arranged reversibly.

Carbon Adsorption

The use of the carbon adsorption process is exclusively to recover noble metals as gold and silver. At low temperatures the metals deposit in metallic form on the carbon. The metal leaching solution is fed to carbon columns and almost completely removed from the solution by adsorption on the solid carbon. When the carbon is loaded the metals are stripped, which can be done by passing a stripping solution over the column. The stripping is followed by electrowinning from solution of a very pure gold or silver product.

Electrolysis

The aim of the electrolysis is the decomposition of a metal solution by a supplied current on two poles. The ions are neutralised when transferred to the different charged poles. At the



cathode positive valued metal ions are separated from other ions moving into the direction of the anode.

A recently developed method with resulting low capital and operation costs for the recovery of copper and zinc is the application of an slurry electrolysis cell. The electrolytic reaction initiated through an applied current (1.25-1.75 V) in an electrolytic cell leads to a redox-reaction. In the electrolysis oxygen and hydrogen is produced at the anode, initiating the leaching of copper/zinc from the cathode and producing acid.

This process is however only possible if a mixing is avoided through the separation electrolyser cell [Habashi 1997]. A mixing reaction is avoided by a membrane, inhibiting the transport of large metal ions. The electrolyser cell contains anode compartments, a cell separator on either side of the anode chamber and a cathodic compartment as illustrated in the following figure.

Figure 66: Scheme of an electrolysis cell

Anodic reaction

In base electrolyte: 4 OH - O2 + 2 H 2O + 4 e –

in acid electrolyte: 2 H2O O2 + 4 H + + 4 e –

Cathodic reaction

Me n+ + ne - Me



Nickel can be recovered electrolytically to give pure nickel powder. The electrolyte has to be refreshed continuously and includes also stabilisator and buffer substances [Nickel, 1996]. The anolyte solution is a NaOH solution of a pH>6 [Rousseau 1991]. At the anode chloride ions are oxidising to sodium hypochlorite and nickel is recovered from the solution by electro- deposition as a counter reaction for the chlorine generation at the cathode.

The precious metals gold, silver, platinium and palladium are recovered by this method. Precious metals are easier to separate from solvents than unprecious ones, because of the higher affinity to anions. It was observed that the metals Ag, Pd, Au, Cu, Pb, Sn of one solution can be selectively recovered under the application of varying decomposition potentials [Goosey/Kellner 2002].

Electro-refining

Metals as copper, lead and nickel, which are recovered from smelters in a purity from 90-98.5 % are refined by electrolysis. The refinement of copper takes place in an electrolysis cell, where copper anodes, produced by pyrometallurgical processes are dissoluted and recovered at the cathode with a purity of 99.9%.

Impurities in the copper anode include lead, zinc, nickel, arsenic, selenium, tellurium, and several precious metals including gold and silver. Potentiostatic control is essential to prevent the dissolution of silver and disposition at the copper cathode. So that less active metals like the precious metals silver, gold, platin, palladium are not oxidised at the anode, but aggregated at the bottom of the electrolysis cell and recovered by several treatment processes. Nickel impurities of the copper fraction are dissoluted in the solvent.

Depending on the metal being plated different cathode materials can be used. For copper electrowinning titanium, stainless steel and copper itself (see Figure 67) can be used [Boyer, Gall 1985]. Aluminium is used to recover zinc and titanium, and stainless steel has been used to recover manganese and cobalt.

The electrolyte consists of an acidic solution of CuSO4. Application of a suitable voltage to the electrodes causes oxidation of copper metal at the anode and reduction of Cu2+ to form copper metal at the cathode. This strategy can be used because copper is both oxidised and reduced more readily than water.



Figure 67: Electrolysis cell for refining of copper. As the anodes dissolves, the cathodes is grown in size on which the pure metal is deposited.

[http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/blb/chapter23/medialib/blb2304.html]

Once the metal has been deposited on the cathode it must be recovered. This usually involves peeling the plated metal away from the cathode.

Cementation

Cementation is a type of precipitation method implying an electrochemical mechanism. The tendency of one metal to displace or reduce another metal from solution is based on the potential of metals for reduction. A more electropositive metal will tend to reduce a less electropositive metal from solution (e.g. zinc will tend to reduce a less active or noble metal as silver or copper). The greater the difference in potential between the two metals the more complete will the reaction be. The rate at which cementation reactions occur depend on initial concentrations, temperature, agitation, polarisation, metal characteristics and agents [Boyer, Gall 1985]. An example of cementation at industrial scale is the copper reduction by metallic iron. However, the noble metals (Ag, Au and Pd), as well as As, Cd, Ga, Pb, Sb and Sn, can also be recovered in this way.

Copper

Copper cementation is a procedure where a more noble metal can be extracted with a less noble metal (e.g. iron, aluminium or Fe-Al alloys). The positioning of a less noble metal iron leads to the deposition of a more noble metal like copper in form of sludge. This occurs through the exchange of their charge, the electrons switch to the copper:

CuSO4 + Fe2 FeSO4 + Cu

Cu 2+ + 2 e- Cu

Fe Fe 2+ +2e-



Concentrates produced vary from about 65 to 95 per cent copper according to the procedures used. Copper sulphates are fed to open launders or cones containing steel scrap, where copper is recovered at the bottom.

Gold

Another cementation process is the recovery of gold through the copper cementation of gold thiosulphate with the use of alkaline thiosulphate solution [Choo, Jeffrey 2004]. This involves the dissolution of the substrate metal, and the simultaneous reduction and deposition of gold from the solution. During the cementation of gold on copper, the gold thio-sulphate is reduced to gold metal. Cementation of Cu/Au occurs according to the following stoichiometry:

Au (S2O3)23- + S2O3

2- + Cu Cu (S2O3)35- + Au

The presence of copper in these solutions introduces the problem of co-precipitation of copper during gold recovery. However, cementation offers a means of getting around this, simply by selecting an appropriate substrate metal. Of these substrates, copper is among the most promising, as the copper that goes into solution during cementation could be oxidised to Cu(II), which is the oxidant during the leaching process.

Precipitation

The removal of ionic species from a solution as solid compounds is described by the precipitation process. Precipitation can be used for the removal of impurities and concentration of the metal compound, e.g. the recovery of sulfides of nickel, copper, lead and zinc form leaching solutions. The treatment costs are low and solutions with very low concentrations of metal values can be treated.

The precipitation methods can be described by:

1. Addition of chemicals (appropriate cation or anion)

2. Changing of the pH value

(as the OH- value increases, the solution becomes more basic, solid hydroxides precipitate (iron, copper, cobalt, nickel are precipitated selectively as hydroxides in solutions by raising the pH with mild and lime)

3. Evaporation of water from the solution

Gaseous Reduction

Also reducing gases as hydrogen, carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide can be used to reduce metals from an aqueous solution. Hydrogen is among the most widely used, because of simple reaction products. Using higher pressures of hydrogen gas and higher temperatures in an autoclave nickel is reduced from solution according to the following chemical reaction:

Ni2+ + H2 Ni + H +



2.4.2 Plastics Recycling Technologies

Depending on the level of mixture, contamination and deterioration of EES plastics one or another different recycling technology should be selected. Reprocessing technologies (2.4.2.1) are more adequate for purified plastics. On the other hand, feedstock recycling processes (2.4.2.2), energy recovery processes (2.4.2.3) and production of plastic lumber (2.4.2.4) are more adequate for commingled, contaminated and deteriorated plastics.

Table 26: Main groups of plastics recycling technologies and their applicability

Recycling technologies Applicability

Reprocessing (2.4.2.1)

For purified plastics and mainly for thermoplastics commonly used in EES plastic parts: PP, PE, PBT, PA, PVC, PC, ABS, PC, PMMA, etc.

Feedstock recycling (2.4.2.2) For commingled, contaminated and deteriorated plastics (both for those mentioned thermoplastics and for thermosets - mainly for PUR and UP resins or unsaturated polyester resins -)

Energy recovery (2.4.2.3)

Production of plastic lumber (2.4.2.4)

2.4.2.1 Processing and Reprocessing Technologies

Essentially, plastics fall into two classes: thermoplastics and thermosets. This dictates the method of processing or hardening and also has a direct influence on the ease with which they can be recycled, using reprocessing methods.

Thermoplastics: plastics that get solid by simple cooling of a polymer melt and soften while being heated. Thus, the shaping of a thermoplastic is a reversible process - the same material can be melted and processed again and again. They are composed usually of high molar mass molecules. Furthermore, usually the thermoplastics are divided into the following four groups: 1.- commodity plastics or standard plastics or bulk plastics (e.g. PVC, HDPE, LDPEV, LDPE, isotactic PP, standard PS, etc.), 2.- engineering plastics or technical plastics or technoplatics (e.g. PET, PBT PA - aliphatic, amorphous and aromatic -, PC, POM, PMMA, SAN, ABS, various blends, etc.), 3.- high-performance plastics (e.g. LCPs, PEEK, various polysulfones, polyimides, etc.) and 4.- functional plastics or special plastics (usually employed in optoelectronics, as resists, as piezoelectric materials, etc.) [Hischier 2003].

Thermosets: plastics that harden through chemical cross-linking reactions between polymer molecules - and, when heated, they do not soften but decompose chemically. On the opposite to thermoplastics, a thermoset cannot be remelted and reshaped - its formation is irreversible. They are usually generated from quite low molar mass polymers, called oligomers or prepolymers. High molar masses are not required here since prepolymers react to molecules of high molecular weight, with 100% conversion of the prepolymer. Some thermosets are also classified as engineering or high-performance plastics. In general, thermosets are, however, considered a separate group of plastics. They comprise alkyd,



phenolic and amino resins (melamine and urea resins), epoxides, unsaturated polyesters, polyurethanes and allylics [Hischier 2003].



A plastic is a long chain molecule containing thousands of smaller repeated molecular units, or monomers. Polymerisation is a complex process but broadly speaking follows one of two routes: i) addition polymers are formed by linking the monomers together in a long chain, in the presence of a catalyst (e.g. PP, PE, etc.) and ii) condensation polymers are formed by the reaction of two different molecules. As the polymer chain grows, a small molecule, usually of water is formed with each link (all thermosets are condensation polymers) [Rich 2001].

Almost all plastics come to the processing stage as compounds, in which the plastic often acts largely as a matrix, allowing the valuable properties of other materials to be harnessed. Additives used in plastics compounds include pigments or other colorants, heat-stabiliser, UV-stabilisers, flame retardants, plasticisers, lubricants and processing aids. Fillers and reinforcements such as glass, carbon and other fibres and minerals, such as calcium carbonate, talc and mica are also used [Rich 2001].

The choice of technology used for processing (moulding) plastics depends on whether the material is thermoplastic or thermoset and on the end-product required. Plastic processing techniques fall into two broad categories: i) moulding (for 3-dimensional parts) and extrusion (for 2-dimensional, unlimited length products) [Rich 2001].

Moulding

In moulding, the plastic is formed by heat and pressure into the shape of a mould. Each grade of plastic has its own optimum moulding conditions of temperature and pressure.

For thermosetting plastics, there is essentially only one moulding technique: compression moulding. The plastic moulding compound which may be pre-heated, is placed in a heated metal mould where, as it heats up, it begins to flow. The mould is closed, pressing the softened material to the shape of the mould, and the plastic sets or cures. The moulded part is then removed, hot, from the mould. Variations on this process aim to improve the efficiency with which the charge of material can be introduced into the moulding press, within the limitations imposed by the chemical reaction that occurs with heat [Rich 2001].

Reaction moulding (RIM) is used for moulding polyurethanes, which are thermosets but in the form of two liquids that react rapidly when mixed, to form a solid material. The liquid components are combined, and reinforcement and additives introduced in a special mixing head, and the mix is immediately injected into a closed mould. The components react, generating heat and solidify, and the part is demoulded. A similar method (foaming or expanding process) is used for moulding 3-dimensional products in flexible polyurethane foam, often employing a number of moulds on a rotating carousel [Rich 2001].

In the case of thermoplastics, the injection moulding process is the most common process used for producing EES plastic parts. In this process, plastics compound is heated (plasticised) in the barrel of the moulding machine, usually with the aid of an Archimedes screw, until it flows. The melt is then injected at high pressure into a closed temperature-controlled mould, where it is cooled. When the moulded part is solid enough to be removed, the mould is opened and the finished article is extracted, often by a robot. Finally, it must be said that other moulding processes are available for thermoplastics but they are less adequate for plastic parts commonly used in EES, for example: rotational moulding (for large



hollow objects) and blow moulding (for hollow items such as bottles or containers) [Rich 2001].

Extrusion

In the case of thermoplastics, the extrusion process produces a variety of shapes such as tubing, rods, sheet and complex profiles. Extrusion involves plasticising a polymer compound in a long heated machine barrel with one or two screws, and continuously forcing the melt through a die to produce the desired final shape, and finally cooling under controlled conditions to maintain the desired shape. Depending on the type of product required, extrusion can take many forms as follows: sheet extrusion (in that case wire extrusion passes a copper wire through a die and sheathes them with plastic insulation), co-extrusion (it combines the output from more than one extruder into a single die to produce sheets or profiles made up of layers of two or more polymers) and calendering (it is used mainly for processing PVC into sheet) [Rich 2001].

The thermoforming process follows to either a calendering or an extrusion process in which plasticised state of the respective plastic is produced – it is not possible to threat granulate form of a plastic directly. In a thermofroming process themoplastic polymeric materials are heated (infrared radiator) in the plasticised state, thermoformed under slight pressure and cooled while maintaining the deforming force. This force can be applied by vacuum, a mechanical punch or compressed air [Rich 2001].

In the case of thermosets, there are also analogous processes for production of similar shapes in fibre-reinforced plastics, such as centrifugal casting, filament winding and continuous sheet lamination processes [Rich 2001].

2.4.2.2 Feedstock Recycling of Plastics

Feedstock recycling by thermolysis (pyrolysis, hydrogenation and gasification) and chemolysis are other recycling possibilities for EES plastic parts. This recycling option is particularly appropriate for those mixed and contaminated (to a certain extend) EES plastic fractions difficult and/or costly to separate and purify. After using feedstock recycling processes for plastics the remaining metal fractions from a mixed material could be recycled in subsequent metal recycling processes.

Thermolysis

Thermolysis process converts by heat the organic component of polymer wastes into high-value refinery products such as naphtha, crude oil or synagas. It essentially cleaves plastics into petrochemical feedstocks that can be used as raw materials in the production of new petrochemicals and plastics, without any deterioration in their quality and without any restriction regarding their application [Scheirs 1998].

Thermolysis involves the use of high-temperatures to cleave the bonds in the backbone of the polymer. The main forms of feedstock recycling by thermolysis of plastics are shown in the Figure 68 and describe above. When this decomposition process is carried out in the absence of air, this is termed pyrolysis or thermal cracking. When it is performed in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas, it is referred to as hydrogenation or hydrocracking while, if it is



carried out in the presence of a controlled amount of oxygen, then it is known as gasification. Depending on the conversion route employed, the end products vary in composition and quality [Scheirs 1998].

Figure 68: Overview of the main processes of feedstock recycling by thermolysis [Scheirs 1998]

Figure 69 shows an overview of thermolysis technologies for plastics:

Figure 69: Most famous thermolysis technologies [Scheirs 1998](note: EFG = entrained flow gasifier, SBR = spouted bed reactor,

MMB = molten metal technology, F-bed = fluidised bed)



Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis or thermal cracking is carried out in a reducing atmosphere (e.g. in the absence of air) at temperatures up to 800ºC. In this process EES plastics can be converted into petrochemical feedstocks. This is an excellent method for the recycling of heterogeneous material such as commingled EES plastic fractions or automotive shredder residue. Pyrolysis of plastic waste is conducted using a kiln which gives a high thermal efficiency of around 75-85%. A pyrolysis plant can convert plastics waste to pyrolytic oil and solid coke. Pyrolysis products may need further processing such as refining of the light pyrolysis oils. Thus pyrolysis may be viewed as part of a multi-step process, rather than an integral system on its own [Scheirs 1998].

Since automotive shredder residue (ASR) is a complex mixture of various polymeric materials both thermoplastic and thermoset, pyrolysis is seen as a viable recycling solution. A number of studies on the pyrolysis of ASR have been conducted and are available in the literature. Fast pyrolysis methods at temperatures in the range 700-850ºC can convert ASR to pyrolysis gases and solid residue (59-68%). The five most abundant pyrolysis gases were CO, CO2, CH4, C2H4 and C3H6 [Scheirs 1998].

Some general advantages of pyrolysis are the following: i) the energy consumption is very low (only a maximum of 10% of the energy content of the waste plastic is used to convert the scrap into petrochemicals); ii) the process can handle plastic waste which cannot be efficiently recycled by other alternative means (e.g. automotive shredder fluf, plastics containing flame retardants, etc.); iii) it operates without the need for air or admixtures of hydrogen, and does not involve elevated pressures and iv) the HCl formed as a by-product of this process can be recovered and used as a raw material [Scheirs 1998].

Hydrogenation

Pyrolysis or thermal cracking of plastic waste has been intensively studied as a source to produce fuel oil. However, the quality of the fuel oil produced by cracking often does not meet the minimum specifications that are required for fuel oil. The absence of hydrogen during cracking means that the resultant fuel oil contains relatively high-boiling point fractions and can contain environmental hazardous impurities such as sulfur and chlorine. These problems can be overcome by cracking the plastic waste and exposing it to a hydrogen atmosphere at a pressure in excess of 100 atmospheres in a process known as hydrogenation or hydrocracking. The principal chemical reactions which occur during hydrocracking of mixed polymer wastes are shown in Figure 70 [Scheirs 1998].



R – C R – H + H – C Hydrocracking

R – N R – H + H – N Denitrification

R – S R – H + H – S Desulphurisation

R – Cl R – Cl + HCl Dechlorination

+ Base

SaltFigure 70: Principal chemical reactions during hydrocracking of plastics

(Bottrop GmbH Germany in [Scheirs 1998])

Some general advantages of hydrogenation are the following: i) high-value products are obtained (e.g. a liquid fuel resembling petrol or diesel fuel which can be used in a variety of applications); ii) it has been regarded to be a better feedstock recycling than pyrolysis and gasification because the synthetic crude oil product can be used without difficulty in refineries, iii) it has excellent capabilities for handling troublesome hetero-atoms (Cl, N, O, S) present in the plastic waste and iv) no supertoxic products such as dioxin survive the process or indeed are produced in the process [Scheirs 1998].

Gasification

Gasification of plastic waste is performed at higher temperatures than pyrolysis (e.g. 1,300ºC) and with the controlled addition of oxygen. Its basic reaction is as follows:

CnHm + 0.5nO2 ············> n CO + 0.5m H2

As it can bee seen, the primary product is a gaseous mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This gas mixture known as “syngas” can be used as a substitute for natural gas. Interestingly, however, if the syngas is first separated into its constituents, then these are valuable as chemicals intermediates and carry two or three times the fuel value of the mixture. The inorganic ash residue becomes bound in a glassy matrix which can be used as a component in concrete and mortar due to its high acid resistance [Scheirs 1998].

The gasification process essentially oxidises hydrocarbon feedstock in a controlled fashion, to produce synthetic gas which has significant commercial value. Gasification is an attractive option since it prevents the formation of any dioxins and aromatic compounds. Gasification efficiently utilises the chemical energy and recoverable raw materials in unsorted plastic wastes and it is capable of transforming almost all the total waste input into technically usable raw materials and energy [Scheirs 1998].

The table 27 summarises the main advantages of thermolysis processes (pyrolysis, hydrogenation and gasification) over incineration:


H2Bond strength


Table 27: Main advantages of thermolysis processes over incineration [Scheirs 1998]

Pyrolysis:

- It produces 5-20 times less volume of product gases

- Less expenditure required for gas infrastructure

- Contaminants are concentrated in the solid residue of the process

- The system is closed and pollutants cannot escape

Hydrogenation:

- No production of super-toxics (dioxins, etc.)

- Cl is transformed to HCl and neutralised by calcium oxide

- Polychlorinated aromatics are transformed to relatively harmless hydrocarbons

- Metal impurities are not oxidised during the process

Gasification:

- More economic

- No production of dioxins and aromatics

Chemolysis

Chemolysis is a depolymerisation process applicable to the recycling of polyurethanes and other poly-addition materials, as well as to condensation polymers such as polyesters (e.g. PET) and polyamides (e.g. nylon). In this type of treatment, the molecules are broken down into smaller building blocks, which may then be reassembled into polymers. Chemolysis offers an alternative to mechanical recycling and the recovery of petrochemical feedstocks or energy. Water (hydrolysis), glycols (glycolysis), organic acids (acidolysis) and amines (aminolysis) typically serve as reagents to break the bonds. Several options exist for further reprocessing of the obtained products (purification, chemical processing, etc.). Several types of chemolysis processes have been developed for different PU foam types. In PU foams, with glycolysis and other solvolysis processes, the content of old material in a new part is limited [ELV 5, 2002].

2.4.2.3 Energy Recovery of Plastics

Waste EES plastics contain significant reserves of energy that can be recovered trough combustion processes. Generally speaking, the heat content of plastics compares favourably with that of traditional fuels such as heating oil and coal. In most cases the calorific value of plastics is comparable or higher than coal (29 MJ/kg). The following Figure 71 shows the calorific content of various fuels, plastics and wastes [Scheirs 1998]:



Figure 71: Calorific content of various fuels, plastics and wastes[APME documents in [Scheirs 1998]]

Processes for the energy recovery of plastics can be done on its own or can form a part of a mixed combustible fraction for use in solid fuel fired boilers and power plants. Plastics can be also burned in municipal solid waste (MSW) incinerators. Incineration of plastics allows steam for heating or for electricity generation, as well as heat recovery from flue gases.

Energy recovery from plastics can take the following main forms:

- Energy recovery as a part of the incineration of MSW

- Energy recovery trough mono-combustion

- Energy recovery trough co-combustion with traditional fossil fuels

- Partial fuel substitution in cement kilns

Plastic waste, due to its high calorific value, has a positive effect of MSW incineration. High calorific value, however, leads to decreased incineration capacity if the incineration is “heat limited”. Plastics are also generally considered a benefit in MSW incineration as a fuel that is low in ash and moisture, and as an energy source for efficient destruction of pollutants. In general, a MSW incinerator for handling plastics would require the following features: i) a forward or reverse reciprocating grate up of several independent zones, ii) good control of primary and secondary air, iii) a flue gas system comprising fly ash removal (cyclone, electrostatic precipitators), multi-stage wet scrubbers for HCl, HF, SOx removal, active carbon treatment to remove volatile heavy metal such as mercury, selective catalytic reduction of NOx and destruction of PCDD/F and iv) energy recovery facilities for electricity generation and waste heat utilisation. The following figure shows a diagram of a modern municipal waste combustor (Figure 72) [Scheirs 1998].



Figure 72: Diagram of a modern MSW combustor [Scheirs 1998]

In the case of mono-combustion and co-combustion processes for fuel (coal, coke, etc.) substitution in normal boiler plants or other industrial furnaces, before plastics can be utilised as fuel they must be converted to a prepared form that makes them suitable for transportation and storage and for metering into the energy conversion plant. The high heating value of plastics is a benefit but they must meet certain specifications (e.g. ash content, moisture content, heating value, sulphur content, chlorine content, particle size, heavy metals content, etc). The minimum requirements involve shredding and, in some cases, separation of non-combustible materials. More complex procedures involve the preparation of fuel pellets. In that line, the automotive shredded residue (ASR) can be incinerated at 1200ºC and converted to a slag. Heavy metals can be recovered efficiently from the flue gases and the slag can be used as a raw material for concrete or decorative bricks. The shredder dust has a calorific content of about 3500-4000 kcal/kg. The organic content of the ASR is gasified at these high temperatures and becomes the energy source for the smelting. The light combustible fraction of ASR has also been used in cement kilns as an alternative to fuel oil, as a heat source in conjunction with natural gas in a metal fusion reactor for metal recycling, in fluidised bed incinerators and for co-combustion with municipal solid waste and co-combustion with coal [Scheirs 1998].

Plastics make an excellent fuel for cement plants where they serve as a partial substitute for coal or coke. Previously, they need to be shredded and ideally agglomerated. Trials have shown that particle sizes from less than 1 mm up to 8 mm are acceptable. Despite the benefits of using plastics to fuel cement kilns, there are still a few technical limitations: i) the chlorine plastics concentration must be strictly controlled since it is converted to alkali metal chlorides in the process. If the presence off these compounds is to high, the setting characteristics of the cement are adversely affected and ii) plastics must have a minimum average heat content in order to fuel cement kilns and must have a specific gravity that is suitable to ensure proper pneumatic conveying [Scheirs 1998].

Finally, it must also be said that during steel production in blast furnaces, oxygen must be removed from the iron ore by a reduction process. This task is generally performed by using a reducing agent such as heavy oil, but can also be done by using plastics. Strictly speaking this is a form of feedstock recycling [Scheirs 1998].



Generally speaking, energy recovery offers a positive recycling route for any EES plastics that cannot be sensibly recycled by mechanical means due to excessive contamination, separation difficulties, polymer property deterioration, etc. The table 28 summarises the main advantages and disadvantages of incineration:

Table 28: Main advantages and disadvantages of incineration [Scheirs 1998]

Main advantages of incineration: - Mass reduction of waste by up 90%- Destruction of harmful substances in the waste stream- Mineralisation of the inorganic fraction to an inert slag (used in roads)- Ideal recycling route for mixed, contaminated and deteriorated plastics

Main disadvantages of incineration: - Process inefficiencies can allow some materials to remain unburned (5%)- Harmful end-products in ashes and noxious gases can be produced- It is an unpopular technology for general public

2.4.2.4 Production of Plastic Lumber

Plastic lumber produced from recycled polymers can be classified into three types:

- lumber produced from commingled plastics

- lumber produced from a single stream of recycled plastic

- lumber produced from recycled plastic and filled with a modifier

The use of recycled plastics to produce plastic lumber has developed by two main separate approaches. Firstly, plastic lumber composed of commingled plastics, characterised by a product with inconsistent composition and variable performance properties. The other major type of plastic lumber is based on a sorted and purified stream, characterised by a product with a consistent density and surface finish, homogeneous composition and reproducible properties. The table 29 shows the main characteristics of plastic lumber ([Scheirs 1998], [ANARPLA]).



Table 29: Main features and limitations of plastic lumber [Scheirs 1998]

Features:- It has no grain structure, so its properties are less anisotropic than wood- It has low surface energy and consequently, paint will not adhere to its surface- Resistance to moisture absorption and bacteria and barnacle growth- Ideal recycling route for mixed, contaminated and deteriorated plastics

Limitations:- It is more expensive than natural wood- It is 6 times more flexible than wood (inappropriate for primary structural purposes)- It is 4 times heavier than wood- It has lower resistance to creep than wood- Nails and fasteners can “extrude” out of plastic lumber over time- It has a lower coefficient of friction than wood (it is slipper and dangerous when wet)- Commingled plastic lumber is generally a dirty grey or black colour

Recycled plastic lumber is available in a number of profiles such as planks, rails, slats, tongue-and-grove board as well as circular profiles. Plastic lumber has numerous park and recreation uses such as public walkways, marine structures, fences, etc ([Scheirs 1998], [ANARPLA]).

The production of plastic lumber may be viewed as a compromise between conflicting requirements. That is, separation of post-consumer plastics into purified homogeneous polymer streams is expensive, but can give a plastic lumber of higher quality and for which there is a considerable demand. The use of commingled plastics for plastic lumber, on the other hand, is relatively inexpensive, but the resultant product has inferior performance and aesthetic properties, and consequently demand for this product is lower. Nevertheless, the production of plastic lumber from post-consumer plastic has been recognised as an excellent application for mixed plastic waste, since such products generally have a large cross-sectional area and can tolerate a high degree of contamination ([Scheirs 1998], [ANARPLA]).

The composition of commingled plastic lumber has a significant influence on the resultant physical properties. A high proportion of LDPE can give a product with a low flexural modulus which may be too flexible for use in load bearing applications. An excess of PP in the mix can produce a product which is quite brittle, specially at sub-zero temperatures, while a high level of PVC can cause problems due to its decomposition and gas evolution at the temperatures used to extrude polyolefins. Finally, it must be said that several processes can be used for producing plastic lumber: intrusion, profile extrusion, compression moulding, controlled density injection moulding, etc. ([Scheirs 1998], [ANARPLA]).



2.4.3 Synergies in Automotive EES Recycling Flows

Considering the material composition of automotive EES it is not necessary to establish new specific recycling circuits for all automotive EES components. The recycling of dismantled automotive EES could probably be more efficient if synergies with other flows of material recycling could be used. This chapter introduces potential synergies that could be used for EES recycling. A concluding assessment of the practical and economical feasibility of using these recycling synergies cannot be realized at this stage of the project.

In general the following kind of synergies seem possible:

A: Recycling of dismantled EES components together with similar components from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)

B: Recycling of material fractions from dismantled EES together with similar material from other sources within the vehicle

C: Complementary recycling / recovery of material fractions from EES as ancillary material for processing other materials

Looking on the type A of possible synergies there is obviously a large stream of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) from other sources compared to the amount of waste EES coming from end-of-life vehicles.6 Due to the regulation of the directive 2002/96 (WEEE directive) producers of electrical and electronic equipment have to introduce take-back systems for WEEE that are free of charge for private end users. The separately collected WEEE has to be treated according to the directive to achieve fixed recycling and recovery targets.7 Until August 2005 the WEEE take-back systems have to be in place.

Although the WEEE directive does not apply to EES from cars it covers groups of equipment that have similar properties like some EES components. Therefore it seems possible and economically desirable to use the WEEE recycling circuits for dismantled EES components if applicable. The Table 30 shows the identified potential recycling synergies between components from the 14 EES groups and components of WEEE groups.

Major synergies could be expected from using the same disassembly lines and mechanical pre-treatment for WEEE and similar automotive EES components. The parts of automotive EES identified to be favourable for using WEEE recycling circuits are cables, electrical motors, printed circuit boards, batteries, LCD screens and fluorescent lamps.

6 Around 9 million tonnes of total waste from end-of-life vehicles (low percentage of it being EES) emerge in the European Union per year (not yet counted end-of-life vehicles from the new member states that joined the EU in May 2004) [EC environment website]. Annual waste potential of WEEE lies around 20 kg per capita [Lohse et. al 1998] which would sum up to 7.4 million tonnes in the old EU (without the new member states). 7 By 31 December 2006, the rate of recovery by an average weight per appliance must be at least 70 to 80% depending on the kind of equipment. By the same date, the rate of component, material and substance reuse and recycling by an average weight per appliance must be at least 50 to 80% depending on the type of equipment. (Article 7 of WEEE directive)



Table 30: Potential recycling synergies between automotive EES and WEEE

Recycling Group

EES Group(s) / Component Examples

Group of Equipment covered by WEEE Directive / Appliance Examples

Synergies / Problems

Cables 3. wire harness and cables Cables from all groups of electric and electronic equipment

Usually copper wires with plastics coating (e.g. PVC/PP/PE) used for both automotive EES and EEE; differences may arise from lead terminals, special connectors and tapes used for car wire harness

Electrical motors

8. motors / generators Electrical motors of different size, e.g. from large and small household appliances, consumer equipment, electrical and electronic tools, medical devices

Recycling of copper and iron from electrical motors could be used in the same way for motors from WEEE and automotive EES.

Components with printed circuit boards

4. connection and protection devices (PCB junction box), 5. electronic control units, 6. integrated mechatronic components, 12. entertainment devices, 13. communication and navigation devices

PCB mainly from IT and telecommunications equipment, consumer equipment, toys, leisure and sports equipment, medical devices, monitoring and control instruments

PCB from automotive EES and WEEE could probably be treated in the same way. Mechanical treatment to separate PCB from covers, housings and other parts could be similar.

Batteries 7. batteries Batteries from all groups of electric and electronic equipment (have to be separated from WEEE)

Separate collection and treatment of batteries (containing Pb, Cd or Hg) have been established already before ELV and WEEE directive.

Screens 11. displays / screens (LCD) LCD screens used in IT and telecommuni-cations equipment, consumer equipment, toys, leisure and sports equipment, medical devices, monitoring and control instruments, automatic dispensers, household appliances

If separated form other parts LCD panels from WEEE (e.g. TV sets, computer screens) and automotive EES could be recycled in the same circuits.

Lights 9. lights / lamps (gas discharge lamps: HID and other fluorescent lamps)

Lighting equipment (fluorescent lamps) Separation of mercury and recycling of glass and metal parts could be similar for discharge lamps from automotive EES and WEEE.



Some automotive EES components, especially car specific sensors and actuators in the engine compartment, differ in their material composition from common WEEE. For example spark plugs and piezoelectric actuators include glass / ceramics (containing Pb) that cannot be commonly found in WEEE. Therefore it could be difficult to recycle them in the same circuits like WEEE.

Synergies of type B are synergies that can be used if material fractions of EES can be recycled together with similar materials coming from other parts of the vehicle. This applies to all kind of metals and plastics from other vehicle parts that are usually recycled and that can also be found in EES.

The largest metal fraction from end-of-life vehicles to be recycled is the ferrous metal fraction. This means that iron or steel parts from dismantled EES could use the same recycling circuits if they can be separated from the EES components. In EES iron is mainly used for structural parts (e.g. valve seats, screw sockets of sensors, electrical motor housings) and magnetic cores in coils.

Another metal that is used in many other vehicle parts (e.g. engine parts, chassis) apart from EES is aluminium. In EES aluminium is also used for housings and for heat sinks (e.g. on PCB). If it is feasible to separate these aluminium parts from dismantled EES they could be recycled together with the aluminium of the remaining car.

Most of the precious metals are exclusively used in EES – especially in printed circuit boards. Among the remaining vehicle parts the catalyst is the major component containing precious metals (usually platinum). Therefore synergies seem possible if EES components containing platinum (like the lambda control sensor) could be recycled together with the catalyst.

Concerning plastics there are obviously major sources in other vehicle parts like the bumpers, dashboard, interior trim. Because of their size these large plastic parts are favourable for dismantling and separate plastics recycling. Therefore synergies could be used if plastics that can be separated from EES (e.g. connectors, housings, covers) are suitable for the same recycling circuits used for large plastic parts. Plastic resins that are used for these large plastic parts as well as for EES components are e.g. PP, PA and PVC.

The last type C of synergies considers the use of EES material fractions as ancillary material in other processes. No comprehensive investigation has been conducted on these kind of synergies. One example that can be given is the use of LCD panels (coming from vehicles or other sources) in the zinc recovery process. For zinc recovery from electric arc furnace dust, silica sand (90 % SiO2) is used as ferrous metal remover. LCD panel glass (50 % SiO2) is used as alternative material to silica sand.

All the aforementioned potential synergies have to be further investigated to decide if using these synergies is feasible from a technical, economical and environmental point of view. A more detailed analysis of the material composition of EES components in the light of possible recycling synergies and real recycling tests will be done in WP 4: EES Recycling.

General limitations for using these synergies arise from logistics and costs needed for first and second level disassembly of EES components and their transport to the respective recycling facility. Therefore trade-offs between additional benefits and costs of using these synergies in EES recycling have to be analyzed to decide about their economical feasibility.



3 Environmental and Economic DataEnvironmental and economic data will be needed in WP7 for automotive EES Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) studies, for simulating from a more practical point of view the studied EES recycling (or end-of-life) scenarios and for developing a methodology for quantifying the recyclability-reusability and recoverability potential of current and new EES designs.

Collection of these kind of data will be an essential part and task of WP 7. Data sources to be used include generic data from available databases, other environmental & economic studies, information from suppliers / producers / recyclers and specific data to be collected in SEES WPs: WP3 (Disassembly), WP4 (EES Recycling), WP5 (Plastics Recycling) and WP6 (Shredding). Detailed requirements for data collection will be defined in WP7 in cooperation with the other involved WP’s partners.

Possible data sources that have been identified during the investigation in WP 1 have been already included in a table template for general information collection that will be used and will grow throughout all the project. This table with collected information is accessible for all SEES partners through the internal area of the SEES homepage.

In WP 1 effort has been concentrated on the integrated assessment of EES and the description of relevant end-of-life processes. Therefore WP7 will concentrate on data collection for environmental and economic studies. Hereafter only basic data requirements and the workpackages that will contribute to data collection are presented.

3.1 Economic Data Requirements

As it has been previously introduced, economic data will be needed for economic studies in WP 7, namely for EES Life Cycle Costing (LCC) studies, for simulation of recycling scenarios (cost and revenue parameters) and for developing the recyclability index for current and new EES designs.

This means that economic data will be gathered on one hand, directly from the end-of-life EES processes studied (WP 3, 4, 5 and 6) in order to calculate practical cost and revenue parameters-indicators for the simulation of the different recycling scenarios considered and for the recyclability index (EES producers and recyclers assessment perspective), and on the other hand, from a LCC perspective (complete EES life cycle perspective). This information will be very useful for future EES designs (WP 8, 9 and 10).

The LCC studies will cover the whole product life cycle with emphasis on design/manufacturing/assembly into car and end-of life phase. This comprises the following stages that are relevant for economic evaluation:

1. raw material supply (cost data for raw materials and pre-production processes)

2. production (cost data for preliminary products, auxiliary materials, energy, machine use, labour, etc. and revenues for products and by-products)

3. transports (cost data for fuel, vehicle use, labour, etc.)

4. use phase (cost data for consumables, service, etc.)



5. end-of life processes (as described in chapter 2): disassembly, shredding, reuse, recycling, recovery, disposal (cost data for processes (materials, energy, machine use, labour, etc.), costs of disposal, revenues for recycled materials and reused components)

3.2 Environmental Data Requirements

Analogously to the economic part, environmental data will be needed for environmental studies in WP 7, mainly for ESS Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies and for simulation of recycling scenarios and, in some particular cases, for developing the recyclability index for EES designs (information about EES contaminants, etc).

This means that environmental data will be also gathered on one hand, directly from the end-of-life EES processes studied (WP 3, 4, 5 and 6) in order to obtain practical environmental loads and impact indicators (energy, raw materials, atmospheric emissions, wastewater, solid wastes, etc.) for the simulation of the different recycling scenarios considered (EES producers and recyclers assessment perspective), and on the other hand, from a LCA perspective (complete EES life cycle perspective). This information will be very useful for future EES designs (WP 8, 9 and 10).

The LCA studies will cover the whole product life cycle with emphasis on design and end-of life phase. For environmental evaluation input and output data for all kind of energy and materials used will be needed for the following life cycle steps:

1. processes for raw material supply

2. production processes

3. transports

4. use phase (consumables, service, etc.)

5. end-of life processes: disassembly, shredding, reuse, recycling, recovery, disposal



4 RecommendationsIn this chapter some recommendations for the SEES workpackages (4.1) and general recommendations (4.2) are presented with the purpose of:

defining the best scope of the subsequent SEES workpackages (WP2, 3, 4, 5 and 6),

avoiding spending time in future steps in topics already covered by other studies and

taking advantage of the available information and knowledge to improve automotive EES and the respective end-of-life processes.

4.1 Recommendations for the next SEES Workpackages

As described in chapter 1.5, EES components were grouped and evaluated (according to legal, economic, environmental, dismantling, recycling and feasibility considerations) and appropriate representatives were proposed for further investigation in the SEES project. The list of these components including proposals how to cover them in the subsequent SEES workpackages has been presented in table 13 (see chapter 1.5.3).

From a materials perspective, the strategy for assembling, disassembling and/or shredding EES and the subsequent separation technologies selected will determine the level of mixture and contamination of EES material fractions and consequently, their possible end-of-life. For this reason it is highly recommended that all the partners read carefully the whole report in order to have an holistic perspective of the issue considered in this project.

Some specific recommendations for each of the workpackages 2 to 6 are given hereafter.

4.1.1 WP 2: Assembly Study

The following recommendations should be considered in the assembly study to investigate possible changes of the assembly process to improve disassembly and recycling:

In EES parts plastics from the same or compatible families should be used. The same applies to the use of compatible metals. Separation and recycling technologies should be considered during the selection of materials. Proper design and assembly strategies could facilitate separation and recycling processes (modular design, parts integration, parts simplification, etc.). These considerations will improve subsequent disassembly, separation and recycling processes (see chapter 2.3 and 2.4).

Dismantling and disintegration of EES plastic parts can be anticipated at the design stage by considering the following aspects: assemble with moulded-in details (push-hook-click or screw thread), consider provision of pre-determined break areas, review product layout for easy assembly and disassembly (accessibility of joints, modular construction, etc.), facilitate separation of parts which will be contaminated, avoid metal inserts in plastics, etc.

Thermoplastics should be preferred over thermosets if possible due to thermoplastics can be melted and processed and thermosets cannot be remelted neither reshaped (see chapter 2.4.2.1).



To enable easy identification of plastics, any EES plastic part with a weight over 100 g should be marked following the ISO international standards. The same should be done with rubbers and lattices over 200 g. The identification mark should be visible for the dismantler before dismantling the plastic part. Additionally, other identification methods and strategies could be used for facilitating identification and sorting EES plastic parts (see chapter 2.3.5).

The difficulty of removing contaminants from EES plastic parts (metallic insertions, paints, glues, adhesive tapes, textiles and sound absorbers, additives, fillers, etc.) should be considered during assembly processes. The effect on recycling of any reinforcement (glass fibre / carbon) or additive should be checked. It should be considered that some fillers (heavy metal additives, pigments, etc.) could have a toxic effect. The use of plastic fasteners of the same plastic as the parts they are joining or which are compatible for recycling should be preferred rather than metal fasteners. Using the same material permits welding techniques to be used for assembly rather than adhesives (see chapter 2.3.6).

4.1.2 WP 3: Disassembly Study

The comparison of disassembly times for the assessment of EES components showed wide variations depending on the car model. These variations and the possible influences on disassembly time should be analysed in more detail in WP3 to help to explain how disassembly times could be improved.

Coordinated share of work between the car manufacturer, the car dismantler and the manufacturer of EE products for automotive sector will be needed to cover all components that have been proposed for WP 3, especially for components that are present only in modern cars.

The disassembly from end-of-life vehicles at the car dismantler facilities should concentrate on the proposed components for recycling because this will be a major material input to WP4.

The followed strategy for disassembling EES and the subsequent separation technologies used will determine the level of mixture & contamination of EES fractions and consequently, their possible end-of-life. For this reason, it is highly recommended to consider separation and end-of-life requirements during the disassembly process (see chapter 2.3 and 2.4).

4.1.3 WP 4: EES Recycling

Within WP 4 the material flow of the EES material to mechanical recycling, chemical recycling and plastics recycling (WP5) has to be managed. Decisions should be made on the basis of material composition of the selected EES components to recover the material fractions that are most favourable. For some components a more detailed investigation of material composition will be needed in WP4.

To get sufficient amount of input material for recycling similarities between the selected components and other components of the same group should be checked (e.g. wire harness and junction boxes from other compartments than engine compartment). If appropriate additional similar components to be disassembled in WP3 should be proposed.



Information from chapter 2 could be useful to decide on technologies to be used for material separation and recycling:

In chapter 2.3.1 the most adequate particle size reduction methods, for EES parts in general, are described. The objective of these processes is to prepare the EES for subsequent separation and recycling processes.

In chapter 2.3.2 basic sorting methods, used for separating major material fractions of EES dismantled and/or shredded and size-reduced are described. These methods are particularly important for separating metals from other materials just behind the car shredder. These methods can be also appropriate, in some cases, for purifying particular material fractions.

In chapter 2.3.3 the most adequate and common mechanical sorting methods for separating and purifying metals and plastics of EES are presented.

In chapter 2.3.4 the most adequate and common non-mechanical sorting methods, mainly for those plastics commonly used in EES, are presented. These technologies are less developed than the basic and mechanical ones (2.3.2 and 2.3.3).

In chapter 2.4 the most adequate and common technologies for recycling metals and plastics of EES are presented.

4.1.4 WP 5: Plastic Recycling

Contamination of material for recycling seems to be a bigger problem for plastics than for metals due to a large variety of plastic materials with similar properties that makes it difficult to separate them but at the same time they cannot be recycled together. Therefore, a more detailed view on identification technologies and contaminants removal methods mainly for plastics is presented in chapter 2.3.5 and 2.3.6, respectively.

Depending on the level of mixture, contamination and deterioration of EES plastic parts one or another different recycling technology should be selected. Reprocessing technologies are more adequate for purified plastics – thermoplastics – (see chapter 2.4.2.1). On the other hand, feedstock recycling processes (see chapter 2.4.2.2), energy recovery processes (see chapter 2.4.2.3) and production of plastic lumber (see chapter 2.4.2.4) are more adequate processes for commingled, contaminated and deteriorated plastics – thermoplastics, thermosets, laminated and/or compounded materials.

Feedback to WP 4 will be necessary to define the quality and quantity of plastic material fraction that will be needed as input to plastics recycling.

ASR will be also analysed in WP5 (material from shredding tests.- WP6).

4.1.5 WP 6: Shredding Study

The analysis of end-of-life vehicle collection and shredding in WP 1 revealed missing knowledge on the quantities of the material fractions from EES that can be found in the different shredder output fractions. This emphasises the importance of the analysis to be conducted in WP 6 to understand which quantities of the material coming from EES can be recovered from the shredder output. This will be the basis for comparison of shredding and dismantling strategies for recycling.



The followed strategy for shredding EES (with or without pre-treatment and/or selective disassembly for specific EES parts, etc.) and the subsequent separation technologies used will determine the level of mixture & contamination of EES fractions and consequently, their possible end-of-life. For this reason, it is highly recommended to consider separation and end-of-life requirements during the shredding process (see chapter 2.3 and 2.4).

4.2 General Recommendations

Some general recommendations to the automotive (EES) industry, suppliers, car dismantlers and shredders, recyclers and policy are listed in the following:

The wide spectrum of EES component characteristics, the large and increasing number of components per car and their diffuse distribution throughout the car are aspects of the end-of-life situation that make a simple strategy (e.g. dismantling of all EES components) most likely inappropriate. For this reason a more sophisticated, comprehensive strategy for the problem at hand needs to be developed. This includes different priorities to be assigned to dismantling and recycling of different EES components based on their value and environmental relevance.

Recycling paths to recover a greater portion of valuable fractions including precious metals, plastic and composite materials (current automobile recycling technologies focus almost exclusively on the recovery of ferrous metals) should be developed.

Synergies with existing recycling procedures of the WEEE directive could be utilised for automotive EES recycling.

Lead in solder is a highly dispersive source of lead in automobiles and can be found in many applications throughout the automobile. Therefore a high priority should be given to the development of lead-free alternatives which do not adversely affect durability or performance of the products.

Pre-treatment of end-of-life vehicles arriving today at car dismantling and shredding facilities has to be monitored to fully comply with the requirements of the end-of-life vehicle directive (see chapter 2.1.4).

Dismantling of EES components at car dismantlers could be increased if economic incentives for dismantling and separate reuse / recycling are improved, e.g. by lowering disassembly costs.

Cooperation between car dismantlers, garages, car manufacturers and electronics supplier should be strengthened towards possible reuse of dismantled EES components.

The IDIS system could be improved to include the disassembly of more electronic components and to visualise valuable material fractions (e.g. copper, precious metals) in the car.



Glossary of AbbreviationsABS: Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene

ABS: Antilock Braking System

ACORD: Automotive Consortium on Recycling and Disposal

ARN: Auto Recycling Nederland BV

ASIC: Application-specific integrated circuit

ASR: Automotive Shredder Residue

BOF: Basic Oxygen Furnace

BTO: Build to Order

CAGR: Compound Annual Growth Rate

CAN: Controlled Area Network

CEM-3: A substrate composed of a material made from nonwoven glass fibers and a woven fabric that is copper plated on both sides.

CNPA: National Automotive Council (FR)

CVT: Continuously Variable Transmission

D2B: Domestic Data Bus

DCT: Dual Clutch Transmission

DR: Diffuse Reflectance

DVLA: Driver and Vehicle License Agency

EAF: Electric Arc Furnace

ECU: Electronic Control Units

EES: Electrical and Electronic System

ELV Directive: End of Life Vehicle Directive

EPR: Extended Product Responsibility

ExFC: Extruded Flat Cable

FFC: Flexible Flat Cable

FLC: Flexible Laminated Cable

FPC: Flexible Printed Circuit Board

FR4: Epoxy glass fibre

FT-MIR: Fourier Transform Mid Infrared Range

GPS: Global Positioning System

HDPE. High-Density Polyethylene

HF: High Frequency



HID: High Intensity Discharge

HUD: Heads-up-Display

HVAC: Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning

IDIS: International Dismantling Information System

IMC: Integrated Mechatronic Components

IP: Instrument Panel

IR: Infrared

ISA: Integrated Starter Alternator

JIT: Just in Time

LCA: Life Cycle Assessment

LCC: Life Cycle Costing

LCD: Liquid Crystal Display

LCP: Liquid Crystal Polymer

LDPV: Low-Density Polythene

LED: Light Emitting Diode

LIN: Local Interconnect Network

MD: Manager Distributor System (FR)

MID: Moulded Interconnect Device

MIR: Mid Infrared Range

MML: Mobile media link

MOST: Media-Oriented Systems Transport

MSW: Municipal Solid Waste

NOx: Nitrogen Oxides

OEM: Original Equipment Manufacturer

PA: Polyamide (nylon)

PBTB: Polybutylentherephtalat

PC: Polycarbonate

PCB: Printed circuit board

PCDD/F: Polychlorinated Dibenzo Dioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzo Furans

PE: Polyethylene

PEEK: PolyEtherEther-Ketone

PET: Polyethylene Teraphthalate

PMMA: Acrylic Resin, refers to Polymethyl Methacrylate



PMMA: Polymethylmethacrylate

POM: Polyoxymethylene

PP: Polypropylene

PSR: Particle Size Reduction Methods

PTFE: Polytetrafluoroethylene (teflon)

PU, PUR: Polyurethane

PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride

PZT: Lead-Zirconate-Titanate

RDW: National Vehicle Registration Authority (NL)

SAN: Styrene Acrylonitrile (copolymer)

SEES: Sustainable Electrical and Electronic System

SLI: Starter, Lighting and Ignition

SMA: Styrene Maleic Anhydride (copolymer)

SMD: Surface Mount Device

SMT: Surface Mount Technology

SOXs: Sulphur Oxides

SR: Specular Reflectance

SSS: Sliding Spark Spectroscopy

SWNIR: Short Wave Near Infrared

THT: Through Hole Technology

TTCAN: Time-triggered Controlled Area Network

TTP: Time-triggered Protocol

UP: Unsaturated Polyester

USABC: United Stated Advanced Battery Consortium

WEEE: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

WH: Wire Harness



Annex A: Heavy Metals in Vehicle Components


Component Application Number in CarLead Content

(g per unit)Lead amount

(g car)Cr (VI) (g car)

Hg (mg per unit)

Hg (mg per car) Comments

knock sensor motor control system 1 2 2shock sensor airbag 3 0.2 0.6

airbag (shock sensor) 1 0.1 0.1resonator general 5 - 15 0.007 0.04 - 0.1PTC- thermistors for overcurrent protection

radio, car navigation, burgar alarm, door lock motor and side mirror protection 5 0.01 - 0.04 0.05 - 0.2 PTC (positive temperature coefficient)heater for air conditioner and air intake 0.95

Ceramic capacitor speedometer, airbag, engine control, fuel injector, power window, power steering 3x10-5 - 1.8x 10-3 0.0006 - 0.003

Pyrotechnic initiators * air bags and seat pre-tensioners 0.05 - 0.31 Allowed until 06/2007

Piezo ceramic componentsEngine high pressure direct diesel injection 40 - 120

Cr (VI) content: 0.3 µg/cm2

Engine knock sensors 3.5Shock sensor for airbag 0.3Resonators, frequence filters and buzzers in electronics like radio/stereo, keyless entry, burglar alarm, car navigation etc. 0.5 - 1.6Reversing sensor 0.35

Active noise reduction (not yet available) 500 - 1000Rotation rate sensor 1 0.05 0.05

Piezo actor1 per cyclindre

(4-8) 11.5 46 - 92Valve seats 16 1.4 - 1.5 22.4 - 24 Allowed Until 07/2006 for old designs

Screws and clips 0.7- 4.0 Cr surface layer thickness 0.1 - 1.25 µm. PCBs electronics 50rear window heater, antenna and windscreen heater 3 0.3 - 1.5 0.9 - 4.5

Lead glass resistor and hybrid-IC for engine 0.0001 - 0.0003 0.1 - 0.3Carbon brushes of electric motors starter motor 4 brushes 10 Allowed until 01/2005

low current motors (blower motor, wiper motor and power steering) 0.1

Gas Discharge Headlamp * 2 0.5 - 0.55 1 - 1,1 Dismatling due to the Hg contentLamps glass bulb (signal and interior lamps) 30 - 40 0.4 - 0.5 12 - 20 No dismantling. Allowed until 01/2005Navigation Systems * lighting of screen 1 1.2 1.2 Dismatling due to the Hg contentultra soud sender/receiver Back sonar 4 - 8 0.03 0.1 - 0.24

airbag 4 - 6 0.03 0.1- 0.18warning device 2 - 4 0.03 0.06 - 0.1

(*) To be dismantled (or neutralized in case of pyrotechnic initiators) according to ELV DirectiveSources: [Sander et al. 2000], [Lohse et al. 2001]

Engine

Solder


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