Security Dimensionssecurity-dimensions.pl/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/SD_17_sr.pdf · Security Dimensions International & National Studies From Personal to Global Security SD Edited

Security DimensionsInternational & National Studies

From Personal to Global Security

SD

Edited byAgnieszka FilipekJuliusz Piwowarski

Jarosław TeskaWaldemar Zubrzycki

Scientific JournalNo. 17 (1/2016)

EdiToriAl BoArd

Edited by:Agnieszka Filipek, Ph.d. (Poland)

Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.d. (Poland)cdre Assoc. Prof. Jarosław Teska Ph.d. (Poland)

Assoc. Prof. Waldemar Zubrzycki, Ph.d. (Poland)

Editor-in-Chief:Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.d. (Poland)

Executive Editors:Jarosław dZiuBiński, M.A. (Poland)radosława rodAsik, M.A. (Poland)

scientific Editor:Prof. Witold PokrusZYński, Ph.d. (Poland)

language Editors:Prof. Mirosław skiBNiEWski, Ph.d. (usA)

robert oTTENBurgEr (uk)Prof. Judr. Mojmír MAMoJkA, drsc., dr.h.c. mult. (slovakia)

statistical Editors:doc. ing. Jaromir MlYNEk, Csc. (slovakia)

Tadeusz rATusiński, Ph.d. (Poland)

Technical edition and cover:Jarosław dZiuBiński, M.A. (Poland)

Publisher:university of Public and individual security APEiroN in Cracow

ul. krupnicza 3 31-123 kraków

Funding body:university of Public and individual security APEiroN in Cracow

Copyright © by:university of Public and individual security APEiroN in Cracow, kraków 2016

Printed edition: 100 copies

Frequency of issue: Quarterly

Contact person: Assoc. Prof. Juliusz PiWoWArski, Ph.d. (editorial board and publisher)

university of Public and individual security APEiroN in Cracowul. krupnicza 3 31-123 kraków

Tel. (12) 422 30 68; fax (12) 421 67 25 e- mail: [email protected]

Journal also available at:www.security-dimensions.pl

issN 2353-7000 (previously: issN 2299-4041)

indexation: MNisW: 7 points

index Copernicus international: 73,96 (7,18) points

Assoc. Prof. Tomasz AlEksANdroWiCZ, Ph.d. (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Tadeusz AMBrożY, Ph.d. (Poland)Prof. gerhard BANsE, Ph.d. (germany)Assoc. Prof. iryna BAsYsTA, Ph.d. (ukraine)Assoc Prof. stefan BiElAński, Ph.d. (Poland)Prof. Yuriy BoshYTskYi, Judr. (ukraine)Wojciech CZAJkoWski, Ph.d. (Poland)Prof. František hANZlÍk, Ph.d. (Czech republic)gen. Prof. Natalia kAlAshNik, (ukraine)Brig. gen. (ret.) Prof. ing. Miroslav kElEMEN, Ph.d., drsc. (slovakia)doc. Judr. Štefan kočAN, Ph.d. (slovakia)Adam krZYMoWski, Ph.d. (Poland)Prof. Jerzy oChMANN, Ph.d. (Poland)Assoc. Prof. Juliusz PiWoWArski, Ph.d. (Poland)

Prof. Judr. ing. Viktor PorAdA, drsc., dr.h.c. mult. (Czech republic)Col. gs ing. ivo PikNEr, Ph.d. (Czech republic)gen. ing. Andor ŠáNdor (Czech republic)Bartosz soliński, Ph.d. (Poland)Prof. Judr. karel sChEllE, Csc. (Czech republic)Prof. Mirosław J. skiBNiEWski, Ph.d. (usA)Col. katarina ŠTrBAC, Ph.d. (serbia)Prof. Łukasz TrZCiński, Ph.d. (Poland)Assoc. Prof. Alessandro ViTAlE, Ph.d. (italy)Prof. Janusz Józef WęC, Ph.d. (Poland)Judr. Jozef ZAT’ko, general poručik iCoCriM (slovakia)Assoc. Prof. Vaiva ZuZEVičiŪTĖ, Ph.d. (lithuania)

1. Theory of securiTy sTudies:Prof. kuba JAŁosZYński, Ph.d. (Poland)2. Technology:Assoc. Prof. inga V. uriadnykova, Csc. (ukraine)3. MarTial arTs and physical culTure:Prof. Tadeusz AMBrożY, Ph.d. (Poland)Prof. stanislav dAdElo, Ph.d. (lithuania) Prof. dariusz MuChA, Ph.d. (Poland)4. arMy and disposiTional groups:Brig. gen. (ret.) Prof. ing. Miroslav kElEMEN, Ph.d., drsc. (slovakia)Prof. Witold PokrusZYński, Ph.d. (Poland)5. law:Prof. Judr. karel sChEllE, Csc. (Czech republic)6. hisTory:doc. Judr. Vladimir ZouBEk, ll.M., MBA. (Czech republic)

Assoc. Prof. stefan BiElAński, Ph.d. (Poland)7. poliTics:Assist. Prof. Alessandro ViTAlE (italy)Prof. Janusz WęC, Ph.d. (Poland)8. forensic science:Prof. Judr. ing. Viktor PorAdA, drsc., dr h. c. mult. (Czech republic)Prof. Janina ZięBA-PAlus, Ph.d. (Poland)9. eThics and philosophy:Prof. Łukasz TrZCiński, Ph.d. (Poland)10. securiTy engineering:Prof. ing. karol BAlog, Ph.d. (slovakia)gen. Aleksander NEJEdlÝ (slovakia)doc. ing. Jozef sABol, drsc. (Czech republic)11. proTecTion of persons and properTy:ing. Paweł PAJorski, M.A. (Poland)

Subject editorS:

Scientific board:

Prof. Carlos Eduardo Pacheco AMArAl universidade dos Acores (italy)Prof. Eliseo BErTolAsi, Ph.d. l’istituto di Alti studi in geopolitica e scienze Ausiliarie (italy)Andrzej CZoP, Ph.d. Wyższa szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i indywidualnego „Apeiron”w krakowie (Poland)Prof. Wojciech CYNArski, Ph.d. uniwersytet rzeszowski w rzeszowie (Poland)Prof. stanislav dAdElo, Ph.d. Vilnus gediminas Technical university (lithuania)Jerzy dEPo, Ph.d. krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego (Poland)Assoc. Prof. Jacek dWorZECki, Ph.d.Wyższa szkoła Policji w szczytnie (Poland)Adam goŁuCh, Ph.d. górnośląska Wyższa szkoła handlowa im. W. korfantego w katowicach (Poland)Judr. Wojciech M. hrYNiCki, Ph.d. Wyższa szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i indywidualnego „Apeiron” w krakowie (Poland)Prof. kuba JAŁosZYński, Ph.d. Wyższa szkoła Policji w szczytnie (Poland)Assoc. Prof. krzysztof kAgANEk, Ph.d. Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w krakowie (Poland)doc. Judr. Štefan kočAN, Ph.d. Akadémia Policajného zboru v Bratislave (slovakia)krzysztof MiChAlski, Ph.d. Politechnika rzeszowska w rzeszowie (Poland)

Prof. ing. Jana MüllEroVá, Ph.d. Žilinská univerzita v Žiline (slovakia)doc. ing. Jozef MArTiNkA, Ph.d. slovak university of technology in Bratislava (slovakia)Bogusław PŁoNkA, Ph.d. Wyższa szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i indywidualnego „Apeiron”w krakowie (Poland) Prof. Jerzy oChMANN, Ph.d. Polska Akademia umiejętności (Poland)Prof. Francesco sidoTi, Ph.d.l’uuniversita` dell’Aquila (italy)Prof. sergii Viktotovych sliNko lviv university of Bussines and law (ukraine)Prof. lyubomyr soPilNYk, Ph.d. lviv university of Business and law (ukraine)doc. Paeddr. samuel uhriN, Csc. Akademia Pomorska w słupsku (Poland)Prof. Bernard WiśNiEWski, Ph.d. Wyższa szkoła Policji w szczytnie (Poland)Prof. larisa A. YANkoVskA, Ph.d. lviv university of Business and law (ukraine)Assoc. Prof. Mirosław ZABiEroWski, Ph.d. Wyższa szkoła oficerska Wojsk lądowych im. generała Tadeusza kościuszki we Wrocławiu (Poland)doc. Vasyl ZAPlATYNskYi, Csc. National aviation university (ukraine)doc. Judr. Vladimir ZouBEk, ll.M., MBA. Policejní akademie české republiky v Praze (Czech republic)

board of reviewerS:

Contents

Scientific Pivot

Juliusz PiwowarskiThree Pillars of Security Culture • 16

DiSPoSitional grouPS

Waldemar Zubrzycki,Policemen of Anti-Terrorist Subunits in Scientific Research • 30

irena Żukowskaon Personal Security issues of Soldiers from Polish Military Contingent in Iraq • 42

Societal anD cultural SecuritY

cezary tatarczuk,the attitude of Poles towards communal Police. Some Observations on the State of Civil Society in Poland • 57

olga Wasiuta, Sergiusz Wasiutarussian Mass-Media Manipulation of information in Hybrid Warfare Against Ukraine • 73

Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena netczuk-gwoździewiczBoosters – a phenomenon and threats • 99

tHeorY of SecuritY

Krzysztof tomaszyckiformalization and institutionalization of research institutes in the Police • 116

HoliStic PerSPective of KineSiological aSPectS

of SecuritY culture

tadeusz ambroży, amadeusz Kwiatkowski, Dariusz Mucha, Krzysztof Wrześniewski, Juliusz Piwowarski

training load and training effectiveness in the Preparatory Phase by the case of Kickboxing fighters of uKS gladiator club • 142

HiStorY of SecuritY

Štěpán KavanProvisions of civil Defence training in czechoslovakia – Historical Consequences • 158

internal SecuritY

Józef PruchniakPreliminary evaluation of Pomeranian Social Prevention Program „Razem Bezpieczniej” [“More Secure Together”] • 174

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The editorial Boards accepts papers of at least 10 pages in length. Papers must be in english (either British or american). We also accept papers in other Congress languages (one or two for each issue). Submission of such paper must be consulted with the editorial Board.Papers should be sent via e-mail to:[email protected], or via traditional post to:university of Public and individual Security aPeiron in cracowul. Krupnicza 3, 31-123 Kraków.articles should be saved into a Word- compatible file (.doc, .docx, .rtf ). Font type: 12 Times New Roman CE or an equivalent Cyrillic font; single space of 1.5 lines; standard margins (2.5 cm); alphabetic, numbered refer-ences at the end of the text.

each paper should include:a) Abstract in English of maximum 200 words underlying the main points of the article. it should be informative and self-explanatory without refer-ence to the text of the manuscript. it should include any essential results that support the conclusions of the work.b) An extended abstract of ca. 1.500 characters with spaces, which should follow the structure of the article. This abstract is intended for Polish read-ers and, if submitted in english will be translated into the Polish language.c) 3-5 key words, both in the language of the paper and in english. Key-words must differ from the words used in the title of the paper.d) Short biographical note of the author.e) references should only include publications cited in the article and should be fitted to the pattern provided below:- For books: rosa r., Filozofia bezpieczenstwa, Bellona, Warszawa 1995.- For articles from periodicals: Koziej S., Bezpieczeństwo i obronność

Unii Europejskiej, „Myśl Wojskowa”, 2005, no. 1.- For articles in books: Kudelska M., Filozofia Indii - kilka uwag

wstępnych, [in:] Filozofia Wschodu, v. i, B. Szymanska (ed.), uniwersytet Jagielloński, Krakow 2001.

information for authorS

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f ) Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of each page and follow the patternprovided below:- For books: r. rosa, Filozofia bezpieczeństwa, Bellona, Warszawa 1995.- For articles from periodicals: S. Koziej, Bezpieczeństwo i obronność

Unii Europejskiej, „Mysl Wojskowa”, 2005, no. 1.- For articles in books: M. Kudelska, Filozofia Indii - kilka uwag

wstępnych, [in:] Filozofia Wschodu, i, B. Szymanska (red.), uniwersytet Jagiellonski, Krakow 2001.

- For sources already cited, use the latin term: ibidem, op. cit., etc.Quotations should be marked with double inverted commas. for embed-ded quotes, use »...«.Pictures, charts and illustrations: 300 dpi.The editorial Board reserves the right to shorten and edit the papers.all articles are reviewed in double-blind system.We do not provide for payments.authors should enclose a signed statement acknowledging the genuine-ness of the text (preferably, a scan of such a document).By publishing in “Security Dimensions” authors transfer the copyrights to the papers to the Publisher. Please enclose a statement to that effect.Please remember that such phenomena as ghostwriting and guest author-ship are unacceptable as they are a manifestation of scientific misconduct. all detected cases will be reported to relevant institutions. in every case of co-authorship, authors are obliged to enclose a statement of contribution (all document forms are available on the website).By submitting a paper author accepts the policy of the journal.

Publication ethics and Publication Malpractice statementThe journal Security Dimensions: International & National Studies is dedi-cated to following best practices on ethical matters, errors and retractions. The prevention of publication malpractice is one of the important respon-sibilities of the editorial board. any kind of unethical behavior is not ac-ceptable, and the journal does not tolerate plagiarism in any form. authors submitting articles to Security Dimensions: International & National Studies affirm that manuscript contents are original. furthermore, they warrant that their article has neither been published elsewhere in any language fully or partly, nor is it under review for publication anywhere.

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The following duties outlined for editors, authors, and reviewers are based on the coPe code of conduct for Journal editors. editors, authors, and reviewers will also adhere to the Security Dimensions: International & Na-tional Studies Policies.for all parties involved in the act of publishing (the author(s), the journal editor(s), the peer reviewers, the society, and the publisher) it is necessary to agree upon standards of expected ethical behavior.

Author ResponsibilitiesReporting standards authors reporting results of original research should present an accurate account of the work performed as well as an objective discussion of its significance. underlying data should be represented accurately in the manuscript. a paper should contain suffi-cient detail and references to permit others to replicate the work. fraud-ulent or knowingly inaccurate statements constitute unethical behavior and are unacceptable. originality and plagiarism The authors should en-sure that they have written entirely original works, and if the authors have used the work and/or words of others that this has been appropri-ately cited or quoted. Multiple, redundant, or concurrent publication an author should not in general publish manuscripts describing essentially the same research in more than one journal or primary publication. Parallel submis-sion of the same manuscript to more than one journal constitutes unethi-cal publishing behavior and is unacceptable. Acknowledgement of sources Proper acknowledgment of the work of others must always be given. authors should also cite publications that have been influential in determining the nature of the reported work. Authorship of a manuscript authorship should be limited to those who have made a significant contribution to the conception, design, exe-cution, or interpretation of the reported study. all those who have made significant contributions should be listed as coauthors. Where there are others who have participated in certain substantive aspects of the research project, they should be named in an acknowledgement section. The cor-responding author should ensure that all appropriate coauthors (according to the above definition) and no inappropriate co-authors are included in the author list of the manuscript, and that all co-authors have seen and ap-proved the final version of the paper and have agreed to its submission for publication. all co-authors must be clearly indicated at the time of manu-

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script submission. Requests to add co-authors after a manuscript has been accepted will require approval of the editor. Disclosure and conflicts of interest all authors should disclose in their manuscript any financial or other substantive conflict of interest that might be construed to influence the results or their interpretation in the manuscript. all sources of financial support for the project should be disclosed.Fundamental errors in published works When an author discov-ers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published work, it is the author’s obligation to promptly notify the journal’s editor or publisher and cooperate with them to either retract the paper or to publish an ap-propriate correction statement or erratum.

editor ResponsibilitiesPublication Decisions & Accountability an editor a journal is re-sponsible for deciding which articles submitted to the journal should be published, and, moreover, is accountable for everything published in the journal. in making these decisions, the editor may be guided by the policies of the journal’s editorial board and/or the policies of the pub-lisher, as well as, by the legal requirements regarding libel, copyright in-fringement, and plagiarism. The editor may confer with other editors or reviewers when making publication decisions. The editor should maintain the integrity of the academic record, preclude business needs from com-promising intellectual and ethical standards, and always be willing to pub-lish corrections, clarifications, retractions, and apologies when needed. Fair play an editor should evaluate manuscripts for their intellectual content without regard to race, gender, sexual orientation, religious belief, ethnic origin, citizenship, or political philosophy of the author(s). Confidentiality an editor and any editorial staff must not disclose any information about a submitted manuscript to anyone other than the cor-responding author, reviewers, potential reviewers, other editorial advisers, and the publisher, as appropriate. Disclosure, conflicts of interest, and oth-er issues an editor will be guided by coPe’s guidelines for retracting articles when considering retracting, issuing expressions of concern about, and issuing corrections pertaining to articles that have been published in Security Dimensions: International & National Studies. unpublished mate-rials disclosed in a submitted manuscript must not be used in an editor’s own research without the explicit written consent of the author(s).

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Reviewer ResponsibilitiesContribution to editorial decisions peer review assists the editor in making editorial decisions and, through the editorial communication with the author, may also assist the author in improving the manuscript.Promptness any invited referee who feels unqualified to review the re-search reported in a manuscript or knows that its timely review will be im-possible should immediately notify the editor so that alternative reviewers can be contacted.confidentiality any manuscripts received for review must be treated as confidential documents. They must not be shown to or discussed with others except if authorized by the editor.standards of objectivity submitted papers are evaluated in peer re-view system by two independent (not affiliated in the author’s institution), anonymous reviewers. Double-blind review standard is implemented: au-thor and reviewers do not know each others’ identity; the list of particular articles’ reviewers is never published.Phenomena as guest authorship and ghostwriting are unacceptable as a manifestation of scientific misconduct. all detected cases will be re-ported to relevant institutions.reviews should be conducted objectively. Personal criticism of the au-thor(s) is unacceptable. reviewers should express their views clearly with appropriate supporting arguments and give a clear conclusion for accept-ance or denial of the article.Acknowledgement of sources reviewers should identify relevant published work that has not been cited by the author(s). any statement that an observation, derivation, or argument had been previously report-ed should be accompanied by the relevant citation. reviewers should also call to the editor’s attention any substantial similarity or overlap between the manuscript under consideration and any other published data of which they have personal knowledge.Disclosure and conflict of interest privileged information or ide-as obtained through peer review must be kept confidential and not used for personal advantage. reviewers should not consider evaluating manu-scripts in which they have conflicts of interest resulting from competitive, collaborative, or other relationships or connections with any of the au-thors, companies, or institutions connected to the submission.

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Publisher Responsibilitieseditorial autonomy Security Dimensions: international & national Studies is committed to working with editors to define clearly the respec-tive roles of publisher and of editors in order to ensure the autonomy of editorial decisions, without influence from advertisers or other commer-cial partners.Intellectual property and copyright university of Public and indi-vidual Security apeiron in cracow ensures the integrity and transparency of each published article with respect to: conflicts of interest, publication and research funding, publication and research ethics, cases of publication and research misconduct, confidentiality, authorship, article corrections, clarifications and retractions, and timely publication of content. Scientif-ic misconduct in cases of alleged or proven scientific misconduct, fraud-ulent publication, or plagiarism the publisher, in close collaboration with the editors, will take all appropriate measures to clarify the situation and to amend the article in question. This includes the prompt publication of a correction statement or erratum or, in the most severe cases, the retrac-tion of the affected work.

what iS aPProPriate for uS?We welcome submissions on widely comprehended security. Papers of non- scientific character that consists merely of opinion are generally rejected. our rule is to define “security” broadly, so the topics of analyses we are in-terested in are numerous, below please find only few examples of them:1. Theory of security studies, including new propositions of definition

of relevant concepts and attempts of applying existent theories that are important for contemporary securitology.

2. Technology, i.e. analysis of all kinds of technological aspects of national and international security.

3. Martial arts, papers regarding philosophy of modern and traditional Budo as well as analysis of work-outs for athletes training hand-to-hand combat.

4. Dispositional groups, analysis of schooling, trainings and work of uni-formed services, antiterrorists and other.

5. Law, analysis of legal aspects of national and international security and order.

6. History, new interpretations of or new information on historical events.

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7. Policy, analysis of contemporary security policy issues.8. Forensic science and criminalistics.9. Ethics, analysis of ethical aspects of administration, praxeology, combat

sport etc.10. Security Engineering, systems dealing with disruptions raging from

natural disastres to malicious act.11. Protection of persons and property.

if you are not sure whether your article is appropriate for the journal, please contact the editorial board ([email protected]).

Scientific Pivot

SECURITY DIMENSIONSInternatIonal & natIonal StudIeS

NO. 17; 2016 (16–27)

Three Pillars of securiTy culTure*1

assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D.University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, POLAND

ABSTRACT

the article presents a proposal for multidisciplinary scientific platform, as a basis for security studies. it includes not only the military but mostly non-military aspects of secu-rity. an emphasis is put on security culture, the main pivot of the “Security Dimensions” as a scientific journal, with three pillars of the security culture concept: mental and spiritual (individual dimension), legal and organizational (social dimension), material.

ARTICLE INFO

Key wordsSecurity culture, security studies, multidisciplinary, pillars

* The article has been firstly published in “Security Dimensions” No 14, and is repeated as a manifest of scientific pivot of the journal; J. Piwowarski, Three Pillars of Securi-ty Culture, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2015, no 14, p. 10–16.

this article is an invitation for co-creating interdisciplinary scientific plat-form. the aim is to provide such a mutual understanding, that allows to achieve a certain coherence and the comparability of the security studies research results, in the frame of “Security Dimensions”, a transdisciplinary scientific journal, created by me as an editor-in-chief, in accordance with the motto e pluribus unum.

the proposed platform is the scientific category known as security cul-ture, with her three pillars: individual, social, and material, connected with such scholars as alfred louis Kroeber or Marian cieślarczyk.

***

three Pillars of Security culture

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the development of the human being, and daily functioning of the social collectivities, formed by families, local communities, including profession-al groups – is accompanied by a continuous erection of edifice of culture. The phenomenon of culture is the whole material and nonmaterial em-bedded elements of the legacy of people.

In 1871 English anthropologist Edward Tylor formulated a definition of the concept of culture1. according to tylor, culture includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. american anthropologist of culture alfred louis Kroeber (1876–1960) presented the concept of culture, which is the inspi-ration for the idea of the pillars of security culture. in his concept presented in The Nature of Culture (1952), the three components of culture are mate-rial reality, social culture, and ethical culture with related values2.

***

english philosopher and sociologist, roger vernon Scruton, as an apol-ogist of Western culture, highlights importantly – “culture is important”. this statement, in globalization era, does not reverberate all around us so strongly that it does not need to be repeated after Scruton, and confirmed in the specific actions3. to teach others, that “culture is important”, we must therefore first begin with ourselves. nowadays the false interpre-tations of freedom are very common, depriving us of culture, that give us patterns of behavior in accordance with specific standards and rules. interpretations exempting us from obligations or responsibilities, result in aberrations in subarea of culture known as security culture. there have been a threat that our culture can be devaluated, and morality will be eliminat-ed, to the detriment of human security.

the phenomenon of security culture is a part of culture in wide sense. “as being clearly shaped, a cultural domain is accompanied by a man from the dawn. as many anthropologists conclude, with Malinowski in the lead,

1 e. B. tylor, Primitive Culture , Vol. 1, Vol. 2, John Murray, London 1871. 2 a. l. Kroeber, The Nature of Culture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1952; Idem,

Configurations of Culture Growth, University of California Press, Berkeley 1944.3 Action in sociology is a kind of human conduct, to which their operators (the authors) imply some meaning. Such recognition of action category widespread thanks to theso-ciology of Max Weber – today is considered to be a rudimentary sociological category: Max Weber, Gospodarka i społeczeństwo. Zarys socjologii rozumiejącej, (Wirtschaft und Ge-sellschaft, Tübingen 1922), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 2002, p. 6.

Juliusz Piwowarski

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providing security lays at the root of humanizing and constituted a conditio sine qua non not only of the survival of the human species, but also the development of other sectors of human culture”4.

***

You may discover that the phenomenon of culture and security, operate in a very similar way:1. Both for security and for culture – in parallel – the importance have two

simultaneously occurring parameters: space and time.2. Physical space gives, as an example, the possibility of “regions of secu-

rity” (or “regions of threats”), and at the same time allows the culture to expand on more and more territory.

3. the time parameter provides a frame of reference in which it lasts on a given territory, culture-building process identical with the develop-ment process of human bodies, small, medium and large social groups and whole societies-nations – this development determines the level of their security.

4. the development process is, by definition and common sense, the mechanism of response to any threats or even – as defined in the securi-ty term – can be considered an analogon of the phenomenon of security.

5. culture is in the particular civilization not only some “added value”, but it is an autonomous self-defenceness potential of a given civilization active persons or entities – in the fields of political, military, cultural, eco-nomic, ecological, legal, organizational, cybernetic or technical activities.

6. culture in relation to the different active persons or entities that function under its impact, from a personal to a global scale, provides such a mech-anism, which may significantly affect the attitudes and behavior of these active persons or entities in certain situations, processes, or “points-in-time” events, carrying a variety of opportunities, risks and threats.

7. culture can also be a theoretical model, having the power to explain, being applicable in security studies.

***

4 S. Jarmoszko, Nowe wzory kultury bezpieczeństwa a procesy deterioracji więzi społecznej, [in:] Jedność i różnorodność. Kultura vs. kultury, e. rekłajtis, r. Wiśniewski, J. Zda-nowski (red.), Aspra-JR, Warszawa 2010; B. Malinowski, Naukowa teoria kultury, [in:] Szkice z teorii kultury, Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1958, p. 101.


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The cultural turn has been popularized by american philosopher and so-ciologist fredric Jameson and his collection of essays The Cultural Turn5. Postmodernism pointed the culture, as the main element of social issues discourses. if “the culture is the whole material and spiritual elements of the legacy of people, embedded and enriched in the course of history, transferred from generation to generation (…)”6 and its components are the principia reducing the risks of social coexistence, cultural patterns, moral presumptions and behavior adequate for given social collectivity, in consequence, it affects the formation of social facts and artifacts belonging to the subarea of culture, which is the security culture. at the beginning of the 21st century the cultural turn in social sciences was prestigiously institutionalized by creation of the center for cultural Sociology at the University of Yale in 2001.

the effects of research on security issues (security studies), belonging to the nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people, are an im-portant part of a security culture, which used to be only a part of inter-national relations. over time, this scientific approach gained importance and autonomy. today, its fields, realism or idealism, thanks to constructivist breakthrough, which came in the 1980s in security studies, can be used for research both the active persons or entities, in different scales, not only in the whole state scientific perspective. they are applied from the scale of the active persons by the scale of the entities up to the societies-nations and their states. a brief definition of the security culture, is proposed by the author of this article, as follows:

Security culture is the whole material and nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people, aimed at cultivating, recovering (if lost) and raising the level of safety specified active persons or entities. It can

5 f. Jameson, The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern 1983–1998, verso Books Publ., London – New York 1998; Idem, Globalization and Political Strategy, [in:] „new left review”, 4 ( July–August, 2000); Idem, Postmodernism and Cultural Theo-ries. Lectures in China (Houxiandaizhuyi he Wenhualilun), Shanxi teacher’s university, Xi’an 1987; Idem, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, Duke uni-versity Press, Durham 1991; see G. Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, New York 1999; M. Jacobs, L. Spill-man, Cultural sociology at the crossroads of the discipline, [in:] „Poetics. Journal of em-pirical Research on Culture, the Media and the Arts” 2005, 33, p. 1–14; V. E. Bonnell, l. Hunt, Beyond the Cultural Turn, University of California Press, Berkeley 1999.

6 „Kultura” [„culture”], Mała Encyklopedia PWN, Warszawa 1996, p. 445.

Juliusz Piwowarski

20

be considered in terms of individual – mental and spiritual, social and physical dimensions.

Developed, the so-called spectral version of the definition of a security culture, showing the importance of security consciousness for acting person or entity7, is indicated below. it is the result of the Polish-ukrainian co-operation, as a result of research program (2013–2014), that took place in Cracow Research Institute for Security and Defence Skills APEIRON. the au-thors of the definition are Juliusz Piwowarski (CRISD APEIRON, Poland) and vasyl Zaplatynski (National Aviation University in Kiev, ukraine).

Security culture8 is the whole material and nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people in military and nonmilitary spheres – that is, the widely understood autonomous defence of active persons or entities. This phenomenon is a trichotomy, that create three overlap-ping dimensions:

- mental and spiritual (individual dimension),- legal and organizational (social dimension),- material.Security culture is used for realization the specified aims and needs:1. Effective control of emerging threats, obtaining the status of a sat-

isfyingly low level of threats.2. Recovery of security in a situation where it has been lost.3. Optimization, for a specified active persons or entities, of the level

of multiareal understood security.4. To encourage in the social and personal consciousness about the

need for self-improvement and trichotomal (mental/social/mate-rial) development, along with enabling the motivation and atti-tudes that result in individual and collaborative activities, result-ing in a comprehensive development of acting persons or entities, including their autonomous defenceness.

the precursor of the security and defence culture studies in Poland is Marian cieślarczyk. it should be noted that the defence in this concept is concerned, despite schematic approaches, far beyond the military sphere. 7 See a. Zduniak, n. Majchrzak, Świadomość emocjonalna jako dystraktor w procesach ba-

dawczych bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 2012.

8 J. Piwowarski, Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeń-stwa, [w:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawowo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wie-ku, P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Jałoszyński (red.), Szczytno 2014, s. 451.


21

By “defence” cieślarczyk means also the non-military potential. this po-tential enables effective tackling and preventing the occurrence of threats and to react on threats at the moment of their real occurrence. Professor Marian cieślarczyk gives the following definition of a security culture:

Security and defence culture is a kind of social matrix, “the pattern of basic assumptions, values, norms, rules, symbols, and beliefs that influ-ence the perception of the challenges, opportunities and (or) threats, and the way of feeling security and thinking about it, behaviour and activities (cooperation) of active persons or entities connected with this, in a varie-ty of ways »articulated« and »learned« by them in the education of broad sense, including internal and external integration processes in natural adaptation and other organizational processes, as well as in the process of strengthening the widely (not just militarily) understood defence, serving the harmonious development of these active persons or entities, and the achievement by them widely understood security, for the benefit of each other, as well as the environment”9.

the concept of Marian cieślarczyk shows that security and defence cul-ture is manifested in the following three dimensions:

1. the first dimension –ideas, values, and spirituality of the human being,2. The second dimension – social impacts of the organisation and sys-

tems of law,3. The third dimension – material aspects of human existence.the above components Marian cieślarczyk called “pillars of a culture

of security”. they are named, respectively, mental-spiritual, organizational and legal, and material pillars. the components of these pillars interpen-etrate, despite peculiarities. for example, knowledge as a component of the first pillar, is also an element of the second pillar, having the organiza-tional-legal and technical-innovative nature. the concept of security cul-ture allows, in many cases, the integration of multidisciplinary studies on security and defence issues. this concept includes also the emotional and rational understanding of safety as a neutralizing agent against controlled (for the time) and legitimated “aggression”. Security culture, its suitably high level, allows us to avoid the temptation of an aggressive “win” for the higher needs, what is the need for “being an impregnable”.

9 M. cieślarczyk, Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo akademii Podla-skiej, Siedlce 2010, p. 210.

Juliusz Piwowarski

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***

Paying attention to the definition of security culture phenomenon, we can see that this combines all aspects of social life: spirituality, social compe-tence, materiality and their coherent, holistic implementation. it promotes security, conceived both as a value (1st pillar of security culture), as the de-sired state (1st, 2nd and 3rd pillar of culture) and as a process, which aim is to use the heritage of generations, repeated and evolving in three areas of the human individual, human population and the material dimension of human existence – continuously thanks to the functioning of the intersub-jective phenomenon, which is a cross-generation national transmission10. Se-curity is implemented through the defence function, also understood very broadly – not only understood as a category of military considerations.

cieślarczyk writes: “from my research, it appears that today, but also in the foreseeable future, thinking about defence only in terms of the mili-tary is insufficient”11. Similarly, emma rothschild in the article What Is Security?12, 1995, specifies the need to redefine the category of security in the process of extending its concept. the concept of defence concerned in individual and social (collective) context is almost synonymous with the concept of a security culture. Here you can talk about the existence of a coherent, although multithreaded security culture, for the level of which, of the utmost importance are, inter alia, education and teaching, identity and social constraints, and challenges associated with conscious effort, which is aimed at self-improvement of man, and on this basis the improvement created of social organizations, for example, in the spirit of the community, as it suggests the american sociologist, communitarianist,

10 Generation – the term can be through the following determinants of this social phenom-enon: a) genealogical relation of parents and children – it occurs for example in the Bible, or pedigree, b) para genealogical – an extension of the previous definition on the whole societies, c) „registered” (all of the peer groups) and d) cultural; see M. Wallis, Koncepcje biologiczne w humanistyce, [in:] „fragmenty filozoficzne”, seria ii, tadeusz Kotarbiński (red.), Warszawa 1959; similar differentiation of the generation term, gives M. ossowska, Koncepcja pokolenia, [in:] „Studia Socjologiczne” 1963, 2, but the first of her typologies is limited to the genealogical type (parents–children relation) and cultural-genealogical (teacher–pupil relation).

11 M. cieślarczyk, Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo akademii Podla-skiej, Siedlce 2010, p. 11.

12 e. rotschild, What Is Security?, ”Daedalus”, Vol. 124, No. 3, Summer 1995, p. 53–98.


23

amitai etzioni13. according to etzioni “the man does not exist as long as there is no socially; what he is, depends on his social being, and his use of this social being is irrevocably linked to who is. it has the ability to control his inner being, while the main path for self-control leads to connect with other, similar active persons, in social activities”14.

***

“American and English universities securitology is equated with the con-cept of security culture”15, as Leszek Korzeniowski observes. The use of the security culture category is recorded among a large number of re-searchers of transdisciplinary and very capacious issue, which is a mod-ern security science.

for example, nick Pidgeon is among these authors16. the issue of suitability of scientific term security culture for research carried out by securitologists, according to Korzeniowski, is confirmed “through the Zohar”17. in the united States, Dove Zohar popularized his own concept and corresponding category – an equivalent to the concept of security – which is security climate. a research team from illinois State univer-sity, led by Hui Zhanga studied the concerned issues of one hundred seven articles in which security culture or security climate phrases were contained. effect of comparative analysis was a prove for both concepts equity, with only one reservation, that the term security climate includes more psychological aspects than security culture18. However, so as not to leave any further doubts, “must be added that both concepts in terms of 13 a. etzioni, Spirit Of Community: The Reinvention American Society, touchstone, new

York 1994.14 a. etzioni, Aktywne społeczeństwo, Zakład Wydawniczy Nomos, Kraków 2012, p. 22.15 l. Korzeniowski, Securitologia. Nauka o bezpieczeństwie człowieka i organizacji społecznych,

EAS, Kraków 2008, p. 39.16 n. Pidgeon, Safety culture and risk management in organizations, “the Journal of cross

cultural Psychology” Cardiff University 1991, No 22, p. 129–140; J. S. Carroll, Safety culture as an ongoing process: Culture surveys as opportunities for enquiry and change, “Work & Stress” 1998, No 12, p. 272–284; M. D. Cooper, Towards a model of safety culture, “Safe-ty Science” 2000, No 36, p. 111–136.

17 D. Zohar, Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications, “Journal of Applied Psychology”, 1980. No 65, p. 96–102.

18 H. Zhang, D. a. Wiegmann, t. l. von thaden, Safety Culture: a concept in chaos?, urba-na champaign: university of illinois, http://www.humanfactors.uiuc.edu/reports&-PapersPDFs/humfac02/zhawiegvonshamithf02.pdf, accessed 2008-12–25.

Juliusz Piwowarski

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subject and research methods of securitology, as the security science” – concludes finally Korzeniowski19.

***

You could say that modern social sciences put culture on a pedestal. as ulf Hannerz20 states “culture is everywhere”, while Mahmood Mamdani21 adds that “culture is a matter of life and death”. in addition, with the cul-ture “is to be reckoned with”, as recalls Samuel Huntington22. as previ-ously noted, culture as a whole of the material and spiritual achievements of humankind gathered, adhered and enriched in the course of its history. it affects decisively, but often it happens unnoticed, the research by a man this kind of social facts and artifacts, that belong to a specific, divided into fixed pillars, through which societies (Nations) can address certain types of threats, political and military, to a threat to national identity. these pillars and their potentials, being a preserved heritage of society, settle national security culture.

in opinion of many security scientists, this very important social phe-nomenon, studied in all scales of human threats-ranging, from personal scale through national, international to a global scale – is always somehow rooted in the phenomenon of cultural trichotomy23.

References:

1. Bonnell v. e., Hunt l., Beyond the Cultural Turn, university of califor-nia Press, Berkeley 1999.

2. carroll J. S., Safety culture as an ongoing process: Culture surveys as oppor-tunities for enquiry and change, “Work & Stress” 1998, No 12.

3. cieślarczyk M., Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podlaskiej, Siedlce 2010.

19 l. Korzeniowski, Securitologia…, op. cit., s. 39.20 u. Hanerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning, colum-

bia University Press, New York 1992; Idem, Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture, Columbia University Press, New York 1992.

21 M. Mamdani, Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk: Comparative Essays on the Politics and Rights and Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2000.

22 S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, Simon and Schuster, New York, 2007.23 See i.e. l. W. Zacher, Jednostkowe i społeczne konteksty i wyzwania dla bezpieczeństwa,

[in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodo-wej, Warszawa 2012.


25

4. cooper M. D., Towards a model of safety culture, “Safety Science” 2000, No 36.

5. etzioni a., Aktywne społeczeństwo, Zakład Wydawniczy nomos, Kra-ków 2012.

6. etzioni a., Spirit Of Community: The Reinvention American Society, Touchstone, New York 1994.

7. Hanerz u., Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture, columbia uni-versity Press, New York 1992.

8. Hanerz u., Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning, Columbia University Press, New York 1992.

9. Huntington S., The Clash of Civilizations, Simon and Schuster, new York, 2007.

10. Jacobs M., Spillman l., Cultural sociology at the crossroads of the disci-pline, „Poetics. Journal of empirical research on culture, the Media and the Arts” 2005, 33.

11. Jameson f., Globalization and Political Strategy, „new left review”, 4 ( July–August, 2000).

12. Jameson f., Postmodernism and Cultural Theories. Lectures in Chi-na (Houxiandaizhuyi he Wenhualilun), Shanxi teacher’s university, Xi’an 1987.

13. Jameson f., Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, Duke University Press, Durham 1991.

14. Jameson f., The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern 1983–1998, Verso Books Publ., London – New York 1998.

15. Jarmoszko S., Nowe wzory kultury bezpieczeństwa a procesy deterioracji więzi społecznej, [in:] Jedność i różnorodność. Kultura vs. kultury, e. re-kłajtis, R. Wiśniewski, J. Zdanowski (red.), Aspra-JR, Warszawa 2010.

16. Korzeniowski l., Securitologia. Nauka o bezpieczeństwie człowieka i or-ganizacji społecznych, EAS, Kraków 2008.

17. Kroeber a. l., Configurations of Culture Growth, university of califor-nia Press, Berkeley 1944.

18. Kroeber a. l., The Nature of Culture, university of chicago Press, Chicago 1952.

19. Mała Encyklopedia PWN, Warszawa 1996.20. Malinowski B., Naukowa teoria kultury, [in:] Szkice z teorii kultury,

Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1958.

Juliusz Piwowarski

26

21. Mamdani M., Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk: Comparative Essays on the Politics and Rights and Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2000.

22. ossowska M., Koncepcja pokolenia, „Studia Socjologiczne” 1963, 2.23. Pidgeon n., Safety culture and risk management in organizations,

“The Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology” Cardiff University 1991, No 22.

24. Piwowarski J. , Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, [w:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawo-wo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wieku, P. Bogdalski, J. cymerski, K. Ja-łoszyński (red.), Szczytno 2014.

25. rotschild e., What Is Security?, ”Daedalus”, Vol. 124, No. 3, Sum-mer 1995, p. 53–98.

26. Steinmetz g., State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, New York 1999.

27. tylor e. B., Primitive Culture, Vol. 1, Vol. 2, John Murray, Lon-don 1871.

28. Wallis M., Koncepcje biologiczne w humanistyce, [in:] „fragmenty filo-zoficzne”, seria II, Tadeusz Kotarbiński (red.), Warszawa 1959.

29. Weber M., Gospodarka i społeczeństwo. Zarys socjologii rozumiejącej, (Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Tübingen 1922), Państwowe Wydaw-nictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 2002.

30. Zacher l. W., Jednostkowe i społeczne konteksty i wyzwania dla bez-pieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 2012.

31. Zduniak a., Majchrzak n., Świadomość emocjonalna jako dystraktor w procesach badawczych bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpie-czeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warsza-wa 2012.

32. Zhang H., Wiegmann D. a., von thaden t. l., Safety Culture: a concept in chaos?, urbana champaign: university of illinois, http://www.human factors.uiuc.edu/Reports&PapersPDFs/humfac02/zhawiegvonsham ithf02.pdf, accessed 2008-12–25.

33. Zohar D., Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications, “Journal of Applied Psychology”, 1980. No 65.


27

Author

Juliusz Piwowarski – currently (since 2010) serves as the Rector of the university of Public and individual Security “apeiron” in cracow. the founder of cracow research institute for Security & Defence Skills APEIRON (2012) at the University of Public and Individual Security “apeiron” in cracow. an initiator of international cooperation of Slovakia, Czech Republic, Ukraine, Italy, Germany and the USA. In 2009 earned his doctorate degree in the field of religious studies at the faculty of Phi-losophy at Jagiellonian university in cracow (Poland) and the Ph.D. the-sis pertained to the issues of security culture contained in the tradition of the ethical code of the Samurai “Bushido”. So far Juliusz Piwowarski is the author of two monographs published abroad, eleven monographs published at Polish publishers and near-ly a hundred scientific articles published at Polish and foreign scientific magazines. His main interests are security sciences, philosophy of security, social psychology, sociology, pedagogy, praxeology and science of morality conceived as a constituent of the first pillar of security culture.

Cite this article as:

J. Piwowarski, Three Pillars of Security Culture, “Security Dimensions. in-ternational and National Studies”, 2015, no 14, p. 10–16.

DiSPoSitional grouPS


NO. 17; 2016 (30–41)

The Policemen of anTi-TerrorisT subuniTs in scienTific research

assoc. Prof. Waldemar Zubrzycki, Ph.D.Police Academy in Szczytno, POLAND

ABSTRACT

Service in a special unit of the Police is extremely tedious, both in physical and mental terms, with very high expectations for their policemen. it cannot arise only from official duties, but – above all – specific lifestyle, which should be the primary stimulus for taking them. it is confirmed by research conducted among policemen-antiterrorists, relating to their motivation in taking service in anti-terrorist subunit of the Police. Studies have also shown that such service is not fully in line with the expectations of the officers, and their priorities change over its course. a lot of factors have impact on it, negatively affecting the attitude of policemen, which were revealed in the study. the results can be used to create such conditions of service, which will reduce or eliminate loss of idealistic motives for taking service in the special unit of the Police.

ARTICLE INFO

Article historyReceived: 10.12.2015 Accepted 20.01.2016

Key wordsthe Police, anti-terrorism, fighting terrorism, anti-terrorist subunit, police special commando

In the course of police action there are interventions that require the use of outstanding resources, due to complexity of the task, or security of the Police officers. there are the situations in which anti-terrorist subunits of the Police shall be used, which are an important element in the fight against terrorism and organised crime. there used to be an atmosphere of mystery

31

the Policemen of anti-terrorist Subunits in Scientific research

over their actions, and in the common opinion there were a lot of myths about their performance and serving in them1. in the context of progressive computerization and informatization of modern society, the information about this type of formation is available for anyone interested2.

Police anti-terrorist subunits has repeatedly became the object of sci-entific interest and the subject of ongoing research; a number of articles and publications are devoted to this issue. the role and tasks of police entities responsible for counter-terrorism in Poland are also quite often mentioned in all kinds of essays: bachelor of arts, master of arts3, as well as doctoral and postdoctoral level. Their value is quite high, mostly be-ing an empirical study report, conducted also in the Police antiterrorists’ environment. all of them cannot be mentioned here but for the purposes of this study works of the following authors have been used: Marek Prze-woźnik (2009)4, Sebastian Drała (2014)5, Tomasz Torczyński (2014)6, Piotr Baczar (2014)7 and Waldemar Zubrzycki (2012)8. the credibility of the listed authors is raised by the fact that they all were officers of given formations.

1 W. Zubrzycki, Pododdziały antyterrorystyczne Policji, Jografika, Warszawa 2010, p. 5.2 W. Zubrzycki, Pododdziały antyterrorystyczne Policji w badaniach naukowych, [in:] Po-

licyjne siły specjalne w Polsce, K. Jałoszyński, W. Zubrzycki, a. Babiński (eds.), WSPol Szczytno 2015, p. 89.

3 ibidem. 4 M. Przewoźnik, Nabór i szkolenie do jednostki specjalnej Policji, M.a. essay, Szkoła Wyż-

sza im. Pawła Włodkowica, Płock 2009.5 S. Drała, Rola Biura Operacji Antyterrorystycznych KGP w zwalczaniu zagrożeń terro-

rystycznych, M.A. essay, WSPol w Szczytnie 2014; survey among 20 police officers, serving in counter-terrorist units in Łódź and Warmian-Masurian voivodeships.

6 t. torczyński, Zaplecze szkolno-bojowe pododdziałów antyterrorystycznych Policji w Polsce w latach 2013/2014, M.A. essay, WSPol w Szczytnie 2014; surveys among command-ers of all the Police anti-terrorist subunits and anti-terrorist operation Bureau in the Main Headquarters of the Police.

7 P. Baczar, Model zmian w funkcjonowaniu samodzielnych pododdziałów antyterrorystycz-nych Policji wobec współczesnych uwarunkowań bezpieczeństwa terroryzmem, Ph.D. essay, WSPol w Szczytnie 2014.

8 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny Policji w zwalczaniu terroryzmu, postdoctoral essay, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 2011; within the research of a number of expert interviews were carried out with commanders, deputies and instructors of training division, Anti-terrorist Operation Bureau in the Main Headquarters of the Police, as well as surveys in all the Police anti-terrorist subunits that included 369 po-licemen (more than half of staff ).

32

Waldemar Zubrzycki

the model personal type of officer of anti-terrorist unit is a man ex-tensively shaped9, having a special psycho-physical predispositions. High fitness, ease of communication, rapid problem-solving and decision-mak-ing, rapid and smooth action, team work – these are the skills required for the Police anti-terrorist subunit. the necessary characteristics of person-ality of the officers of such formations include: resistance to stress, deter-mination, patience, regularity, responsibility, operability, and perception. Desirable are also: courage, independence, assertiveness and innovation10. others characteristics are: to subsist in unpredictable conditions and the relevance of the activities of individual and group decisions11.

A prerequisite that the candidate for service in anti-terrorist unit must comply with, is a voluntary consent. this is due to the high degree of risk of loss of life or health, posed by combat tasks, and of dangers resulting from advanced training process12. Service in anti-terrorist sub-unit is difficult, to meet the stringent requirements forces specialized prioritisation, including priorities of life, permanent development for that daily work does not result solely from official duty, but primarily from lifestyle, characterised by people active and valuable, blessed with not only physical strength13.

this is confirmed by the results of a research conducted among of-ficers of the Police special forces. in a study of Sebastian Drała, on question about motivation for taking service in the anti-terrorist unit, most of the respondents replied that the main reason to take in her service, was to getting high qualifications, used in combat operations14. the smallest number of respondents indicated that it was caused by a desire to help others. Study of Waldemar Zubrzycki showed that among the motivational factors that led respondents to take up service in anti-terrorist subunit of the Police, the most frequently given answer (321) was the self-development. Subsequently, respondents pointed the desire to self-challenge (221), prestige (169) pertained to members of 9 K. Paweł, Terroryzm i jednostki antyterrorystyczne na świecie, Fenix, Warszawa 1992,

p. 25.10 W. Zubrzycki, Pododdziały antyterrorystyczne…, p. 19.11 P. Baczar, Model zmian…, p. 186.12 K. Jałoszyński, Pododdział antyterrorystyczny- uzbrojenie i wyposażenie, Wydawnictwo

Ban Lex, Warszawa 2001, p. 20.13 W. Zubrzycki, Pododdziały antyterrorystyczne…, p. 151.14 S. Drała, Rola Biura Operacji…, p. 71.

33


elite structures and privileges (129), resulting from particularly dan-gerous conditions of service. the least provided answers were earnings (31). In the open part, respondents mentioned also interest (7), passion (3), nature of service (4), a passion for sport (2) and work as a team (2). In individual cases, they pointed out the possibility of training in different fields, the possibility to perform the activities, for which they would normally have to pay (diving, parachuting, altitude training), ac-tivities reserved for special units and specific training and equipment, unavailable for other police officers, work in a team of enthusiasts, self-development, the ability to use your experience and competence, satisfaction of work, as well as the desire to assist internal need to fight organised crime and willingness to serve the country. one of the in-terviewees stated that this type of service has always been his goal, one just admitted that it is coincidence15.

on the basis of declared motivations for taking the service in anti-ter-rorist subunit of the Police, we can specify the model personality profile of a policeman-anti-terrorist. He is an ambitious man, active, with a large sense of self-worth. a specific style of life is reflected in the continuous self-development, including sacrifices and hard work. the said character-istics may be helpful in the development of an adequate system of recruit-ment for this kind of service, on the assumption that the superior people should join in16. unfortunately, as practice shows, in many cases, the reality is much different from the stated ideals17.

Because of specific nature of service, process of recruiting candidates for anti-terrorist subunits of the Police consists of several stages. the goal of each of them is seeking and selecting the best people from the needs of the unit point of view18, taking into account their tasks under specific conditions. candidates are tested comprehensively in one day. test is to assess characteristics of candidate’s personality, as well as the degree of his physical preparation and predisposition to physical training (for example, valid motor coordination), and thus exercises technical and tactical19.

15 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny…, p. 121.16 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny…, p. 133.17 W. Zubrzycki, Sylwetka policjanta antyterrorysty. Oczekiwania, dobór i rzeczywistość,

[in:] Policyjne siły specjalne w Polsce…, p. 106.18 M. Przewoźnik, Nabór i szkolenie…, p. 27.19 K. Paweł, Terroryzm…, p. 25.

34

Waldemar Zubrzycki

at the moment, recruitment to anti-terrorist subunit of the Police is done on the basis of the regulation of the Ministry of interior and ad-ministration of 20 March 2007 on the procedure and conditions for test-ing physical and mental capacity of the Police officers to serve in certain positions or in certain units of the Police20. the regulation sets out pro-cedure and conditions for testing physical and mental capacity to serve in subunits, including these performing combat tasks. in accordance with provisions of the regulation, the process of recruitment of candidates to antiterrorist service applies only to the Police officers21 and takes place in two stages. the first includes psychological examination, the second is a physical agility test, whose task is to verify physical suitability of the candidate to service in anti-terrorist subunit of the Police.

Anti-terrorist subunit is in its assumption an unique formation, with special abilities, representing above-average psychological and psychical characteristics. However, positive results does not necessarily mean the ability to fulfill the tasks assigned to the anti-terrorist subunits. this only begins a long, process ongoing through years, including a varied training as well as participation in real-world operations22.

Proper preparation to perform extraordinary tasks requires the use of appropriate methods of training. it is based on the Program of training and improvement of off icers and anti-terrorist subunits of the Police23 and is aimed at professional preparation of officers to carry out the tasks of anti-terrorist subunits24. implementation of the program is to led to the gain by officers perfect skills in the use of weapons and tactics against terrorism, as well as gaining basic skills in numerous specialties25. in ac-cordance with its provisions, the primary method of tactical and combat training should be the necessary practical activities preceded by methods

20 Dz. U. 07.62.423, 10 April 2007.21 on the basis of separate regulation, it is also possible to recruit the officers of civil and

military special services.22 ibidem.23 Decyzja nr 86 Komendanta Głównego Policji z dnia 7 lipca 1995 roku, w sprawie

wprowadzenia do użytku służbowego programu szkolenia i doskonalenia zawodowego etatowych pododdziałów antyterrorystycznych Policji.

24 Program szkolenia funkcjonariuszy Wydziału Antyterrorystycznego Komendy Stołecznej Policji na 1997 rok, Wydział AT, Warszawa 1997, typescript, p. 1.

25 Program szkolenia i doskonalenia zawodowego etatowych pododdziałów antyterrorystycz-nych Policji, Biuro Prewencji Komendy Głównej Policji, Warszawa 1995, p. 1.

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of activing, such as demonstration and simulation. the training of the Police officers should be at most useful and practical26. the idea and the main task of the training program of anti-terrorist subunits is to gain knowledge of explosive device operations, hijacking of aircrafts and oth-er means of transport, objects unlocking, taking hostages and arresting dangerous criminals27.

Preparation of officers of anti-terrorist units to carry out assigned tasks should be based on a comprehensive training. a study of Walde-mar Zubrzycki, relating to the quality of this training, showed differing opinions about it. According to 207 respondents, representing national anti-terrorist subunits, the system is adequate, a different view had 162. As the most common cause of poor quality of training respondents re-ported a lack of adequate resources for this purpose, the lack of ammu-nition, as well as the lack of facilities and technical resources and special equipment, primarily for the anti-terrorist tactics. In the light of the re-search results a significant obstacle are the differences in equipment be-tween the various sub-units28. evaluation of the usefulness of specialized training for counter-terrorist unit was also made by Sebastian Drała. Positive opinion gave 60% of respondents, regarding the level of their preparation for combat operations as professional. negatively comment-ed about 40% of those polled29.

Despite the large number of critical voices, respondents did not indi-cated the need for extension of further training, recognizing the current training program as sufficient30. as it is concerned, the theoretical prin-ciples of training are appropriate but the problem is the lack of finan-cial resources for their implementation31. training of the Police officers of anti-terrorist unit, due to its scope, requires an adequate infrastructure, sometimes highly complex and specialized. the existence of such base would have a significant impact on the efficiency and quality of the train-ing, due to its practical dimension. training in many areas is impossible without it. Well prepared training base should consist of specialized ob-

26 Ibidem, p. 2.27 Ibidem, p. 4.28 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny…, p. 125.29 S. Drała, Rola Biura Operacji…, p. 75.30 ibidem.31 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny…, p. 134.

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Waldemar Zubrzycki

jects functioning as a whole, thought as a comprehensive infrastructure for the training process32. As the study indicates, the quality of objects, which are at disposal of the national anti-terrorist subunits, is another weakness, having a direct impact on their preparation for action33.

Study of tomasz torczyński shows that there is a great diversity in the possession and use of training facilities in the process of training of anti-terrorist subunits of the Police, often they must use objects that are outside of places of their permanent dislocation34. the possibility to conduct most training sessions right on the spot, without having to leave the quarters, has – in terms of a large city – great importance. It determines not only the training on a regular basis and, consequently, the proper training of the Police officers, but also the mobility fast response to sudden events35.

a training infrastructure for the needs of anti-terrorist subunit of the Police should be – inevitably – a very broad. every day they need not only all kinds of sports facilities (e.g. halls for different martial arts, treadmill, gym, swimming pools), but especially those which enable the improve-ment of combat qualifications. The real image of combat-training facilities of anti-terrorist subunits of the Police in Poland in the years 2013/2014 was examined by tomasz torczyński. on the basis of the research results carried out it can be concluded, inter alia, that:- more than half of the units do not have in place of permanent disloca-

tion such facilities, where officers can practice assault on buildings and premises (“black tactics”),

- half of the units have the ability to exercise elements of the “green” tactics at their stationing,

- only one unit (Boa) has on its territory a railway and airliner, for exer-cises in storming these objects,

- most of the anti-terrorist subunits (60%) have in their area a shooting range, but only 40% of them are allowed to be used,

- even those units in which shooting ranges are allowed to be used, have to use external shooting ranges. in most cases, they are permitted to shoot

32 K. Jałoszyński, S. Kulczyński, Infrastruktura szkoleniowa jednostek przeznaczonych do walki z terroryzmem, [in:] Zagadnienia f izycznej walki z zagrożeniami terrorystycznymi, K. Jałoszyński (ed.), Wydawnictwo TRIO, Warszawa 2010, p. 164.

33 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny…, p. 196.34 t. torczyński, Zaplecze szkolno-bojowe…, p. 84.35 W. Zubrzycki, Pododdziały antyterrorystyczne…, p. 55.

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only the 9 mm Parabellum cartridge. This does not allow to carry on shooting with support weapons (among others AKMS, 416, HK G36) and sharpshooter rifle. of crucial importance is the type of ammunition used and the distance of shooting,

- 60% of subunits does not have facilities for training altitude techniques (one of the ways of getting into the assaulted building or rescue tech-niques, used in rescue actions),

- 20% of subunits does not have gym in their place of stationing, most of them have a mat for hand-to-hand combat exercise and techniques of intervention,

- only one unit has the possibility to use the swimming pool at the place of stationing,

- half of units have sports fields in their area,- 70% of units does not have an obstacle course36.

Social expectations of anti-terrorist subunits’ officers in a crisis situation are enormous. expectations of the Police officers-antiterrorists are not so great. To create the conditions to allow adequate time for preparation to conduct any combat operations in the fight against terrorism, is probably not the excessive price for the declared willingness to make sacrifices37.

the research carried out by Waldemar Zubrzycki shows that the lack of financial resources is the most frequently mentioned factor significantly aggravating service in anti-terrorist subunit. Out of 369, indicated it 339 Police officers. also often pointed out weaknesses were the existing reg-ulations (254), a similar number of votes obtained answers about absence of qualified men (81) and the reluctance of superiors (85). Among the other factors, they mentioned no conditions and facilities for exercise and the lack of special equipment for implementation of tasks. Such factors, according to interviewees, include: the lack of a nationwide coordination: physical in logistics, in law, the lack of international contacts, the lack of cooperation between the anti-terrorist operation Bureau, the independ-ent subunits of the Police and anti-terrorist sections of the Police voivode-ship’s HQ’s, and even a lack of knowledge of the superiors about the po-tential of anti-terrorism units. the financial limits results probably in no following the latest technology, which has a direct impact on the quality

36 t. torczyński, Zaplecze szkolno-bojowe…, p. 58–83.37 W. Zubrzycki, Możliwości szkoleniowe pododdziałów antyterrorystycznych Policji, [in:]

Policyjne siły specjalne…, p. 374.

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Waldemar Zubrzycki

of equipment, and a small number of specialist training. For occasional or improper use of at subunits contributes, in interviewee’s opinion, too many “mock-specialised” organizational cells of the Police38.

Being added to ranks of special unit could be a reason to be proud of and give a sense of the big awards. conducted scientific studies, however, have made it possible to confront the expectations of candidates for ser-vice anti-terrorist subunit of the Police, with reality.

According to 133 respondents, this service is consistent with what they expected, 219 officers only partially meets expectations, 17 claims that this service does not meet their expectations at all. as the reasons for this state they indicate low salaries, inadequate for the risks taken and the lack of prospects for promotion, poor training, inadequate tasks-giving and un-derestimation by the superiors39.

no doubt, the lack of compliance of expectations with the reality, determining course of service in special units of the Police, has a di-rect impact on the evolution of preferences, which research participants pointed out as a leading, at the time of decision about joining the ranks of subdivision. respondents were able to establish a hierarchy of values, which were at the time of research their overall objective of service40. in opinion of the majority, the most important aim is an increase in sal-aries (684/7,52). The second priority is the largest possible number of specialised training (687/7,49). The following objectives are promotions in rank (1115/4,61) and to a managing position (1230/4,18). The least desirable goal is to start service in a larger subunit (1430/3,6). Among others aims, not listed in the survey, being of significant value, they pointed out prestige connected with service in an elite unit, disposable equipment, legislation protecting the policemen, equitable salary, atmos-phere at work, stabilization, clear legislation, opportunity to serve in an international force, experience, which you can gain in the course of this type of service and morality41.

as you can see, a significant number of interviewees see promotion in rank and salary increase a parent target of service in an anti-terrorist subunit. as the first does not entail any appreciable increase in wages,

38 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny…, p. 127.39 Ibidem, p. 122.40 W. Zubrzycki, Sylwetka policjanta antyterrorysty..., p. 115.41 W. Zubrzycki, Oddział antyterrorystyczny…, p. 123.

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the second provides a uniquely motivating factors development of and an increased interest in financial stimuli42.

assessing the clear promotion system, that should function in par-ticular cells and anti-terrorist subunits, in 126 cases (Zubrzycki) repeat-edly stated that such clear system does not exist. as the primary cause of unreadable rules of promotion are mentioned low grades in subunits structure and a small cadre fluctuation, that few staff changes at senior positions are possible. low groups, small wages and the lack of perspec-tives result in the of lack of satisfaction from their profession. among other reasons were pointed out lack of clear criteria for promotion, reluc-tance of superiors to promote people from the outside and functioning of unofficial relations, deciding on the choice of potential candidates. the Police officers pointed out on top-down decisions regarding staffing, in place of the required qualifications, and on promotion of the people, who do not identify with the unit and are not reliable in service43.

Service in a special unit of the Police is extremely tedious, both physi-cally and psychically. anyone who joins in must be aware that will perform particularly dangerous tasks and participate in training with risk of injury. While taking such service, one must agree for taking the risks. Being an elite comes from not only the “special unit” name, but above all with un-ordinary tasks. activities in which anti-terrorist subunits’ officers of the Police arise from the sudden incidents (e.g. hostage taking, putting explo-sives) or are dictated by the high degree of danger, resulting from risk too high for the average Police officer (e.g. arresting armed criminals)44.

on the basis of presented results of research it can be concluded that the current system of recruitment to anti-terrorist subunits of the Police is not satisfactory for their officers. in opinion of the majority of those polled, ser-vice in a unit of this nature only partially meets their expectations. all this means that there is potential in the country, but the form in which it works is not perfect45. the primary goal here should therefore be a conformation of such a motivation system, in which initial – idealistic values – are not lost, while at the same time the extraordinary effort would be rewarded in a fair, independent from the Police general promotion system46.42 Ibidem, p. 134.43 Ibidem, p. 124.44 Program szkolenia i doskonalenia zawodowego…, p. 3.45 Ibidem, p. 132–133.46 Ibidem, p. 134.

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Waldemar Zubrzycki

References:

1. Baczar P., Model zmian w funkcjonowaniu samodzielnych pododdziałów antyterrorystycznych Policji wobec współczesnych uwarunkowań bezpie-czeństwa terroryzmem, Ph.D. essay, WSPol w Szczytnie 2014.

2. Decyzja nr 86 Komendanta Głównego Policji z dnia 7 lipca 1995 roku, w sprawie wprowadzenia do użytku służbowego programu szkolenia i dosko-nalenia zawodowego etatowych pododdziałów antyterrorystycznych Policji.

3. Drała S., Rola Biura Operacji Antyterrorystycznych KGP w zwalczaniu zagrożeń terrorystycznych, M.A. essay, WSPol w Szczytnie 2014.

4. Jałoszyński K., Kulczyński S., Infrastruktura szkoleniowa jednostek prze-znaczonych do walki z terroryzmem, [in:] Zagadnienia f izycznej wal-ki z zagrożeniami terrorystycznymi, K. Jałoszyński (ed.), Wydawnic-two TRIO, Warszawa 2010.

5. Jałoszyński K., Pododdział antyterrorystyczny - uzbrojenie i wyposażenie, Wydawnictwo Ban Lex, Warszawa 2001.

6. Paweł K., Terroryzm i jednostki antyterrorystyczne na świecie, fenix, War-szawa 1992.

7. Program szkolenia funkcjonariuszy Wydziału Antyterrorystycznego Komen-dy Stołecznej Policji na 1997 rok, Wydział AT, Warszawa 1997, typescript.

8. Program szkolenia i doskonalenia zawodowego etatowych pododdziałów antyterrorystycznych Policji, Biuro Prewencji Komendy głównej Policji, Warszawa 1995.

9. Przewoźnik M., Nabór i szkolenie do jednostki specjalnej Policji, M.a. es-say, Szkoła Wyższa im. Pawła Włodkowica, Płock 2009.

10. Rozporządzenie MSWiA z dnia 20 marca 2007 r. w sprawie trybu i wa-runków ustalania zdolności fizycznej i psychicznej policjantów do służby na określonych stanowiskach lub w określonych komórkach organizacyj-nych jednostek Policji, Dz. U. 07.62.423 z dnia 10 kwietnia 2007 r.

11. torczyński t., Zaplecze szkolno-bojowe pododdziałów antyterrorystycz-nych Policji w Polsce w latach 2013/2014, M.a. essay, WSPol w Szczyt-nie 2014.

12. Zubrzycki W., Możliwości szkoleniowe pododdziałów antyterrorystycz-nych Policji, [in:] Policyjne siły specjalne w Polsce, K. Jałoszyński, W. Zu-brzycki, A. Babiński (eds.), WSPol Szczytno 2015.

13. Zubrzycki W., Oddział antyterrorystyczny Policji w zwalczaniu terro-ryzmu, postdoctoral essay, akademia obrony narodowej, Warsza-wa 2011.

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14. Zubrzycki W., Pododdziały antyterrorystyczne Policji w badaniach na-ukowych, [in:] Policyjne siły specjalne w Polsce, K. Jałoszyński, W. Zu-brzycki, A. Babiński (eds.), WSPol Szczytno 2015.

15. Zubrzycki W., Pododdziały antyterrorystyczne Policji, Jografika, War-szawa 2010.

16. Zubrzycki W., Sylwetka policjanta antyterrorysty. Oczekiwania, do-bór i rzeczywistość, [in:] Policyjne siły specjalne w Polsce, K. Jałoszyński, W. Zubrzycki, A. Babiński (eds.), WSPol Szczytno 2015.

Author

Waldemar Zubrzycki – officer of the Police (ret.), i.a. deputy head of the central Bureau of investigation, deputy head of the Bureau of Main Headquarters of the Police, head of Department of Special Training in Police Academy, Szczytno. In 2003 plenipotentiary of the Main Com-mandant of the Police for creation on anti-terrorist operation Bureau in the Main Headquarters of the Police and its first Head. In 2004–2005 a member of the atlaS group, comprising the commanders of the police central anti-terrorist units of the european union. associate professor in humanities, defence sciences, public institutions management (national Defence University, 2012). Head and deputy head of several bodies in the Ministry of interior and administration, expert and member of inter-national governmental bodies concerned on security and terrorism. cur-rently associate professor in Police academy in Szczytno and associate professor in university of computer Sciences and economics in olsztyn.


W. Zubrzycki, The Policemen of Anti-Terrorist Subunits in Scientif ic Re-search, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 30–41.


NO. 17; 2016 (42–54)

on Personal securiTy issues of soldiers from Polish miliTary conTingenT in iraq

irena Żukowska, M.a.Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, POLAND

ABSTRACT

going on a mission undoubtedly constitutes a real threat to the stability of a military family. the fact of being temporarily separated, together with all the related emotional problems, seem to cause a number of dysfunctions in the partners’ relations. the departure of the spouse for a mission is an important social phenomenon which creates a new situation in which the widely acknowledged patterns of family behavior do not guarantee the fulfillment of the family’s needs. Hence, there is a necessity to renegotiate family roles and their scope. in the families of soldiers who go on a mission it is the wife who takes over all the duties and the responsibility for the family’s general wellbeing. they have to face the dull reality: paying the bills, making renovations and bringing up children. When back home, the soldiers take over the man’s responsibilities. from one moment to the next, they have to became fathers, husbands and the heads of their families again. unfortunately, it is difficult for both spouses to cope with such a situation.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsmilitary family, mission, separation, Iraq

on one of the internet forums a soldier writes the following: Please help me. I’ve just completed an alcohol abuse treatment. I’m a regular soldier di-agnosed with PTSD. I’ve had all possible tests. I don’t know what to do. I’m afraid of literally everything: going out or how my superiors will react. I feel

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on Personal Security issues of Soldiers from Polish Military…

anxious and frightened and I have nightmares. I also started abusing alcohol. My superiors at work can no longer put up with me. I think I’m going to talk to my commander off icer tomorrow. I was in Iraq and Afghanistan. A year ago I came back to the active military service and to the world where I cannot f ind my place any more.

the issues of mental health connected with our soldiers’ participa-tion in missions outside the country, such as operations in Iraq, cannot be limited to the PtSD (posttraumatic stress disorder) symptoms. the phenomenon is much more complex and, more importantly, it should be considered in a longer perspective. Measures aimed at preventing severe trauma effects should be taken long before the mission starts and should be continued during the operation. finally, when back in the country, the soldiers should be taken special care of. there are many reasons why im-plementing these steps is not easy.

We know the number of the soldiers killed in Iraq and we can quite precisely estimate how many soldiers have been injured or have suffered physical health problems. However, no one knows exactly how many of them have suffered mental health disorders. it is impossible to arrive upon the exact numbers of such injuries because they are ‘wounds bleeding to the inside’ which are very often kept secret and which manifest themselves only with time. that is why experts, both psychiatrists and psychologists, believe that the issue is much more complex than what is visible to the naked eye. in extreme cases there are even suggestions that this is a ticking time bomb.

from the psychological point of view, potentially any soldier can suf-fer a trauma and indeed the majority of soldiers taking part in dramatic events suffer psychological traumas. it does not mean, however, that every-one who has suffered a trauma, is bound to develop PtSD, namely, a kind of anxiety disorder developing as a result of some sudden, unexpected and traumatic experiences. What plays a significant role in the prevention of further shock effects is a psychological crisis intervention, that is, how fast, if at all, following the event the soldier has been taken professional psychological care of.

one of the reasons why it is difficult to obtain any statistics on trauma sufferers in the military is that consulting a doctor about this issue is still met with reluctance among soldiers. However, we do not have to look far to easily notice multiple cases of soldiers suffering from traumas. the rea-

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irena Żukowska

sons for such traumas are many and they are typically rooted in the child-hood as we bring our sons up by instilling in them a stereotype that ‘boys don’t cry’. Yet these boys are not just average boys: they are soldiers. they have to be strong, brave and invincible because it is them that are respon-sible for the security of our country; they are the elite. How then can they say that they cannot do it?

this “dark side of the Moon” is also reflected on internet forums. it is thanks to their anonymity that they constitute a specific therapeutic environment. the soldiers’ and their families’ posts depict the phenom-enon very faithfully and adequately. In one such post a soldier’s wife describes her husband’s emotional states and behaviors after the mission: After some time sleepless nights have started. He would go to bed and then he would toss and turn for an hour. He fell asleep for a moment but then he sprang out of bed in an instant. He would spend the rest of the night playing some mind-numbing games on his PC. When it dawned, he would go to bed again and sleep for two or three hours. The real horror started when he got back from work. He would walk around the house and carp about everything. When the wife asked her husband to see a psychologist, he went only to his general practitioner who gave him some sleeping pills. the soldier started to drink and when he was intoxicated he would act jealous and start a fight. He did not want to talk about anything for a long time but he finally opened and told everything to his wife and started a psychiatric treat-ment. obviously, he kept it secret from the army because he was afraid of being considered a “weirdo” or “freak” and of being dismissed. regular soldiers very often conceal their PDSt as it is perceived as a simple act of cowardice.

In September 2015, the book entitled Karabala. Raport z obrony City Hall was published. it was written by lieutenant-colonel grzegorz Kali-ciak, who at the beginning of April 2004 as a reconnaissance company commander led the defense of the city hall in Karbala during the Second Gulf War. In October 2015 in an interview for the monthly periodical “Polska Zbrojna” he said the following: I admit that it sometimes happened that a soldier refused to carry out an order and some of my people decided to come back home after only the f irst days of combat. I do not condemn them, though. Anyone who has ever been under gunfire for a longer time, has been a target and has looked in the death’s face understands that in such a situation one can break mentally. One of the chapters is devoted to what PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder, is and what its effects are. It can be said that I absolve the ones

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who broke down1. after coming back home, many of his people led an inner struggle with themselves: a struggle much worse than the ones in the streets of Karbala. the author admits that in military families vio-lence was not uncommon. Some soldiers sought consolation in alcohol. Many marriages broke up. it took a lot of time and effort for the families to silence the shots in the soldiers’ heads. lieutenant-colonel grzegorz Kaliciak is still in touch with one of his subordinates who left the service a long time ago. the soldier has gone through all the above stages. now he has come to terms with himself and has managed to settle down. nevertheless, he has recently admitted that when he hears news on iSiS or the refugees from arab countries it is all coming back to him and he is scared…2

it is possible to avoid such tragedies by preparing the soldiers and their families for the forthcoming mission and for all that can happen during it. going on a mission is a challenge not only for the soldier but also for his family.

as a society little do we know about the different aspects of the lives of soldiers taking part in peacekeeping missions: our conceptions concerning this issue are most often created by the media and frequently have very little in common with the reality. it is so because of the fact that the con-ditions of soldiers’ existence in the two different social worlds, the family and the army, are themselves complex and multifaceted.

the peculiar relationship between the family and the army stems mainly from the mutual conditioning of their functional efficiency. the processes and phenomena taking place in one sphere have a bearing on the other. according to research, the soldier’s military efficiency is indeed conditioned by his family situation which in turn depends on the finan-cial and non-financial conditions of the military profession. Both these institutions, namely the family and the army, impose strict requirements on their members. they expect them to fulfill all the commitments and require their time, energy and loyalty. It is because of these features that, following coser, they may be called greedy institutions3. What connects the family and the army is the fact that both these institutions would like

1 http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/home/articleshow/16870?t=Wojna-pozostala- w-nas-na-zawsze, accessed 2.11.2015.

2 ibidem.3 a. l. coser, Greedy Institutions; Patterns of Undivided Commitment, new York and

London 1974, p. 4.

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irena Żukowska

to draw the attention and use the energy of their members to the highest possible degree as well as to involve them in their activities complete-ly. that is why separation constitutes one of the main determinants of a military family’s life. it can be perceived in three dimensions: physical (no spatial contiguity between family members), sociological (permanent, temporary or cyclic limitation of direct contacts, which influences the per-formance of family social roles) and psychological (the entirety of inner experiences determined by the feeling of being temporarily separated). Having taken a decision on the soldier’s departure for a mission, a mil-itary family constitute a specific kind of family. from a formal point of view, they still constitute a two-parent family, yet because of the fact that one family member is absent for a longer time, they possess a number of features characteristic to a single-parent family, such as an atypical config-uration of family and marriage relations, different emotional status (fam-ily atmosphere), and a disrupted process of communicating and fulfilling particular tasks. reading thematic internet forums, one can realize how big a challenge the soldiers’ departure is for their wives. the soldiers, being aware of this fact, are also beset by the worry and concern for their families during the mission. for the forum users, the internet is a medium which allows them to talk about their problems, to familiarize themselves with the opinions of other women who are in similar situations, to get to know some alternative ways of dealing with a particular situation, to strengthen hope, to feel part of the wider society, but most of all to get some social support which they rarely receive in their environment. one of the forum users writes the following: I live in a military housing estate but here a family life is a kind of taboo. Although I hear my neighbors f ighting, when I talk to this particular women, she pretends to be “a heroine” [a soldier’s woman]4.

What stems from the analysis of internet forums is the fact that al-though it is difficult for women to accept their husband’s decision to go on a mission, they respect it. I truly didn’t want my husband to go to Iraq. But what can I do. Each of us allows the other to follow their professional careers. Well, I just couldn’t lay in the door and stop him5 – writes Dagmara. forum 4 Życie z żołnierzem zawodowym [living with a regular soldier], gazeta.pl discussion

forum,http://forum.gazeta.pl/forum/w,1182,130203233,,Zycie_z_zolnierzem_zawodowym_.html?v=2&wv.x=2, accessed 10.10.2015.

5 Żony żołnierzy czekają [Soldiers’ wives are waiting], nto.pl forum, http://www.nto.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/ article?AID=/ 20101114 /REPORTAZ/972209379, accessed 10.10.2015.

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users emphasize that the soldier’s profession is difficult and onerous, and the army life is governed by substantially different relations than the ones operating in civil institutions. they claim that what is least desirable is going on a mission because it makes it impossible for the military family to carry out its fundamental functions. Ślązaczka_2 writes the following: The soldier’s lot is tough and military families are in a more diff icult position than the civil ones in which one of the spouses is away. To understand this, one has to be in young wife’s shoes and feel what it is like to bring you children up away from your close family in a completely new environment and without any perspectives for pursuing a professional career. And on top of that, your husband leaves for Iraq…6 there are a number of problems stemming from the spouses’ temporal separation that soldiers’ wives signal, yet what deserves particular attention is the media coverage from the battlefield. internet users emphasize that the media very often focus on the negative aspects of the military service, which only increases the family’s stress stemming from both temporary separation and the inability to verify the situation the close person is currently in. Mamarta284, a soldier’s wife, writes the following: I gave up watching TV not to get anxious but I didn’t manage to avoid it anyway. It was enough that my husband didn’t call the day he was supposed to and there were already those different thoughts: what happened? the lack of contact with the close one triggers anxiety: (…) I’m a soldier’s wife. My husband is in Iraq right now. I’ve never realized how hard it is: each time he doesn’t call, you get racing thoughts7. to summarize, it is plausible to claim that the fact of being temporarily separated is not only the most fundamental factor influencing the nature of the family of a soldier who goes on a mission but it also determines all its other features.

as a result of the soldier’s departure for a mission, the military family’s emotional atmosphere is disturbed; their common experiences as well as the process of satisfying their needs and desires is also limited. Both the soldier and his family are deprived of a number of emotional needs, such as closeness, love or intimacy. the soldier also feels loneliness, the need of closeness and intimacy as well as worry for the family8. the analysis of 6 Jak rozwodzą się żołnierze? [How soldiers get divorced], M.interia.pl forum, http://m.

interia.pl/ komentarze,nId,607819, accessed 30.10.2015.7 Co czują żony… [What the wives feel...], http://forum.o2.pl/temat.php?id_

p=5557927&start=90, accessed 10.10.2014.8 t. rostkowska, Małżeństwo, rodzina, praca a jakość życia [Marriage, family, job and the

quality of life], Kraków 2008.

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internet forums indicates that female forum users are greatly affected by being separated from their husbands. they try to deal with this difficult situation in various ways. Some women throw themselves into work and household duties while others try to find a new hobby or take up a sport. Women very often conceal the fact that they are going through a difficult time in order not to add to their husbands’ problems. Sylwia writes the following: It is diff icult and I cry night and day. I keep trying not to show him how diff icult it is for me because I don’t want to add to his problems. I try to be strong but only when I talk to him9. Do the women really manage to hide their emotions, though? is it not yet another stress-generating factor for the soldier on a mission?

the fact of being temporarily separated, together with all the relat-ed emotional problems, seem to cause a number of dysfunctions in the partners’ relations. Some of the most common dysfunctions discussed on internet forums relate to love affairs, extramarital relationships (leading a double life) and marital infidelity. obecna writes the following: Each of us deals with being alone in her own way. It is a matter of mutual trust. It is not a rule that husbands leave and wives cheat on them or the other way round. Marriage is f irst and foremost about the vows you’ve made and each spouse realizes them one way or another10.

Zbigniew Łątkowski, Ph.D., a clinical psychologist and physiother-apist in 22nd Military Spa and Rehabilitation Hospital in Ciechocinek, who conducts psychotherapeutic sessions for veterans of missions out-side the country and their families, describes the atmosphere of the sol-dier’s coming back home to a normal life and the family in a vivid and apt way: During a half-year separation period emotional bonds very often break. The woman has to cool down emotionally to cope with the separation period. The soldier, on the other hand, thinks completely different. And these two people meet after half a year. It is like throwing a block of ice into f ire. And here comes the thought: you have someone else. He thinks that she is cheat-ing on him. What is necessary in such moments is the ability to gradually fall in love again. But for that to happen the wife has to be aware of what her husband is going though11.

9 Trudny powrót do domu [a difficult return home], Marcin ogdowski blog, accessed 20.10.2015.

10 ibidem.11 http://polska-zbrojna.pl/home/articleinmagazineshow/21?t=CIEMNA-STRONA-

DUSZY, accessed 30.10.2015.

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undoubtedly, military missions constitute a real threat to the stability of a military family. research conducted by Military Bureau for Social research [Wojskowe Biuro Badań Społecznych] confirms the negative influence of military missions on family relations. it shows that the most common negative results of soldiers’ taking part in missions are divorces and marital separations. a lasting separation can also lead to a decrease in intimacy between the partners, which can result in the weakening of the emotional bond, drop in commitment, lack of concern for the part-ner’s needs, unsatisfactory interest in the partner, lack of sharing intimate thoughts and feelings or finally gradual decline of elements which addi-tionally hold the marriage together, such as common interests or spending time together. As a consequence of the above, one can notice a distorted process of communication between the partners, growing misunderstand-ings or direct conflicts, lack of mutual trust, indifference and a rise in psy-chological distance between the partners.

compared to “the world of civilians”, military families (including fami-lies of soldiers who go on missions) are very often in the situation of social and spatial isolation. the civilians think of them in terms of stereotypes and prejudices rather than factual knowledge or real experiences. it can stem from the incommensurability of the military and civilian realities and hence the perception of the military reality as closed and alien. What has a direct bearing on such a situation is the practice of locating army units outside cities (additionally surrounded by a fence) and physical isolation of garrisons and military housing estates, which effectively hinders com-munication between military and civilian population. Such a situation is highly unfavorable for the families of soldiers who go on missions. they require social support to effectively deal with stress-generating factors. Re-search indicates that the social support system, including friends, relatives and colleagues, can alleviate the consequences of temporal separation. It is important, however, that the process of building such support networks be carefully controlled. What is crucial for soldiers’ wives is the possibility to meet with not only family and friends but also with the neighbors who can help or with other women who are in a similar situation. they should also be informed about multiple institutions which provide assistance to soldiers’ wives in dealing with everyday problems. the women should also take part in military support programs concerning psychological educa-tion, coping with the uncertainty stemming from the husband’s job and

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getting ready for the soldier’s return home. it can also turn out invaluable to have a doctor or psychologist whom one can ask for help12. Soldiers’ wives more often set up different associations and foundations but they still prefer to look for support on internet forums or among facebook groups. Helenka22 writes the following: I don’t feel like talking about my emotions to strangers. My girlfriends from outside the army have absolutely no idea what I’m talking about. I managed to go through my husband’s mission only thanks to the Internet13. another forum user notices the following: No other woman can understand my fear about my husband when he goes on a mis-sion better than another soldier’s wife [Daruchaaa]14.

there are no taboo topics on internet forums and posts concern the most difficult cases, including death. What do women most often talk about? the driving force of the forums are these women whose husbands are getting ready for the mission. they discuss many different matters from such mundane things as what to put in his backpack to really impor-tant issues, such as how to get yourself and the children mentally ready for the temporary separation. When the contingent changes, the topics on the forums change as well and they usually concern awaiting the return of the “greens” (this is how the women call their soldiers). the discussions on the forums focus on what the women will cook for “the green” when he returns home, what kind of surprise they are to prepare or where they will go on holiday. official and toned down at first, the discussion become heated de-bates with time. However, the problem is that the one who returns home is not necessarily the same person who had left a few months before. all the things that he has gone through and seen become so deeply ingrained in his psyche that it sometimes takes months or even years for him to be able to enjoy surprises, delicious meals and family holidays again. it is not easy for the family to understand and accept this situation.

one of the fundamental problems stemming from being temporarily separated is the loneliness which leads to a peculiar crave for emotions

12 K. obuchowska, Bezpieczeństwo państwa a bezpieczeństwo rodziny, czyli o zależnościach między zawodem oficera a rodziną [Security of the country and security of the fam-ily. on the relations between the job of an officer and the family], [in:] Oficerowie grup dyspozycyjnych. Socjologiczna analiza procesu bezpieczeństwa [Dispositional groups officers. a sociological analysis of the safety process], t. Kołodziejczyk et al. (eds.), Wrocław 2008.

13 Trudny powrót… [a difficult return...], http://zafganistanu.pl/?p=4525, accessed 10.10.2015.

14 ibidem.

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and a distorted image of the partner. in some cases temporary separa-tion can also trigger the process of idealizing the partner and give rise to an overwhelming feeling of loneliness which accompanies both partners. the feeling of loneliness is manifested in two different ways, namely, as emotional loneliness and social loneliness. the former is an emotional experience which can be captured by the following statement: “i feel lone-ly”. in the case of the latter, one feels alienated in relation to who and what surrounds him or her. it is an individual subjective experience oc-curring as a consequence of the fact that one engages in interpersonal interactions which he or she finds insufficient and inadequate. Reading through internet forums, one can notice that the wives of soldiers who go on missions, very often signal that they feel lonely. Kitka 12345 writes the following: I’m in a relationship with a soldier and I feel very lonely; my husband is on a mission and I live together with my two-year-old daughter far away for my family, my sister, my friends. I’ve been actually living alone for 5 years in a new city and I feel horrible because I don’t know anyone I could talk to15. fiołek, on the other hand, complains: He’s not going to be here for such a long time... I have no support in my family... Each time my husband’s gone I go through some horrible time; all things at home remind me of him and then comes the feeling, the one I truly hate: it’s as if someone hit me right in my chest – I think it’s loneliness16. the most difficult time for the women is the time of christmas or easter. randia laments: No one knows better what kind of help the women left back home need than other soldiers’ wives. How diff icult it is to spend the f irst Christmas alone; how paralyzing fear can be; how diff icult an ordinary day can be when your husband, your friends and sometimes even your neighbors are not there17.

When the soldier goes on a mission, his wife has to face the dull reality: paying the bills, making renovations and bringing up children. ewa writes the following: You have to take over all the household duties. Marek is a handyman: he checked all the equipment before leaving. Of course, everything started to break down again when he was already gone: just a nat-ural perversity of inanimate objects. I couldn’t do it without a repairman...

15 Samotność w małżeństwie [loneliness in marriage], net kobiety.pl forum, http://www.netkobiety.pl/ t34471.html, accessed 20.10.2015.

16 ibidem.17 Trudny powrót…[A difficult return], http://zafganistanu.pl/?p=4525, accessed

20.10.2015.

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and she adds: Maciek tried to provide for us in every aspect of our lives be-fore he left; He left me a notebook where there are all the tiniest details: what and when to pay and the telephone numbers I can call anytime, day or night. I’ve already had my tires changed18.

the departure of the spouse for a mission is an important social phe-nomenon which creates a new situation in which the widely acknowl-edged patterns of family behavior do not guarantee the fulfillment of the family’s needs. Hence, there is a necessity to renegotiate family roles and their scope. in the families of soldiers who go on a mission it is the wife who takes over all the duties and the responsibility for the family’s general wellbeing19. Women sometimes feel overburdened with all the responsi-bilities: I decided to write because I’m having some “diff icult time”. My husband has gone to save the world again and I... I think I‘ll break down. It’s his yet an-other mission and I thought it would be better but... I was wrong. It’s true that the days go by very fast, work, home, my daughter’s homework, some extra stuff and... you have to go to bed. But there are times when I feel I can’t put up with all of this anymore. How can you live waiting for a text message, for a short call when you don’t know what to say and what’s more important the fact that I got a pay rise or that our daughter got 5 on biology or maybe that I managed to catch a plumber because a pipe broke in the bathroom... or maybe that there is a warning light flashing in the car? – writes iwona7920.

there is no doubt that taking part in military missions outside the country has a significant bearing on the functioning of the contemporary military family, “a sphere which is complex and difficult to comprehend”21. When back home, the soldiers take over the man’s responsibilities. from one moment to the next, they have to became fathers, husbands and the heads of their families again. unfortunately, it is difficult for both spouses to cope with such a situation. they cannot take up their previous roles: they need time but it is not easy to give each other time to make things normal again. the woman would like to feel that her husband is back

18 ibidem.19 M. Segal, The Military and the Family as Greedy Institutions, “armed forces & Socie-

ty”, vol. 13, No 1, p. 15.20 Mąż w Afganistanie [My husband is in afghanistan], net kobiety.pl. forum, http://

www.netkobiety.pl/t30687.html, accessed 10.10.2014.21 M. Mancewicz, Współczesna rodzina w dobie aksjologicznego kryzysu [contemporary

family in the age of axiolological crisis], [in:] W. Muszyński (ed.), Wartości w rodzinie: ciągłość i zmiana [values in the family: continuity and change], Toruń 2000, p. 109.

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home and that he is the anchor who can give the family a feeling of se-curity. Being aware of his wife’s expectations, the husband cannot find his place in a completely different world, the world where there is no war.

References:

1. Co czują żony… [What the wives feel...], http://forum.o2.pl/temat.php?id_p=5557927&start=90, accessed 10.10.2014.

2. coser a. l., Greedy Institutions; Patterns of Undivided Commitment, New York and London 1974.

3. http://polska-zbrojna.pl/home/articleinmagazineshow/21?t=CIEMNA -STRONA-DUSZY, accessed 30.10.2015.

4. http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/home/articleshow/16870?t=Wojna- pozostala-w-nas-na-zawsze, accessed 2.11.2015.

5. Jak rozwodzą się żołnierze? [How soldiers get divorced], M.interia.pl fo-rum, http://m.interia.pl/ komentarze,nId,607819, accessed 30.10.2015.

6. Mancewicz M., Współczesna rodzina w dobie aksjologicznego kryzysu [contemporary family in the age of axiolological crisis], [in:] W. Mu-szyński (ed.), Wartości w rodzinie: ciągłość i zmiana [values in the family: continuity and change], Toruń 2000.

7. Mąż w Afganistanie [My husband is in afghanistan], net kobiety.pl. forum, http://www.netkobiety.pl/t30687.html, accessed 10.10.2014.

8. obuchowska K., Bezpieczeństwo państwa a bezpieczeństwo rodziny, czyli o zależnościach między zawodem oficera a rodziną [Security of the coun-try and security of the family. on the relations between the job of an of-ficer and the family], [in:] Oficerowie grup dyspozycyjnych. Socjologiczna analiza procesu bezpieczeństwa [Dispositional groups officers. a socio-logical analysis of the security process], t. Kołodziejczyk et al. (eds.), Wrocław 2008.

9. rostkowska t., Małżeństwo, rodzina, praca a jakość życia [Marriage, fa-mily, job and the quality of life], Kraków 2008.

10. Samotność w małżeństwie [loneliness in marriage], net kobiety.pl fo-rum, http://www.netkobiety.pl/ t34471.html, accessed 20.10.2015.

11. Segal M., The Military and the Family as Greedy Institutions, “armed Forces & Society”, vol. 13, No 1, p. 15.

12. Trudny powrót do domu [a difficult return home], Marcin ogdowski blog, accessed 20.10.2015.

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13. Żony żołnierzy czekają [Soldiers’ wives are waiting], nto.pl forum, http://www.nto.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/ article?AID=/ 20101114 /REPORTAZ/ 972209379, accessed 10.10.2015.

14. Życie z żołnierzem zawodowym [living with a regular soldier], ga-zeta.pl discussion forum, http://forum.gazeta.pl/forum/w,1182, 130203233,,Zycie_z_zolnierzem_zawodowym_.html?v=2&wv.x=2, accessed 10.10.2015.

Author

Irena Żukowska – Ph.D. candidate in the Social Sciences and Secu-rity institute, Siedlce university of natural Sciences and Humanities. Her research interests concern the topic of military activity in Iraq. She is the author of several articles on the issues regarding security in various dimensions.


i. Żukowska, On Personal Security Issues of Soldiers from Polish Military Contingent in Iraq, “Security Dimensions. international and national Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 42–54.

Societal anD cultural SecuritY


NO. 17; 2016 (57–72)

The aTTiTude of Poles Towards communal Police. some observaTions on The sTaTe of civil socieTy in Poland

cezary tatarczuk, Ph.D.University of Business and Administration in Gdynia, POLAND

ABSTRACT

the concept of self-government system in Poland assumes an important role for municipalities, which is the basic territorial unit of community of residents. it is the area where, with the help of democratically elected authorities, the basic needs of local communities shall be fulfilled. one of these needs, and at the same time, the own task of municipality, is to ensure public order and security of citizens. according to legislation, the proper measure supposed to be the communal police (municipal police in municipalities), which is a local uniformed formation, providing administrative-ordinal tasks. The first units of the communal police were formed in Poland in 1991. For all these years, however, they did not become a common service in the country. the communal police function just in one-fourth of municipalities and generally focus the heaviest negative emotions and social opinion of all the uniformed services. the author of the study, indicating causes of this situation, comments their underestimated by citizens role in shaping public order and security of local societies, juxtaposing it with the state of civic consciousness.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordscivil society, municipal police

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cezary tatarczuk

Introduction

on the website of the Minister of family, labour and Social Policy a special webpage devoted to civil society can be found1. according to its authors, civil society in Poland includes two areas: civic group activity or the activity of non-governmental organizations, local communities and local, informal groups and social movements, and civic awareness.

the second area is particularly important for shaping citizenship, for identification with own country, its organization and obligations (e.g. pay-ing taxes), with its own homeland, taking responsibility for her fate, con-scious participation in all the events that have an impact on her, especially in the elections, making social activity, engage in activities of public bene-fit, prosocial actions at regional and local level.

Does the Polish society have reached such a level of consciousness? certainly not. this is particularly evident in the voter turnout, which is frighteningly low, and also in relation to their own state, its organs and legal order.

this is due, inter alia, of social passivity. the Poles are still reluctant to break off from their private affairs, only a few are engaged in social activ-ities. there are many excuses for inactive attitude: we do not want, we do not have time, or maybe we do not know how to participate actively in public life. reasons for lack of commitment comes from prioritising pri-marily own and family life which is coherent with the expressed by three-fourths of “the non-volunteers group” belief that “in the event of problems i can count only on myself and my loved ones”. this is increased by mutu-al distrust (still the highest in the european union). We lack citizenship honesty, and therefore we are less and less attentive to the common good2.

Poles have also a very low place amongst european societies in the level of trust to each other or to public institutions. Poles still strongly distrust institutions of executive, legislative and judicature, and the main cause of this situation is inefficiency of the Polish government and the common opinion about its dishonesty and corruption. in this situation it is difficult to expect that the Poles showed sympathy for public administration, in

1 Społeczeństwo obywatelskie, http://www.mpips.gov.pl/spoleczenstwo-obywatelskie/, accessed 17.12.2015.

2 M. Sakowska, Patriotyzm a Ojczyzna i ojcowizna, [in:] Patriotyzm fundamentem bezpie-czeństwa narodowego RP w XXI wieku, K. gąsiorek, W. S. Moczulski (eds.), Wyd. Sto-warzyszenie Ruch Wspólnot Obronnych, Warszawa 2011, p. 26–27.

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the attitude of Poles towards communal Police…

particular these of repressive nature, which certainly include the municipal police, uniformed formations, which deal with i.a. the fight against offenc-es that make every day.

1. the civil society

the development of civil society is the arduous and prolonged process. of key importance are various factors, including characteristics and nature of the nation or community, historical experience of the country and its statehood, geopolitical location, etc. Public security is commonly desired. is the result of various factors and circumstances. is the result of the efforts of authorities and civil society, aware of their roles and responsibilities. is a condition and is a litmus test for social activity and consequently the authorities of the state authorities.

James Quinn Wilson, a prominent american expert on criminal policy, invited to Poland by “ius et lex” foundation3, at the beginning of Sep-tember 2006, gave a lecture at the University of Warsaw, on the issues ded-icated to this problem4. Probably he disappointed both those who wanted to hear from him a clear support for the right of fuelling projects for strict-er law and the opponents of such policy. He stated that the very important is the quality of police and criminal justice work, but even more important are the social factors. to local communities, churches, civic associations, and above all the family have the greatest impact on the attitudes and behaviour of people. these institutions, as well as the middle class with its system of value and virtues, influenced, according to Wilson, the drop of a crime. In turn, the recurring economic crises and wars of the 20th cen-tury have weakened these social structures which affected the increase in the number of offences committed.

the problem of small-scale crime is a long-lasting problem and prob-ably will remain so. in fact, we can hardly expect it to disappear in a sit-3 „Ius et Lex” Foundation was founded in 2000 as the initiative of the former President

of the foundation and editor-in-chief of the “ius et lex” magazine dr. Janusz Koch-anowski, the former ombudsman, who died in the crash of the presidential plane in Smolensk, 10 April 2010. The aim of the Foundation is to assist and promote scientific and educational initiatives relating to the Polish law, action in favour of the imple-mentation of the rule of law, development and the europeanisation of the Polish legal system; http://www.iusetlex.pl/?id=14, accessed 30.06.2013.

4 Salon24. Niezależne forum publicystów, Patologie społeczne i przestępczość pospolita, 19.07.2010, http://matuzalem.salon24.pl/209506,patologie-spoleczne-i-przestepczosc- pospolita, accessed 30.06.2013.

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uation of human nature being as it is. among people there are always members keen on someone else’s property, who want to get rich quickly and easily, those who want to satisfy their needs in a way unfair to anoth-er man, although these harm does not have to be an aim in itself. these issues can be considered only in terms of their limitations, neutralization, effective law enforcement. these are the most important goals.

it is hard to imagine, though in the Polish society is probably easier, to achieve these goals exclusively by state activities. Both the public security services, especially those of a police nature, and the current law system are not capable of sustained reduction of this problem. the key in this matter are civic activities of society, the level of responsibility, prosocial awareness, relationship to the rule of law, to the fate of another human being, the degree of sensitivity, openness and empathy.

civil society is formed by the citizens – persons aware of their rights and obligations, with sense of community interests, goals, and finally be-ing able to take action together to achieve goals5. Professor andrzej Zoll added that civil society should focus on activities for the common good6.

the awareness to create personal security, to obey the law, to respond to criminal behavior, and even earlier for signs of pathology and demoralisa-tion, on the need for cooperation with national institutions, local self-gov-ernments etc., active and proneighbourhood behavior in the workplace and residence are the most important elements in shaping the local security.

Such an attitude of every one of us, or at least most of us, in conjunction with the flexible principality of law enforcement authorities, their profes-sionalism, consequence, not to be burdened with a rigid following the law rather than a sense of logic, relevance to the size of the fault, the degree of importance, and so providing the judgments, which with envy we observe in anglo-Saxon countries, an established democracy with a system of common law, that could greatly help in reducing the incidence of crime.

in the Polish reality of closed society, distrusting, contesting any au-thorities, even elected by them, not respecting of the legal order, “separat-

5 g. Piechota, Wpływ komunikacji politycznej na budowanie społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w demokracji lokalnej (na przykładzie miasta Katowice), Katowice, May 2007; doctoral desirtation written under the supervision of Professor Jacek Wódz at university of Silesia in Katowice, http://www.sbc.org.pl/Content/4448/doktorat.pdf, accessed 02.07.2013.

6 M. Wiczyński, Społeczeństwo obywatelskie w Polsce - czy ma przyszłość?, 20 Octo-ber 2006, http://www.polityka.org.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view &id=503&Itemid=48, accessed 02.07.2013.

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ing” from neighbors by high fences, not tempering in “not your case”, even though there were violence, pedophilia, abuse, cruelty, etc., as long as it will not touch him / her directly, building coalitions and creating behaviors to create the desired state and local security process is very difficult.

an expressive analysis in this regard was presented by Maciej Wiczyński, who stated that the diversity of organizations, in which Poles are active, is very big, but active is, however, no more than about 5,5% of the population7.

relatively at most we engage in work for the benefit of education and higher education, trade unions and parish communities and religious movements. about the same time we devote our free time in sports or-ganizations, allotments, breeders, fishermen and hunters, as well as chari-table organizations. next, due to the degree of commitment, our activities concentrate in the youth, tourist and salvage organisations. at the head of the second ten of organisations, in which relatively many people are acting, are artistic, ecological and women associations.

unfortunately, according to M. Wiczyński, on the attention deserves a little involvement in the work for local self-government – not only pro-vincial and district, but also communal, residential area and subdivisions. the same marginal phenomenon is active participation in political parties or political associations.

the discretization the concept of social work, deprivation of organi-zational and managerial skills needed in social activities – these are the reasons for this state. also we can indicate a lock of activity based on such factors as: the low level of civic awareness, a lack of a sense of the impact on the country and own neighborhood, lack of faith in the effectiveness of civil action additionally reinforced by a negative social opinion on the Polish political scene, the deepening crisis political elites, incompetent governance. among the macrostructural factors unfavorable for active cit-izenship, we can mention the lack of developed the “new middle class” in Poland, which in old democracies (vide: J. Q. Wilson) are a social and financial facilities for non-governmental organisations.

these theses, which are the result of my many years of practice, ob-servation and tests are difficult to accept by supporters and defenders of so-called traditional Polish values and way of thinking8. Hearing some

7 ibidem.8 Defenders of these values are usually representatives of conservative political groups;

see K. ogiolda, Jarosław Gowin. Nasze państwo jest bezduszne, 10 February 2013, http://

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of their statements I ask myself a question, do they see the same thing as me. cannot they see a difference in ordinary everyday behavior of people on the street, in a shop, on the bus, tram, in the place of residence, in a public place for example in england, Sweden, the netherlands and Poland? is not smiling to each other rather than an inert passing-by on the pavement worse than “traditional Polish values”? Whether respond-ing to greeting customers entering the shop, the waiting room at the doctor, pharmacy, etc. is as inappropriate as an interest in a person who collapsed on the street, and is not an alcoholic? or maybe taking the example of the people who have achieved success in life, is worse than imprecations, jealousy, envy and unselfish belief that come to the only as a result of criminal activities? Whether to draw the attention of the boss, that a member of staff knowingly harms order team is an action in the interest of this team, or dirty denunciatory? or how to treat the report-ing of criminal actions of a neighbor who abuses his family, or is a bully who are under his care of animals?

as long as the Polish society do not take on respect for its own State, for the established legal order, for the necessary behavior in public space and do not understand that is responsible for it, since the public efforts to actively shape social order, limiting the sources of pathology will not be satisfactory.

In the period 2000–2006, I had the opportunity to direct the creation of the coalition for security in two local communities, in the districts of Słupsk and Wejherowo, Pomerania. the attitude of local and region-al authorities and other institutions operating in the public sector was generally positive. they were keen on a variety of initiatives in this re-gard, they also participated in their organization, processes, etc. Social response, however, was different. the smaller the community, the better for the cause, the higher, the worse. Police officers, among them particu-larly district police officers, in their daily proactive activities had to break through the barrier of mistrust, silence, indifference, and often and dis-approval. any initiative to improve the security situation in a particular location targeted to potential stakeholders need to come out from the Police, the opposite way has been true is very rare. a few residents of the housing estate arriving with some concern to the Police expected above

www.nto.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20130210/REPORTAZ01/130209530, ac-cessed 02.07.2013.

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all her hand in solving the problem. they did not come with theirs’s own proposal. the idea of joint action in the dawn of the Police outpost, and not always met with enthusiasm.

My experience and observations confirm general ascertainments of James Wilson. civil society building is a long and difficult process.

ralf Dahrendorf in his research on the development of democratic so-cieties, long before the transformation of the countries of central and eastern europe, has appointed a specific time frame for creation of par-ticular democratic structures:9

- 6 months – building of democratic institutions: free elections, the estab-lishment of government, judiciary,

- 6 years –market mechanisms creation: achieving a balance of supply and demand,

- 60 years – building a civil society: citizens performing their activity in different ways.Dahrendorf ’s views are shared by french political thinker and demo-

crat, Alexis de Tocoqueville, who claims that free elections and free market is not be enough for creation and development of a democratic society. in his opinion, the most important factor in this process is the ability of self-organization and emancipation and the use of social energy for activ-ities for the common good10.

Dahrendorf ’s predictions that the emergence of a solid social founda-tions of democracy, embodied in a vibrant civil society, is a matter of decades rather than years, tends to be confirmed by the situation in our country.

in Poland this process certainly is far from the end. the need for shap-ing civil society, especially in the local communities, is in my opinion the prerequisite for effective solving of various problems of public service. For such problems, we can certainly include a common crime or the process of security shaping at all. Mature, conscious and well organised neigh-bor communities, cooperating with law enforcement authorities, with communal police, security companies, local self-government authorities, would be able to substantially affect the sources and effects of crime, other examples of social pathology, irregularities or deficiencies in the function-

9 comp. Ł. Scheffs, Współczesne społeczeństwo obywatelskie, 24 June 2009, http://www.politeja.pl/2009/06/wspolczesne-spoleczenstwo-obywatelskie/, accessed 02.07.2013.

10 K. Pisa, Alexander de Tocqueville, Oficyna Historii XIX i XX wieku, Warszawa 1996, p. 37.

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ing of the community. These issues require time and patience, but at the same time, openness to good examples, which are not lacking, especially after the entry into the European structures. These issues require time and patience, but at the same time, openness to good examples, which are not lacking, especially after the entry into the european structures.

2. Communal police

communal police (in municipalities – municipal police) are self-gov-ernmental formations, taking care of public order in local (communal) community, hence their action in this respect should generally bring them more supporters than opponents. This rises the question, however, wheth-er any action?

are communal police, which operate as a kind of “police sub-units”, focused on the fight against criminal and vandalistic behavior and those harder to criticize. unfortunately, the more “visible”, however, are those actions that focus on selected road offences, that submit to the communal financial interest over the actual state of public order. Differences in the way of communal police functioning are surely the result of their founding body concept, in this case vision in the field of public policy development, its expectations, its relations with the institutions cooperating with the local community and the degree of counting with her opinion.

the profile of activity and the efficiency of the communal police de-pends on founding bodies and municipality authorities, in particular, the executive authority (village Head, Mayor, President of the city). indeed, it is hard to imagine a situation that the commandant of particular unit acts autonomously, according to their own idea, which is not conducive to his direct principal. Such situation can be observed when the principal changes (after local elections), but then either the current commandant adjusts the communal police’s operations to the concept of a new head, or is replaced by another, with a new understanding. in practice, a third var-iant can be observed, when new Mayor liquidates the Communal Police, because it is personally opposed to its functioning and put that view in his electoral program11.

it is hard to categorically state whether these relationships and influ-ence that the municipal police do not have “good press” in Poland. the

11 The last municipal elections in November 2014 provided some of such examples. changing the commandant of the Municipal Police in Słupsk, after robert Biedroń’s

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fact is, however, that this formation, important for realization of one of the most important tasks of municipalities, i.e. ensure public order and security of the citizens, from the very beginning of its operation calls the negative emotions of local societies12.

Why is this so? is it only because all the services of a police nature, of repressive nature, are seen negatively by Poles? the Police, however, reach-es more than 70% of the public trust and it is hard-to-find an opinion, even among her staunchest opponents, that the Police is unnecessary13. Maybe so, the municipalities’ authorities do not know how to shape the profile of action of their police, to gain inhabitants’ sympathy. it is hard to say the contrary, though, and it is hard to defend this thesis. How much effort should in fact be put in such organizing the municipal police that they have gained the favor of the local community. is it even possible?

act on municipal police defines its task, indicates the powers, privileg-es, but by no means hampers its capacity for innovation, a custom action in the public interest. Do polite, helpful and smiling communal (municipal) policemen are not able to convince public opinion to themselves? is this theirs’ attitude becoming anything, when sheet of fine tickets is drawn, to punish the offender of improperly parked vehicle or uncleaned sidewalk in front of a private residence, or drinking alcohol “under a cloud”, or another offence which, in the opinion of the guilty, is trivial and pity? certainly the guards interventions in such cases do not bring sympathy to them, because these are unpleasant for the citizens, in their opinion, relate to minor of-fenses for which they should be, at most, instructed, rather than punished.

Municipal police, like the volunteer fire Service (vfS), are closest to the problems of their local communities, work within the commune, on the best known area for the residents where they live, work, learn, in

election on the President of the City, or liquidation of the Municipal Police in Czersk by new Mayor; see A. Radomski, Komendant straży miejskiej odchodzi, 14 March 2015, http://www.gp24.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20150314/SLUPSK/150319814, accessed 31.03.2015; Straż Miejska w Czersku do likwidacji. Radni poparli pomysł pani burmistrz, 23 December 2014, http://www.tvn24.pl/pomorze,42/straz-miejska- w-czersku-do-likwidacji-radni-poparli-pomysl-pani-burmistrz,500924.html, ac-cessed 31.03.2015.

12 Ustawa z dnia 8 marca 1990 r. o samorządzie gminnym, Dz.U.2013, poz.594; art.7 ust.1 pkt 14.

13 ¾ Polaków ma zaufanie do Policji; 22 January 2015, https://www.msw.gov.pl/pl/ aktualnosci/12834,Polakow-ma-zaufanie-do-Policji.html, accessed 26.03.2015.

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the immediate vicinity. the communal policemen, especially those from small communities, small towns and villages, are known since childhood often better than police officers, whose place of residence often does not correspond to the area of service (many commanders makes so intention-ally, claiming that the officer is free of environment pressure, friends, col-leagues, family, etc.).

officers of the fire brigades in general, including volunteers, are com-monly respected, achieving a record levels of social trust14, more than 90%, and service in VFS units is an honor, multigenerational tradition and an interesting life’s adventure, which the service in communal police does not provide. Why? What determines the negative relation to the municipal police?

the mass media provide a variety of arguments on this issue.gazeta.pl lists the nine essential reasons:15

1. Treatment of speed cameras as a source of money.2. Towing cars without leaving information.3. Putting the locks on the wheels.4. “Gaining money” being more important than security.5. Giving fines for little relevant offenses.6. Incompetence.7. Unclear responsibilities’ division.8. failure to fulfill the essential purpose: they are not helpful to the residents.9. Bribery.

the use of speed cameras is the most common and the strongest charge at all municipal police. critics have focused mainly on the financial as-pect of this issue, highlighting the bad intentions of the police – oriented mostly on incomes to municipal budget. Soon the problem will cease to be valid16. earlier, especially in the first decade of the municipal police activi-

14 See i.e. W Polsce największym zaufaniem cieszą się strażacy, 29 April 2014, http://www.centrumrekrutacyjne.pl/p/w-polsce-najwiekszym-zaufaniem-ciesza-sie-strazacy,420.html, accessed 26.03.2015.

15 Za co nie lubimy straży miejskiej [9 powodów,; 27 September 2013, http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114871,14654001,Za_co_nie_lubimy_strazy_miejskiej__9_powodow_.html, accessed 14.03.2015.

16 From 1 January 2016, speed cameras will be taken over by the Inspection of Road Trans-port, and income from fines will be assigned to the State budget. Sejm enacted a novel on road traffic law denying the community police the ability to control the speed with the help of all speed cameras: stationary, portable and those installed on certain

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ties (in the 1990s) such charges considered putting the locks on wheels of vehicles parking in a prohibited place.

Marcin Darda form “Dziennik Łódzki” confirms these observations:17

(…) the fact is, that we do not like the municipal policemen, because they chase old women with parsley, looting drivers by speed cameras not to in-crease the security level but just because they need to patch the budget. Besides, they oppress for parking in the wrong place, though they also do it, and theirs’ cars are not being locked. You open a beer in the park and quietly drink, not interfering anyone, you look around with fear of depraving the youth, but instead of them you can be suddenly caught by a couple in a checkered caps, that throws an immortal “your iD please”. and no matter that they may be helpful elsewhere at this time. Your beer is their gain in the statistics and cash in the budget (…)

at the same time, this author, in their defense, explains the source of this negative attitude as the aversion to “patrolmen” and the need for hu-man abreact:

(…) the municipal police should be looked at from the point of view of social psychology. Well, our greater respect for the Police came from the fact that the municipal police took from them a dog poop on the lawns and other misdemeanors, becoming these ‘kerbs’, hated in the times of civic Militia [the name of the Police in the communism era – redaction]. today to be a municipal police officer is a very important social role, to fo-cus the citizens’ disapproval. the specific for present times is that people gets mad without clear reason, and it is then good to tell some bad sen-tences to a municipal police officer, even in thought, or by a beer, barbe-cuing with friends, or on internet forums. Whom you are going to tell off, when the municipal police is liquidated? They are just good at that, better even than ticket inspectors. “We don’t like the municipal police officers” is a fundamentally false opinion. the truth is that we love to dislike them.

Similar comments are made by aldona Minorczyk-cichy, in the article in “Dziennik Zachodni”, in which she reflects on the antipathy and gen-

crossroads; vide: Straż miejska bez fotoradarów. Sejm pozbawia gminy dochodu; 24 July 2015, http://serwisy.gazetaprawna.pl/samorzad/artykuly/885054,straz-miejska- bez-fotoradarow-sejm-pozbawia-gminy-dochodu.html, accessed 17.12.2015.

17 M. Darda, Nie lubicie Straży Miejskiej? A skąd… Kochacie jej nie lubić, 12 August 2013, http://blogi.dzienniklodzki.pl/standardy/2013/08/12/nie-lubicie-strazy-miejskiej-a-skad-kochacie-jej-nie-lubic/, accessed 14.03.2015.

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eral tendency to liquidate the municipal police, which is illustrated by the examples from Żory, Szczyrk, trzebinia and chrzanów18.

(…) We do not like the municipal police officers, because they associ-ate us with a clear repression: putting locks on the wheels and chasing drivers exceeding the speed with speed cameras. However, they are also useful helping drivers to start a car in the winter when the battery fails. and they discipline for cleaning the grounds and dog owners for clean-ing dog excrements (…).

Journalists can, therefore, see their usefulness and useful function. this is important because they significantly affect public opinion, which is of-ten subjective and superficial. in the case of evaluation of the municipal guards, it happens too often19. as it is difficult to overestimate the role of voluntary fire Service for the state rescue and fire extinguishing system, it is so easy not to appreciate the importance of the communal police and their participation in the development of security and public order, assis-tance in the daily duties of the Police, border guards, military police and other similar services and inspections20.

Counting nearly 10 000 officers, the communal (municipal) police, act-ing in almost six hundreds of Polish municipalities (¼ of total number) is a very important element of the public security system of our country21.

18 a. Minorczyk-cichy, Policjant budzi zaufanie. Za co nie lubimy straży miejskiej?, 06 June 2013, http://www.dziennikzachodni.pl/artykul/912693,policjant-budzi- zaufanie-za-co-nie-lubimy-strazy-miejskiej,id,t.html, accessed 17.03.2015.

19 See l. Kudła, Wizerunek instytucji. Relacje pomiędzy obywatelami a Strażą Miejską Ka-lisza, [in:] Przemiany i perspektywy Straży Miejskich i Gminnych w ochronie porządku i bezpieczeństwa publicznego. Materiały konferencyjne, K. rajchel (ed.), Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły informatyki, Zarządzania i administracji w Warszawie, Warsza-wa 20–21 IX 2007, p. 103–114.

20 the author devoted to these issues other publications: c. tatarczuk, Rola ochotni-czych straży pożarnych w strukturze zarządzania kryzysowego w powiecie wejherowskim, [in:] Bezpieczeństwo i ochrona ludności oraz infrastruktury krytycznej wybrzeża i miast regionu nadmorskiego, a. ostrokólski (ed.), Wydawnictwo akademii Marynarki Wojennej w Gdyni, Gdynia–Słupsk 2010; see also: C. Tatarczuk, Współpraca Straży Gminnej (Miejskiej) z Policją na podstawie wybranych jednostek województwa pomorskie-go w 2006 r., [in:] Przemiany i perspektywy Straży Miejskich…, p. 296–306; see also: c. guźniczak, i. Malinowska, Współpraca policji i straży gminnych/miejskich, a. letkie-wicz (ed.), Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Policji w Szczytnie, Szczytno 2012.

21 At the end of 2013 active were 593 communal polices (476 municipal and 117 village), grouping 9 643 officers; See Informacja statystyczna o działalności straży gminnych (mie-

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a natural, the nearest in competence to the one hundred thousands of the Police officers, supporting them by officers and equipment in a variety of preventive activities, especially in the patrolling service and protection of mass events. the ratio of the municipal police officers to the Police officers is therefore 1:10. This proportion, however, takes on another dimension when we compare it to the ratio of members of voluntary fire Service to the number of State Fire Service officers, which is 1:0,0422.

it is hard to imagine a professional action of firefighters without the support of volunteers who support the most events requiring rescue opera-tions and firefighting. completely opposite views are on the Police actions, which requires a mobility and effectiveness regardless of its presence in a particular location. from supporting municipal police officers the same is not expected. this sad ascertainment, unauthorized and unjust, deny the idea of founding self-governmental uniformed services, to be a direct, and moreover given the powers, mean of municipal authorities to carry out the important task which is the public policy which is an important component of the security of its inhabitants. the thesis that the municipal police are an essential element of the system of public security is still valid and still gives up a fend off.

3. ending

the attitude of the Poles to all authorities, including that associated with coercion, repression, punishment has been negative for years. trusting such institutions more or less does not automatically mean the sympathy. the courts punish the harshest, but although we do not love them, we at least respect them. the judge in our concept is an elite occupation. Mu-nicipal guards are at the bottom of human cases, dealing with things – in our meaning – trivial, unimportant, even useless.

jskich) w 2013 r. Departament Porządku Publicznego MSW, Warszawa 2014, http://www.krksmg.pl/File/Raport_straze.pdf, accessed 30.03.2015, see also I. Biedrzycka, Bezpieczeństwo społeczeństwa lokalnego jako priorytet działania straży miejskiej, [in:] Bezpieczeństwo społeczności lokalnej, a. lewkowicz, t. Majer (eds.), Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warmińsko-Mazurskiego w Olsztynie, Olsztyn 2012, p. 152.

22 At the end of 2013 there were nearly 30 500 State Fire Service officers; see Biu-letyn Informacyjny Państwowej Straży Pożarnej za rok 2013, http://www.straz.gov.pl/data/other/b_psp2013.pdf, accessed 20.04.2015. Voluntary Fire Service have about 680 000 members; see OSP w liczbach, http://www.zosprp.pl/files/news/430/OSP wliczbach.pdf, accessed 20.04.2015.

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it is the common opinion, unfortunately. What is worse, just think many village heads, mayors or presidents of the cities, treating the munic-ipal police reluctantly or temporarily, leading to disbanding them. these prejudices are naturally the result of universal social antipathy as an at-titude of Poles towards the municipal police officers and this reluctance is surely the result of inadequate civic awareness, which still restricts the ability to objectively perceive their role and importance in the system of public security of the State.

relying on the Dahrendorf ’s thesis, we may have hope that with time, this will change.

References:

1. Minorczyk-cichy a., Policjant budzi zaufanie. Za co nie lubimy stra-ży miejskiej?, 06 June 2013, http://www.dziennikzachodni.pl/artykul/ 912693,policjant-budzi-zaufanie-za-co-nie-lubimy-strazy-miejskiej, id,t.html, accessed 17.03.2015.

2. Informacja statystyczna o działalności straży gminnych (miejskich) w 2013 r. Departament Porządku Publicznego MSW, Warszawa 2014, http://www.krksmg.pl/File/Raport_straze.pdf, accessed 30.03.2015.

3. Biedrzycka i., Bezpieczeństwo społeczeństwa lokalnego jako priorytet dzia-łania straży miejskiej, [in:] Bezpieczeństwo społeczności lokalnej, a. lew-kowicz, t. Majer (eds.), Wydawnictwo uniwersytetu Warmińsko-Ma-zurskiego w Olsztynie, Olsztyn 2012.

4. Biuletyn Informacyjny Państwowej Straży Pożarnej za rok 2013, http://www.straz.gov.pl/data/other/b_psp2013.pdf, accessed 20.04.2015.

5. OSP w liczbach, http://www.zosprp.pl/files/news/430/OSPwliczbach.pdf, accessed 20.04.2015.

6. Ogiolda K., Jarosław Gowin. Nasze państwo jest bezduszne, 10 Febru-ary 2013, http://www.nto.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20130210/REPORTAZ01/130209530, accessed 02.07.2013.

7. Straż miejska bez fotoradarów. Sejm pozbawia gminy dochodu; 24 July 2015, http://serwisy.gazetaprawna.pl/samorzad/artykuly/885054,straz- miejska-bez-fotoradarow-sejm-pozbawia-gminy-dochodu.html, acces-sed 17.12.2015.

8. Piechota g., Wpływ komunikacji politycznej na budowanie społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w demokracji lokalnej (na przykładzie miasta Katowice), Katowice, May 2007; doctoral desirtation written under the supervision of

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Professor Jacek Wódz at University of Silesia in Katowice, http://www.sbc.org.pl/Content/4448/doktorat.pdf, accessed 02.07.2013.

9. Pisa K., Alexander de Tocqueville, oficyna Historii XiX i XX wieku, Warszawa 1996.

10. Darda M., Nie lubicie Straży Miejskiej? A skąd… Kochacie jej nie lubić, 12 August 2013, http://blogi.dzienniklodzki.pl/standardy/2013/08/12/nie-lubicie-strazy-miejskiej-a-skad-kochacie-jej-nie-lubic/, accessed 14.03.2015.

11. Sakowska M., Patriotyzm a Ojczyzna i ojcowizna, [in:] Patriotyzm fun-damentem bezpieczeństwa narodowego RP w XXI wieku, K. gąsiorek, W. S. Moczulski (eds.), Wyd. Stowarzyszenie ruch Wspólnot obron-nych, Warszawa 2011.

12. Wiczyński M., Społeczeństwo obywatelskie w Polsce - czy ma przyszłość?, 20 October 2006, http://www.polityka.org.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=503&Itemid=48, accessed 02.07.2013.

13. Salon24. Niezależne forum publicystów, Patologie społeczne i przestępczość pospolita, 19.07.2010, http://matuzalem.salon24.pl/209506,patologie- spoleczne-i-przestepczosc-pospolita, accessed 30.06.2013.

14. Kudła l., Wizerunek instytucji. Relacje pomiędzy obywatelami a Strażą Miejską Kalisza, [in:] Przemiany i perspektywy Straży Miejskich i Gmin-nych w ochronie porządku i bezpieczeństwa publicznego. Materiały konfe-rencyjne, K. rajchel (ed.), Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły informatyki, Zarządzania i Administracji w Warszawie, Warszawa 20–21 IX 2007.

15. Społeczeństwo obywatelskie, http://www.mpips.gov.pl/spoleczenstwo-obywatelskie/, accessed 17.12.2015.

16. tatarczuk c., Rola ochotniczych straży pożarnych w strukturze zarzą-dzania kryzysowego w powiecie wejherowskim, [in:] Bezpieczeństwo i ochrona ludności oraz infrastruktury krytycznej wybrzeża i miast regionu nadmorskiego, a. ostrokólski (ed.), Wydawnictwo akademii Marynar-ki Wojennej w Gdyni, Gdynia–Słupsk 2010.

17. tatarczuk c., Współpraca Straży Gminnej (Miejskiej) z Policją na podsta-wie wybranych jednostek województwa pomorskiego w 2006 r., [in:] Prze-miany i perspektywy Straży Miejskich i Gminnych w ochronie porządku i bezpieczeństwa publicznego. Materiały konferencyjne, red. K. rajchel, Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły informatyki, Zarządzania i admini-stracji w Warszawie, Warszawa 20-21 IX 2007.

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18. guźniczak c., Malinowska i., Współpraca policji i straży gminnych/miejskich, a. letkiewicz (ed.), Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Policji w Szczytnie, Szczytno 2012.

19. Straż Miejska w Czersku do likwidacji. Radni poparli pomysł pani burmistrz, 23 December 2014, http://www.tvn24.pl/pomorze,42/straz-miejska- w-czersku-do-likwidacji-radni-poparli-pomysl-pani-burmistrz,500 924.html, accessed 31.03.2015.

20. Ustawa z dnia 8 marca 1990 r. o samorządzie gminnym, Dz.U.2013, poz.594; art.7 ust.1 pkt 14.

21. Scheffs Ł., Współczesne społeczeństwo obywatelskie, 24 June 2009, http://www.politeja.pl/2009/06/wspolczesne-spoleczenstwo-obywatelskie/, accessed 02.07.2013.

22. http://www.iusetlex.pl/?id=14, accessed 30.06.2013.23. Za co nie lubimy straży miejskiej (9 powodów); 27 September 2013, http://

wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114871,14654001,Za_co_nie_ lubimy_strazy_miejskiej__9_powodow_.html, accessed 14.03.2015.

24. W Polsce największym zaufaniem cieszą się strażacy, 29 April 2014, http://www.centrumrekrutacyjne.pl/p/w-polsce-najwiekszym-zaufaniem- ciesza-sie-strazacy,420.html, accessed 26.03.2015.

25. ¾ Polaków ma zaufanie do Policji; 22 January 2015, https://www.msw.gov.pl/pl/aktualnosci/12834,Polakow-ma-zaufanie-do-Policji.html, accessed 26.03.2015.

26. radomski a., Komendant straży miejskiej odchodzi, 14 March 2015, http://www.gp24.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20150314/SLUPSK/ 150319814, accessed 31.03.2015.


c. tatarczuk, The Attitude of Poles Towards Communal Police. Some Ob-servations on the State of Civil Society in Poland, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 57–72.


NO. 17; 2016 (73–98)

russian mass-media maniPulaTion of informaTion in hybrid warfare againsT ukraine

Prof. olga Wasiuta, Ph.D.Pedagogical University in Cracow, POLAND

Prof. Sergiusz Wasiuta, Ph.D.Pedagogical University in Cracow, POLAND

ABSTRACT

the article concerns the mass-media manipulation of information in russia about russian-ukrainian conflict with the help of the media controlled by government. the authors point out that the Kremlin has always manipulated the content of information and with the beginning of the revolution of Dignity manipulation and disinformation has gained unimaginable momentum, treating Maidan as a negative event, as a coup. at the moment of aggression, in the network hundreds of websites and social network groups appeared, which „objectively” are informing about the events. the message of this campaign is to justify the uprising against the new, legitimate government in Kiev. the propaganda potential is directed at presentation of the russian version of events, and the overall aim is to diversify the public opinion. an important point of this strategy is to create an image of russia as a victim of cynical game of Western establishment, accused on this occasion for a complete distortion of Putin’s image as well as the causes of ukrainian conflict and its course.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordshybrid warfare, mass-media manipulation, disinformation, information warfare, russian propaganda

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olga Wasiuta, Sergiusz Wasiuta

Introduction

not a false, propaganda or manipulation can not destroy national memory. in order to eliminate the national consciousness, the invaders are destroy-ing firstly the historical memory. although the new rulers build castles, cities, churches, monuments, acquire or burn archives, historical memora-bilia, to the next generation to impose own vision of history, but memory is always eluded them out of control. collective memory is filled not so much with the historical truth but rather with the mythical tale of the former advantages or sufferings. for hundreds of years the invaders from the east tried to suppress the ukrainian freedom, every time rewriting history. Does anyone now can say with certainty who was the cossack Hetman ivan Mazepa: a selfish traitor or a true patriot? and who among the ordinary citizens, and even some experts of history know that in 1659 in Pereyaslav no agreement was signed? now we witness important his-torical events, and we understand that democracy is not just a freedom of choice, it is also a great responsibility. In 1659 Ukraine, but rather its part – Hetmanate – the tsarist government turned to an autonomous unit within the russian empire, which had been „secured” in „Pereyaslav ar-ticles” in 16591.

Probably, there is no question in Russian history what was described in more biased and false manner, than the issue of „entry” of ukraine to rus-sia. the strange lack of text of agreement between ukraine and russia cre-ated a large field for various abuses, such as the decision of the communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1954 that the Pereyaslav agreement was the culmination of an effort of centuries-old desire of ukraine and russia to unite and that it is this combination was the main aim of the war of liberation in 1648. What kind of „unification” can we talk about if russia was formed much later than Kievan rus’ fell apart?

In fact, only Moscow treated the Council of Pereyaslav and „1654 March articles” as a pretext for the gradual absorption of ukraine. ukraine itself considered this agreement as a typical military alliance against external enemies, dictated by the moment, because life has shown that relying on alliance with the Crimea is not an option. After an agreement from 1654 a lot of documents clearly were referring to ukraine as an independent state, not as slaves of the Moscow tsar. it was no surprise that ukraine had 1 I. Гирич, Наслідки Переяславської Ради 1654 року: збірник статей, Видавництво Смолоскип, Київ 2004, p. 476.

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russian Mass-Media Manipulation of information…

all the attributes of an independent state, conducted its own independent diplomacy, new agreements and alliances with other countries2.

russian historian v. Klyuchevsky called such a statement: “the history of russia is the history of a country that colonizes itself ”3. under the slo-gan of „connecting” old Kievan Rus’ lands, starting from the 15th century Russia led expansion to near and distant neighbors. During 1462–1914 its territory increased by almost 1000 times: from 24 thousand km2 to 23,8 million km2, so it was increasing with a speed of 80 km2 per day4. this expansion took place mostly under the pretext of „liberation of nations”, „connecting”, „joining” and „voluntary reunification”. f. engels wrote about it: „every annexed territory, all the oppressions, carried out under the pretext of enlightenment, liberalism, liberation of nations”5. of course, none of those „unions” were not „voluntary”, served as a sophisticated pol-icy of conquest. Presented scheme also applies to Ukraine, as exemplified by the policy carried out in several stages:1. 1654–1783 – gradual attack on the rights and freedoms of Ukraine and

its transformation from a country allied to a province of the empire,2. 18th – 19th centuries: active involvement of the Russian government in

order to russification ukrainian people,3. The beginning of 19th and 20th centuries: the tsarist policy of

assimilation,4. From the beginning till the end of 20th century: assimilation policy

pursued by the Soviet Union; attempt to change the ethnic structure of ukrainian population by the artificially induced famine, war and mass resettlement of the ukrainian population,

5. The end of the 20th century – beginning of the 21st century: active-ly carried out propaganda, information war, manipulation of historical facts against ukraine,

6. Beginning of the Revolution of Dignity (2013) – up until now: mas-sive manipulations, as well as informational and propaganda war against ukraine on the territory of ukraine, russia and in whole europe.it is on this last stage we will focus our analysis, which is characterized by

manipulation conducted on a massive scale, propaganda and informational war.2 Н. Полонська-Василенко, Історія України, Видавництво Либідь, Київ 1992, p. 27.3 В. О. Ключевский, Русская история, Полный курс лекций, ОЛМА Медиа Групп,

2004, p. 38.4 О. Субтельний, Україна: історія, Видавництво Либідь, Київ 1992, p. 159.5 К. Маркс, Ф. Енгельс, Твори, Т. 22. Київ 2001, p. 23.

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Manipulation techniques are known to the world since the dawn of history, and more and more perverted world of media deliberately distort reality, using immoral practices such as stereotype, myth, rumor, propa-ganda, open lies, misinformation, hidden activities, camouflage, demarcat-ing, black advertising and psychological war6. according to Bishop adam lepa „manipulation is deliberate and secretive operation, through which it is imposed to an individual or a group of people a false picture of real-ity. this distorted image does not refer to the whole reality, because that would exceed the possibilities of trustees and executors of manipulation”7.

Manipulator uses for example statistical data, information, facts to hide from recipient real objectives. information reduces our ignorance about the actual phenomena, on the same time manipulation makes that it is not only we do not have the knowledge, but even that supplied knowledge is false. everything is done with the purpose for the creator of the mes-sage (russia) to achieve its objectives (excuse the annexation of crimea, attempts to seize the territory of another country). the more simplifi-cations, repetitions or symbols in a given transmission and at the same time correspondingly fewer facts, the more the creator manipulates the audience. using false information to undermine the position and credibil-ity of the nation, institution, organization or individual person. it aims to undermine the authority, credibility, image and goals.

Russia’s manipulation of information

Mass media which are using manipulation techniques are very powerful “weapon” in the political struggle. in russia you cannot find any free me-dia; hence the consequences of such actions are much more drastic for the russians themselves. russian mass media are discrediting everything that is valuable in ukraine, discredit the leaders, disorganize social life through imaginary facts and events, ridicule european values, culture and tradition, demoralize society by promoting alcohol, cigarettes, drugs, pop culture, sexual promiscuity; penetrate Ukrainian elite searching for “sensation”, surveillance of journalists in order to find a “hook” on opponents.

Modern Russia is using various techniques of manipulation, including the propaganda and information war by disseminating certain sort of in-

6 S. Kizińczuk, Techniki manipulacji. Poznaj techniki manipulacji i już nigdy nie daj się „wpuścić w kanał”, Wyd. Złote Myśli, Gliwice 2015.

7 A. Lepa, Świat manipulacji, Biblioteka Niedzieli, Częstochowa 2011, p. 23.

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formation. the object of the information war is both a collective and in-dividual consciousness. this transfer of information can take place on the background of informational noise and in informational vacuum. this in-formation includes distortion of the facts or relate to emotional perception which is comfortable for aggressor. typically, methods of informational warfare are to release misinformation or provide information in a benefi-cial way for the aggressor. these methods allow for distortion assessment of what is happening, demoralizing citizens, and potentially ensuring the transition to the side of the aggressor.

Since the beginning of the 21st century Russia actively developed and implemented anti-ukrainian and anti-Western propaganda8. Since Putin’s another presidency (2013–2014) and the beginning of Dignity Revolution in Ukraine, Russian propaganda has developed very quickly and has be-come openly chauvinistic, aggressive and fascist, becoming a full-fledged informational warfare. it was aimed at preparing public opinion in rus-sia to external aggression and obtains the consent of the people towards Kremlin’s aggressive actions against ukraine. after military aggression, occupation and annexation of crimea9, total disinformation has become the major method and technique of Russian propaganda10.

Depth analysis of the theory of the origin and development of infor-mation warfare in the modern world has made american Professor Phil-ip M. taylor, who in his book „global communications, international Affairs and the Media Since 1945”11 proves that the rapid civilization development, new technologies of mass communication have a decisive influence on development of international relations in the modern world. „Starting from the 20th century mass media actually influence the devel-opment of a new history of the world” – says Philip M. taylor12.

8 P. Демчак, Як перемогти Росію в телевізорі, http://www.epravda.com.ua/columns/ 2014/05/27/458096/.

9 Р. Бабаев, Принята Бакинская декларация Парламентской Ассамблеи ОБСЕ, http://interfax.az/view/613059.

10 Т. Попова, Як діє російська пропаганда, http://www.pravda.com.ua/columns/ 2014/06/21/7029684/.

11 P. M. taylor, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media Since 1945 (The New International History), Routledge, New York and London 1997.

12 Killen on taylor, ‘Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media Since 1945’, https://networks.h-net.org/node/9997/reviews/10434/killen-taylor-global- communications-international-affairs-and-media.

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in the hybrid war conducted by russia there are a lot of propaganda and manipulation components. Most of the population is not prepared for such an activity, and russia – is not only ready, but uses them well. information warfare theory has a long tradition in russia. the first who applied the information war was Peter i, who began the falsification of the history of his people. In 1701, he ordered the removal of all written documents of folk chronicles, chronographs, ancient historical records, church documents and archives among the conquered peoples. Particular-ly the Ukraine-Rus’. Based on those forgeries 22nd October 1721 Mus-covy announced themselves to be “russian empire” and Muscovites – to be russians. that way ukrainian historical name rus’ was stolen from its legitimate heirs – ukrainians13.

Peter i invited many experts from europe, including professional histo-rians who were forced to write and falsify the history of the Muscovy. to do this, every foreigner who started working had to oath not to disclose national secrets and promised to not leave the state of Muscovy. at the same time the question arises, what national secrets could be while “writ-ing the history of the state” of old days? in every civilized country in eu-rope, after 30–50 years, all archives are available for scientists. It is evident that russian empire was afraid of the truth about it’s past14.

an interesting research was presented by v. Belinsky in “The country Moksel or Moscovia”15, giving facts derived mainly from russian historical sources, which indicates a radical distortion of the history of the russian empire, directed on the creation of historical mythology that Muscovy and Kievan rus’ have common historical roots, which means that Muscovy has a “right to inheritance” of history, culture and traditions of Kievan rus’.

the falsification of russian history on an unprecedented scale took place in the late 18th century during the reign of Catherine II. empress personally edited “History of russia”, improving historical

13 Я. Дашкевич, Як Московія привласнила історію Київської Русі, http://univer-sum.lviv.ua/journal/2011/6/dashk.htm; Я.Дашкевич, Як Московія вкрала історію Київської Русі – України, http://sribnazemlja.org.ua/2014042913731/istoria/ukrai-na/2014-04-29-08-23-34-13731.html.

14 Я. Дашкевич, Як Московія привласнила історію Київської Русі, [in:] Українські реалії: негаразди, загрози, надії: публіцистика / упоряд.: О. К. Глушко, В. О. Кар-пенко. Київ, Університет «Україна», 2013, p. 109.

15 В. Білінський, Країна Моксель, або Московія. Роман-дослідження. W 3 Кни-гаx, Видавництво імені Олени Теліги, Київ 2008–2009.

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documents, issuing orders to destruct numerous documents, forcing historians to counterfeiting.

among the political objectives we can found directives leading to:- Justify annexing different territories to russia,- in order to suppress the national liberation struggle of Belarusians and

ukrainians, it was necessary to come up with the myth, that they appar-ently always dreamed to be in the russian zone,

- as part of this myth, another myth should be created – that the Moskal’s are Slavs and rus’, rather than the population of finnish-Muscovy,

- to cover all those tasks, they had massively conducted an audit of all the chronicles and historical documents in annexed territories, aiming to correct them or delete16.in order to implement the abovementioned political purposes, it was

banned to solve specific problems which contributed to the falsification of history:- create a myth that Kievan rus’ with the advent of the tartars, suddenly

started to consider Muscovy (moksha) to be part of rus’ (and even the center of Rus’), which was in the Golden Horde and 1,000 kilometers from Kievan rus’ populated by finnish tribes and until then no one even called that territory as rus’,

- create a myth of “vladimir-Suzdal rus’” existence, even though no one heard of this land prior to catherine ii,

- create a myth that Moscow was founded by the princes of Kievan rus’, but prior to catherine ii all historians knew that it was founded at the behest of the Tatar khan after 125717 (back then tatar-Mongolian em-pire conducted in their northern uluses a list of all the settlements and the overall population in that region in order to increase taxation and Moscow even did not exist back then),

- create a myth that Muscovy – is a rus’, and Muscovites – are not finns but Slavs,

- create a myth of the “Horde yoke”, although previously all historians believed that Muscovy for three centuries was a solid bastion of the Horde in a battle with rus’, and later ivan the terrible seized power in the Horde,

16 В. Ростов, Фальсификация истории России, http://patent.net.ua/intellectus/inteli gibilisation/facts/1875/ua.html.

17 Я. Дашкевич, Учи неложними устами сказати правду, Темпора, Київ 2011, p. 5.

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- create a myth that Dmitry Donskoy fought not with the Horde but against it.all the key moments in the history of Muscovy were rewritten. Such

falsification of history on such a large scale by the Moscals, who usurped the history of grand Duchy of Kiev and its people, struck a terrible blow to the ukrainian ethnic group.

Moscow, and later on tsars of russia realized that without a great his-tory they will not be able to create a great nation, a great empire. to do this, they had to arrange its historical past and even steal past from other nations. therefore, tsars of Moscow, starting from ivan ivth “the terri-ble” (1533–1584), decided to appropriate the history of Kievan Rus’, its glorious past and to create an official mythologies of the russian empire18.

Over the centuries, especially in the early 16th century, they began to spread the ideology to convince others that:- russian state and the russian people are originally from the grand

Duchy of Kiev,- Kievan rus’ – is the cradle of three fraternal nations -–russian, ukrain-

ian and Belorussian,- russians by the law of “elder brother” have the right to inherit Kievan

rus’ and its history.Such a pathetic lie is still being used by russian historians and states-

men of russia, as well as “fifth column” in ukraine, which includes com-munists and almost all the representatives of the Party of regions in the verkhovna rada of ukraine.

formation of the so-called “velikoros” mentality coincided with bor-rowings of Tatar-Mongolian conqueror instinct, despots, whose main ob-jective is the invasion, domination over the rest of the world. So, prior to the 16th century, a conqueror-kind of man created, cruel in its ignorance, anger and violence. these people do not need european culture and liter-ature, as well as for such categories as morality, honesty, shame, dignity and historical memory. Many Tatar-Mongolians in the 13th–16th centuries became part of “velikoros”, which became the starting point for more than 25% of Russian nobility. Here are a few Tatars who have brought glory to the empire: arakcheyev, Bunin, griboyedov, Derzhavin, Dostoevsky, Kuprin, Plekhanov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, turgenev, Sheremetiev, chaa-dayev and many others.

18 Ibidem, p. 4.

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to assign the history of a foreign lands and perpetuate the theft, the russians had to destroy the ukrainian people, to enslave them. ukraini-ans, who emerged as a nation much earlier, they are described as “maloros” (which is a historic term for the residents of central ukraine within the russian empire) and that ideology was introduced to the whole world. representatives of ukrainian intelligentsia were forced to work for the „velikoroses” (M. Gogol); or were sending them to the army for 25 years (T. Shevchenko). Such slavery lasted for more than 300 years.

the Soviet era was particularly brutal. at that time, ukraine has lost more than 25 million people who have died in wars in the interests of russia, during collectivization (Holodomor), in the gulags. So the “big brother” forced “younger brother” in the cruel “hugs of love”19.

from the first days of the seizure of power by the “Soviets” v. lenin together with Soviet ideologists stood to create an “ideal” political system, economic and social, which humanity had not known. construction of the new order was based primarily on the treatment of “human material from the capitalist era”20. a columnist Maxim gorki defined those actions as “lenin worked as a chemist in his lab, with the difference that the chemist is working with dead materials…, and lenin worked on alive”21. revolu-tionist M. gorki, said “He treated people like bad taught dogs and frogs, intended for cruel scientific experiments”22. Michal Heller was comparing those actions to trying to repeat Dr. frankenstein’s experiment but on a gi-gantic scale and the creation of new man called “Homo Sovieticus” which is superior in every respect divine creation, which is “homo sapiens”23.

Soviet ideologists began to build a new order, which was based primar-ily on new revalued society, composed of experimentally and artificially created persons known as “Homo Sovieticus”. “Homo Sovieticus” – which means soviet person, was developed model of social variable unit (although over the years, but always devoted to the state and society). created long before the October Revolution, because in the sixties of 19th century, 19 Ibidem.20 cyt. za M. Heller, Maszyna i śrubki. Jak hartował się człowiek sowiecki, Paryż 1988, p. 9.21 Ibidem, p. 10.22 Ibidem.23 Ibidem. other symptomatic opinion of Maxim gorki on lenin’s: “Working classes are

for lenin the same thing as minerals for metallurgist” („Klasy pracujące dla lenina są tym, czym minerały dla metalurga”); R. Conquest, Lenin. Prawda o wodzu rewolucji, Warszawa – Chicago 1999, p. 35.

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Homo Sovieticus took on the character starting from the revolutionary destroyer then industrial man and finally improved communist man. De-spite of various forms, Soviet person had to fulfill one role – to be the basic building block of the communist system. implementation of the utopian vision of the government, which was created in the minds of revolutionar-ies, required however more than just drawing an image of an ideal society, also demanded actions to create a basis for a new type of persons, but above all it was required to develop instruments to influence the person. the basis for the functioning of society was created by systemic reforms and social engineering function was assigned to propaganda. the main link of Soviet propaganda was created by the Propaganda Department of the central committee of the communist Party of the Soviet union in 192024, which together with the existing military propaganda apparatus and additional points of agitation over the years of the totalitarian regime were shaping “little screws” (ordinary people)25 which were parts of the Soviet union machinery.

Information warfare carried out by Russia against Ukraine in the 21st century, can be considered as the way to indicate further direction of po-litical events. Depending on the method of warfare (psychological and informational), we can determine the degree of interest russia has, in the situation in ukraine. While analyzing russian web-pages it can be noted that in the period from October 2013 to November 2014, Russian news were devoted to the events in Ukraine for about 85–90%. Moscow kept an eye very closely to all the events in ukraine, using propaganda, lies, manipulation and misinformation. all of this can be seen as active phase of the Kremlin information campaign.

24 M. Jastrząb, Mozolna budowa absurdu. Działalność wydziału propagandy warszawskiego Komitetu Wojewódzkiego PZPR w latach 1949–1953, Warszawa 1999, p. 117.

25 a „screw” is an ideal type of person, created by Stalin. By this concept a man should regard himself only as a little screw in the machinery of the state. During the reception ton honor the participants in the victory parade in 1945, Stalin honored the Soviet society in the following words: “i propose a toast to the health of simple, ordinary, humble people, those little screws, which are necessary for the movement of the whole mechanism of our country” (“Wznoszę toast za zdrowie prostych, zwykłych, skrom-nych ludzi, tych małych śrubek, które są niezbędne dla ruchu całego mechanizmu naszego państwa”); M. Heller, A. Niekricz, Utopia u władzy. Historia związku sowiec-kiego, vol. 2, part IV, Respublica, Lublin 1988, trans. From Russian A. Mietkowski. Reprint form edition: Polonia, London 1987, p. 149.

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Since December 2014 till the April 2015 Russian aggression in the information space weakened a little. the volume of news reports about the Ukrainian events has dropped to about 40%, which may be due to several reasons:- the political ideology of the Kremlin concerning ukrainian events was

brought to russian society,- russian government has achieved its objectives on the implementation

of partial control over the political and economic situation in ukraine,- change the vector of russian foreign policy from europe to asia and

eastern countries changed the direction of the information flow,- Sanctions of Western countries against russia reached a level in which

russia may wanted to withdraw from the conflict in ukraine, but for many reasons this cannot be done.In the first half of May 2015, there was a small explosion of information

activities of russian media concerning the situation in ukraine, which was connected with the reaction of Kiev at the ceremony in Moscow devoted to the 70th anniversary of the end of World War II.

Throughout the whole 2014 and the first half of 2015 Russian TV channels have changed the tactics of moving from informing viewers about the events in ukraine to imposing propaganda, incitement to ha-tred, dissemination of unverified rumors and lies, taking advantage of the various instruments: selectivity of facts and events; choice of preferred commentators and experts (usually paid)26; quotes manipulation27; subjec-tive conclusions rather than objective facts.

for at least two years before the revolution of Dignity, russian special services with the help of press agencies, television stations and websites led

26 Т. Назарук, Рік фейків: як брехала російська пропаганда, http://osvita.mediasapiens. ua/ethics/manipulation/rik_feykiv_yak_brekhala_rosiyska_propaganda/.

27 In this way Russian media and blogs often use “quotation” form Otto von Bismarck that West allegedly had planes to “partite russia”. in particular it is about the ex-pression: “the power of russia can be challenged only by the separation of ukraine from it ... you have to not just to separate, but to oppose ukraine russia, you need to contact the heads of two parts of one nation and look like brother kills brother”. of course otto von Bismarck did not say anything like that, which was confirmed by the Bismarck’s foundation representatives; it sounds as if the quote was written by Rus-sian ideologues in the 20th century, even in the 21st century, and not in the mid-19th century; Т. Назарук, Російські ЗМІ використовують неіснуючу цитату Бісмар-ка, http://osvita.mediasapiens.ua/ethics/manipulation/rosiyski_zmi_vikoristovuyut_ neisnuyuchu_tsitatu_bismarka/.

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an aggressive propaganda campaign against ukraine to disrupt the signing of an association agreement between ukraine and the european union, and after viktor Yanukovych escaped from ukraine – divide the country and set up an information basis for war with ukraine. images shown by Kremlin propagandists on russian television and websites have taken over the last two years grotesque forms. Media manipulation using psychologi-cal and social techniques has become a very dangerous weapon in the fight against patriotism, identity and european values.

in the russian mass media, social networks, as well as tv series, con-tain more and more anti-ukrainian propaganda. for this purpose facts and photos manipulating are often used. In early March 2014, day be-fore the referendum in crimea, “first channel” – russia’s state television, reported that ukrainian citizens are massively becoming refugees and showed a string of cars crossing the border with russia. this footage was to show avalanche wave of ukrainian refugees seeking shelter in russia. the representatives of the central authorities of the russian federation were saying about 600 thousand Ukrainian refugees, but in reality that video material was from the Medyka-Shehyni border checkpoint (be-tween ukraine and Poland)28.

one of the reasons to start an attack on ukraine, russian President vladimir Putin has called the threat to the lives of russian citizens in Crimea. And the Federation Council approved the request of Putin for military intervention in ukraine. in order to maintain the myth of the dead people and extremists in the crimea, russian tv ran a story about the alleged shooting in Simferopol: men in black clothes, depicting Ban-dera, arrived to crimea in buses with registration numbers and emblems of the crimean company „taigan” (lions zoo park), located in Belogorsk near Simferopol. also, they were armed with the latest russian automatic AK 100 series and RG-94 grenade launchers, which are in use only in the russian army29.

explicit manipulations of information fuels the fire of conflict in which every day ukrainians are killed: ukrainians killed by the military and Ban-28 Як дезінформує «Перший канал»: польський КПП видають за російський,

http://www.unian.ua/politics/891927-yak-dezinformue-pershiy-kanal-polskiy-kpp- vidayut-za-rosiyskiy.html.

29 Информационная война: пять примеров российской пропаганды, http://news.liga.net/articles/politics/993677-informatsionnaya_voyna_pyat_primerov_rossiyskoy_ propagandy.htm/section1/.

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dera mobile groups, murders of children, bombed cities of Donbass and other horrors – these information and images constantly appearing in russian mass media. all such messages are so terrible that it is hard to suspect their authors of lying. it is primarily a conscious tactic of persua-sion in such a way that manipulated person should not be aware that he is the subject to manipulation.

The „Novoye Vremya” magazine gathered 20 of the most blatant ex-amples of manipulation and lies in russian media. to illustrate manipu-lation of the mass media we will present a few examples. on the website „Navigator” on 26th of May 2014 appeared a message that war zone is expanding over to Donetsk city, people are leaving their homes, there are a lot of burnt out cars and the number of injured people is constantly increasing. Messages were accompanied by pictures of fire near the Pu-tilov’s bridge. in fact, the explosions and the smoke, which appeared in Donetsk on that picture was made in Photoshop. one more example: in russian social network “vKontakte” igor Strelkov, Minister of Defense in self-proclaimed People’s republic of Donetsk, placed a photo of a burning armored transporter, but forgot to mention that the freighter was burned in China on 3rd of June 1989, near the Tiananmen Square. TV channel Rossiya-1, in evening news program “Vesti” on 16th of May 2014, speak-ing about the events in Sloviansk city, showed murdered man and for that scene they used the movie, which was filmed in 2012 in Russia – after anti-terrorist operation on the territory of Baksan district in the Kab-ardino-Balkar Republic. On 17th May 2014 Russian web site Rolitikus.ru published a message that Sloviansk morgue is full of corpses, allegedly of ukrainian military, fighters of the national guard of ukraine and right Sector. Messages were accompanied by photos of 18th of February 2009. But on the picture were bodies waiting for an autopsy in the morgue of Mexican city ciudad Juarez30.

internet and social media are dominated by the manipulation of infor-mation with the task of misstatement of the current situation and chang-ing attitude of russian society against ukrainians, Poles and inhabitants of the Baltic countries. russians replace images and its messages, in order to lend credibility to their actions and discredit ukraine. But telling this has not much in common with giving people real information. Propagan-

30 Топ-20 випадків нахабної брехні російської пропаганди, http://www.myvin.com.ua/ua/news/events/27599.html.

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dists are moving even to the extent that photos taken in 2009 in Chechnya describe as violent evidence of ukrainian army actions.

Photograph #1 from Bosnia having to prove the bestiality of the ukrainian army

Source: ТОП-10 маніпуляцій російських ЗМІ та соціальних мереж про Україну (ФОТО), http://texty.org.ua/pg/news/textynewseditor/read/54210/TOP10_manipulacij_rosijskyh_ZMI_ta_socialnyh_merezh; Kłamstwa, manipulacja, przeróbka zdjęć. Tak rosyjska propaganda pokazuje wojnę na Ukrainie, http://niezalezna.pl/58108-klamstwa-manipulacja- przerobka-zdjec-tak-rosyjska-propaganda-pokazuje-wojne-na-ukrainie.

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Photograph #2 little girl next to the murdered woman, describe them as an evidence of the events in Donbass. Meanwhile, this is frame from russian-Belarusian war movie “The Brest Fortress” (2010).

Source: ТОП-10 маніпуляцій російських ЗМІ та соціальних мереж про Україну (ФОТО), http://texty.org.ua/pg/news/textynewseditor/read/54210/TOP10_ manipulacij_rosijskyh_ZMI_ta_socialnyh_merezh; Kłamstwa, manipulacja, przerób-ka zdjęć. Tak rosyjska propaganda pokazuje wojnę na Ukrainie, http://niezalezna.pl/58108-klamstwa-manipulacja-przerobka-zdjec-tak-rosyjska-propaganda-pokazuje- wojne-na-ukrainie.

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Photograph #3 made in 2009 in Chechnya, signed as a description of ukrainian army activities

Source: ТОП-10 маніпуляцій російських ЗМІ та соціальних мереж про Україну (ФОТО), http://texty.org.ua/pg/news/textynewseditor/read/54210/TOP10_manipulacij_ rosijskyh_ZMI_ta_socialnyh_merezh.

Photograph #4. Russian TV station “Mir 24” on their “Facebook” page showed refugees from Kosovo in 1999 as refugees being from Ukraine in 2014. This photo has already been removed. even before that, this picture was used on the website of “external economic relations” magazine31

Source: ТОП-10 маніпуляцій російських ЗМІ та соціальних мереж про Україну (ФОТО), http://texty.org.ua/pg/news/textynewseditor/read/54210/TOP10_manipulacij_ rosijskyh_ZMI_ta_socialnyh_merezh.

31 Ibidem.

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in an interview with “le Monde” russian writer lyudmila ulitskaya said that russian mass media are manipulating the collective conscious-ness of russian people. in particular, the author claims that television channels showed video materials from Syria and venezuela, presenting them as events in Donetsk. the russian intelligentsia cannot do an-ything about it because according to her words, freedom of speech in russia does not exist. ulitskaya believes that russian mass media are manipulating events in ukraine and already beat the “world record in lie”. recently there have been reports about injured child and a woman lying in pools of blood, as shown by certain channels, and presented as proof of the barbarity of ukrainian army in Donetsk, those scenes were actually filmed in Syria and venezuela. in her opinion, the mate-rial shows specifically for incitement to hatred between russians and ukrainians. “today we are witnessing an unprecedented manipulation of the collective consciousness. the responsibility of journalists has nev-er been so high as it is now, especially those who are trying to observe objectivity, despite pressure from the government. Some news sites were closed, bloggers are controlled, and freedom of speech is suppressed as never in the past 20 years” – she said in the interview32.

the longer this conflict lasts, the more fanaticism and willingness is growing in russia to uncritical faith in any kind of agitation and propa-ganda disinformation, confirming the stereotypical image of an enemy. in this undeclared war against ukraine, russia is actively using methods of psychological and information war33, trying to destroy the morale of the ukrainian soldiers and civilians. the so-called “journalists” of russian tv stations like “life news”, “russia today” and others are “weapons of du-al-usage” serving to form the “right image” for propaganda purposes and for intelligence special services of russia.

unprecedented scale of informational manipulation is carried out in all areas of social life with the participation of different forces and means, through the creation and implementation of new information units. Web service Sobaka.ru published in February 2015 interesting confessions of former employees of a russian “media agency”, whose task was flood-

32 Л. Улицкая, Российские СМИ побили мировой рекорд по вранью, http://russian.rt.com/inotv/2014-06-12/Ulickaya-Rossijskie-SMI-pobili-mirovoj.

33 K. liedel, Bezpieczeństwo informacyjne w dobie terrorystycznych i innych zagrożeń bez-pieczeństwa narodowego, Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2005, p. 23–24.

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ing the internet with lying information, manipulating information about russia’s armed conflict with ukraine34.

Propaganda agency, which conducts such activities, is called officially fan (federal agency for information) and is running at least from July 2013, and hides the actual purpose of their activities, and giving various excuses as an explanation and did not officially admit to being funded from the Russian pro-government sources. It brings together 12 other companies (various locations, including in ukraine, for example the web-site “anti-maidan”) – most of them in one way or another preparing ma-terials related to the conflict with ukraine, ukrainian policy or russian policy concerning ukraine, but they have to show the messages in a cer-tain way, paying great attention to the positive role of russia in “solving” ukrainian conflict. they cannot write anything bad about Putin, ukrain-ian separatists are not terrorists but rather heroes and their activities in eastern ukraine presents itself as an armed resistance against the “illegal” government in Kiev, as well as they recognize the right of local people to self-determination, and they call ukrainian partisans – fascist rebels. the main daily news on all those websites, and a lot of others, are about – Pu-tin, crimea, “novorossiya”.

They offer an attractive salary (for local conditions) – 45 000 rubles (approx. 650–670 EUR). They employ those who do not ask questions “why?”, this is how “work” looks like for russian internet trolls, paid by Moscow. Every day they have to create at least 20 pieces of information (articles, news, etc.) and publish them on web pages controlled by the agency. Since most employees are quite intelligent, educated, who came from different cities, where they could not find a job, they are well aware what they are doing. therefore, as one of former trolls says, as a rule they can be divided into 3 groups:- they pay me, so i do not care about anything else. i do not care who my

employer is,- i know that my employer is pro-russian “troll factory”, but they pay me,

so it is oK,- i am fighting online against fascist rebels.

But people from the last category are a substantial minority. former troll counted only 2 people out of 30 person team with such orthodox

34 Городской типаж: блогер-пропагандист, http://www.sobaka.ru/city/city/32942/.

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views35. apparently they are taking all those who speak and write cor-rectly russian language. after an interview, you might be assigned to several teams:- content Managers – people “rewriting again” true agency news, by do-

ing this however, so that their tone was pro-russian and anti-ukrainian. next publish those newly rewritten news on the websites controlled by an agency,

- Bloggers – people who create records in social media and blog/vlog platforms,

- illustrators – people who create demotivational posters,- Seo specialists – those who simply spamming links to content on

other web sites (Behind the scenes work of russian, pro-government internet trolls).according to calculations made by an analytical expert in information

security – v. gusarov from “information resistance”, which is a non-gov-ernmental project that aims to counteract external threats to the infor-mational space of ukraine in the main areas of military, economic, and energy, as well as the sphere of informational security, russia annually spends on information war against Ukraine not less than $3,5 billion dol-lars. We should not forget that the russian “information machine” runs at full speed for the last three years.

institutional collapse created great conditions to spread hybrid war on the territory of ukraine, which has consistently led foreign forces in recent years. Maidan in its essence became the culmination of delegitimization of the authorities, which with an unbridled lust for enrichment, corrup-tion, controversial policy, ruled based on primitive populism rather than on a development strategy.

russia’s aggression has become possible mainly not because of the al-leged lack of legitimacy of the post-revolutionary authorities in Kiev but rather because of its inability to adequately confront Russian attacks in the form of informational and propaganda aggression. the primary hybrid war goal was to use the eastern part of ukraine as a center of instabili-ty for the ultimate destruction of ukrainian investment attractiveness in order to maintain permanent social conflict, to inflict maximum damage to the economy and lead to a profound destabilization in order to create the necessary conditions for a return into the “bosom” of “Putin’s russkij

35 Ibidem.

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Mir” (which is an ethnic-centered concept of russian world) and more prosaically – to the customs union, creating on the territory of ukraine various puppet “mini-states” based on abkhazia and transnistrian Mol-dovan republic models.

However, Putin did not expect that ukrainians themselves and the en-tire civilized world will be on the side of democratic values. the Kremlin expected that, the same way as in the crimea, the destabilization of the central and local authorities, using deliberate disinformation of society, annexation was presented as legitimate. in the Donbas region, transfor-mation of anti-Maidan protests to pro-russian movement on the large scale has not been successful. With the development of the situation in the Donbas region, small groups were breaking down or were destroyed by russian secret services36. January 2, 2015 as a result of military battle between pro-russian gangs, one of the leaders of the so called “luhansk People’s republic” (lPr) – alexander Bednov, known as „Batman”, was killed and his accomplices were burned alive in the car37. at the same time, the co-chairman of the public initiative „right cause”, coordinator of the national Bloc of lugansk forces – Dmitry Snegirev said on his facebook page that “chief of Staff of the fourth Brigade” alexander Bednov, under the leadership of which there was about 1 500 fighters, was eliminated by russian special forces38.

Such a situation totally depoliticize war-weary civilians (no matter who, just willing to live in peace), but certainly it is not conducive to the reorganization of regional authorities. Direct military intervention that was needed to sustain the self-proclaimed “republics” led to the fact that some military groups are constantly fighting between themselves for in-fluence in the region and the russian financial inflows. at the same time

36 Гиркин призвал боевиков покинуть Донбасс после убийства „Бэтмена”, http://news.liga.net/news/politics/4637129-girkin_prizval_boevikov_pokinut_donbass_posle_ubiystva_betmena.htm.

37 Боевики Плотницкого отчитались о ликвидации террориста „Бэтмена”, http://news.liga.net/news/politics/4615713-boeviki_plotnitskogo_otchitalis_o_ likvidatsii_terrorista_.htm.

38 Д. Снегирев, Что на самом деле случилось с полевым командиром ЛНР «Бетме-ном», http://hvylya.net/analytics/politics/chto-na-samom-dele-sluchilos-s-polevyim- komandirom-lnr-betmenom.html; В Луганске российские спецназовцы добива-ют остатки отряда Бэтмена, http://ru.tsn.ua/ukrayina/v-luganske-rossiyskie- specnazovcy-dobivayut-ostatki-otryada-betmena-istochnik-403753.html.

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the inability/unwillingness to implement Minsk agreements by terror-ists, as well as russia itself – is a clear proof that hybrid warfare against ukraine rises in a deadlock. illegal “elections” made by self-proclaimed authorities in Donbas region were intended to show the legality of these elections, but were quite useless in terms of centralizing control in the occupied territories.

this war is also based on civilian’s usage for mass hysteria and oppo-sition to legitimate authority as well as “human shields” to cover armed fighters from russia. in this way mass media plays if not the most im-portant role in creating the “proper”, from aggressor’s point of view, image of the victims in this war, which is much more important than the actual victory itself. Murdering of foreign troops is no longer the main objec-tive – during hybrid warfare, it is enough to kill their own soldiers and at the same time provide the necessary information support.

“for months we are talking about the conflict instead of honestly to tell that it is a war. We are talking about the pro-russian separatists instead of the russian military intervention and terrorists, about plane crash instead of shoot-down. terminology being used is tempered, be-ing used euphemisms and thus reaction is tempered to the events and lulls the awareness of the seriousness of this whole situation. the circle closes, we become (figuratively and literally) victims of our own glitches or false sense of diplomatic conventions. ... We must openly confront, also in the sphere of language, with reality, realistically report and evalu-ate, because language in the information warfare is of great importance and cannot be overestimated, it could be both a weapon and a shield. if we are going to continue arguing against the facts, that this is not a war and that those anonymous “little green men” were not sent by russia with sophisticated weapons – we can expect more victims in eastern Ukraine and still not responding adequately, in relation to the serious-ness of the situation39.

Conclusions

Propaganda during 20th century was very strong and influential, but 21st century propaganda – in accordance to george orwell – “a victim in the eyes of consumers of information is transformed into the aggressor, and

39 J. Saryusz-Wolski, Czy słowa mogą zabijać?, http://wszystkoconajwazniejsze.pl/ jacek-saryusz-wolski-czy-slowa-moga-zabijac/.

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the aggressor – in just an avenger. in fact, information contamination is carried out”40.

every attempt of negotiations and ceasefire process meets with the escalation of the conflict with Moscow. Kremlin propaganda is based on the transmission of information, every time two arguments, both of which are false and mutually exclusive. However, citizens have to believe in: “russia must invade the ukraine, because it is a repressive country”; “Russia should intervene in Ukraine, because it does not exist as a state/nation”.

russian information warfare has been held for a long time and takes place on two fronts. one of them – within the state, another – abroad. anti-ukrainian propaganda in europe, on which russia spends unprec-edented amounts of money, for a long time has a dangerous momen-tum. In 2012, Russia (according to the state media) took first place in the world in financing of propaganda, spending $1,6 billion– more than china and any other countries41. But even those $1,6 billion only applies to some state media. Since 2011 in Russia, new Putin’s unprecedented state program called “Information Society (2011–2020)” is running, de-veloped by the Ministry of communications and Mass Media and the Ministry of Economic Development with a value of $40,6 billion, or about $4 billion per year. The program objectives can be defined as abso-lute coverage of the russian-speaking population of the world by public and private media, which support the state strategy of the russian fed-eration. there are also a number of branches of Kremlin internet-trolls, which aggressively promote Putin’s vision of the world. geography and scale of their activities affect the content of such influential west-ern informational agencies as the Washington Post42, the guardian43,

40 B. grenda, Cyber-bezpieczeństwo operacji powietrznych NATO. W: NATO wobec wyzwań współczesnego świata 2013, r. czulda, r. Łoś, J. reginia-Zacharski (eds.), Warszawa- Łódź 2013, p. 189–201.

41 Г. Канєвський, Машина пропаганди Путіна та інформаційна недолугість Укра-їни, http://www.epravda.com.ua/publications/2014/04/1/433089/.

42 c. Dewey, Hunting for paid Russian trolls in the Washington Post comments section, http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2014/06/04/hunting-for-paid- russian-trolls-in-the-washington-post-comments-section/.

43 The Guardian обеспокоена наплывом комментариев пророссийского характера, http://www.dw.de/the-guardian.

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the new York times, cnn44 and a lot of others45. Till the end of 2014 the amount of public funds spent on propaganda of the “russian values” should have increased to $16,5 billion46.

ukraine should use all the ways to fight, inside the country, with national consciousness in different areas, and outside of ukraine should effectively communicate its position and debunk false news and versions of events.

the intensity and aggressiveness of russian propaganda nowadays ex-ceeded the propaganda during the Cold War. The consequences of such propaganda for russia and ukraine are simply disastrous, and in order to restore the mutual trust we will need to wait for generations. it should be noted that throughout ukraine, russian aggression led to the opposite result than Kremlin was waiting for. Powerful patriotic principles have been formed, which under the conditions of inflation, weakening of the hryvnia, rising unemployment – are trying to live, grow and build a euro-pean democratic country.

to sum up, it must be emphasized that international diplomacy had slept through the awakening of bloodthirsty bear with imperial sentiment, which is very reminiscent of nazi germany, once the entire world was wondering, how so clever german people supported the bloody dictator. Here is the answer: a great machine of propaganda and manipulation, which is now being used in russia, and all citizens of the world, uncriti-cally watching the russian mass media.

References:

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44 c. Dewey, Hunting for paid Russian trolls in the Washington Post comments section, http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2014/06/04/hunting-for-paid- russian-trolls-in-the-washington-post-comments-section/.

45 Документи показали, як армія російських „тролів” атакує Америку, http://dt.ua/WorlD/dokumenti-pokazali-yak-armiya-rosiyskih-troliv-atakuye-ameriku- 144473_.html.

46 Г. Канєвський, Машина пропаганди Путіна та інформаційна недолугість Укра-їни, http://www.epravda.com.ua/publications/2014/04/1/433089/.

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20. Гиркин призвал боевиков покинуть Донбасс после убийства „Бэт-мена”, http://news.liga.net/news/politics/4637129-girkin_prizval_ boevikov_pokinut_donbass_posle_ubiystva_betmena.htm.

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тиукраїнської пропаганди, http://www.telekritika.ua/news_cenzura/ 2014-03-04/91076.

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List of photos

Photograph #1 from Bosnia having to prove the bestiality of the Ukrain-ian armyPhotograph #2 little girl next to the murdered womanPhotograph #3 made in 2009 in Chechnya, signed as a description of ukrainian army activitiesPhotograph #4. From Russian TV station “Mir 24”


o. Wasiuta, S. Wasiuta, Russian Mass-Media Manipulation of Informa-tion in Hybrid Warfare Against Ukraine, “Security Dimensions. interna-tional and National Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 73–98.


NO. 17; 2016 (99–113)

boosTers – a Phenomenon and ThreaTs

assoc. Prof. Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ph.D.Pułtusk Academy of Humanities, POLAND

assoc. Prof. Marzena netczuk-gwoździewicz, Ph.D.Faculty of Social Sciences, the General Tadeusz Kościuszko Military Academy of Land Forces in Wrocław, POLAND

ABSTRACT

the article is an analysis of the issue of drugs consumption, in the historical context, and concentrates on the synthetic drugs production that lasts for the last decades. authors mainly focus on the most present topic – the boosters: their impact on health (intoxication), distribution and production. they consider measures taken by authorities to fight this phenomenon, as well as show its partial efficiency due to changes in boosters production (flexible changes of consistence) and distribution (foreign platforms use).

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsboosters, drugs, psychoactive substances, poisoning

Introduction

In late spring 2015 for the second time in a decade, drug dealers and peo-ple hungry for unhampered profit made a massive booster attack. its result is more than 3 000 poisonings, hundreds of hospital admissions, and most importantly, the high risk of complications as a result of complex reactions of these substances on the central and other human systems.

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Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena netczuk-gwoździewicz

the phenomenon of boosters, which were first disclosed at the end of the last decade, surprises toxicologists, paramedics, prevention staff and psychiatrists, and the phenomenon and problems associated with it are the subject of numerous media discussions and publications. it seems that the two great fights with boosters do not close this problem, which can result in other attempts to introduce on the market very dangerous illegal psychoactive substances in the following months.

Boosters – drugs of ‘higher quality’

‘Classic’ drugs have been known in the scientific analysis for over 100 years but in ‘social’ practice among people for at least 10 000 years (the oldest ones are considered opium, cannabis and amanita muscaria or toadstools). in the second half of the twentieth century they were systemized, which was reflected in the documents of the united nations and national regu-lations. and it was the twentieth century which marked the phenomenon of different national approaches to drugs and visible distinction between restrictive and liberal policies (the most visible image of the latter was the decriminalization of marijuana in the netherlands and permission to its sale in coffee shops). collaterally, drug manufacturers market was being formed with a clear geographical-climatic character as well as organized drug-related crime appeared. there are two principles that became an im-portant feature of drug market development:- their cultivation, production takes place mainly in poor countries with

low level of education and a very poor state power, low democratic tra-ditions (e.g. colombia, Bolivia, Somalia, afghanistan, albania) or in countries undergoing profound transformations (e.g. azerbaijan, Kyr-gyzstan, tajikistan), where often there was a specific marriage of state power, the intelligence services and the criminal world,

- the highest levels of consumption is recorded in the countries of lat-in culture, the rich ones (the biggest drug consumers are the united States and the countries of the european union), democratic and eco-nomically developed. The development of the global drug market began in the 30s of the

twentieth century, although previously in the salons of artistic bohemia of France, the USA, the UK and Germany opium appeared; similarly the market of this drug was developed in china, and india was the area of mass supply of marijuana. it should be assumed that more dynamic con-sumption of drugs in the first half of the twentieth century was closely

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Boosters – a phenomenon and threats

related to two processes: the great economic disparities (not coincidentally the supply of drugs increased during the Great Depression of the 30s) and the development of organized crime. for the world’s largest consumer of drugs – the United States – important were the consequences of the Vi-etnam War (the use of heroin by the soldiers as a result of dramatic stress of war) and the revolution of ‘flower children’ for whom marijuana and heroin were one of the symptoms of freedom.

Moving this trend to Europe in the 60s of the twentieth century began the formation of a new model of continental drug market where, beside the aforementioned substances, amphetamines, ecstasy, lSD and inhal-ants were introduced. conducive to the development of the drug problem was not only the supply of substances but also the Dutch drug policy, de facto releasing the sale of marijuana. the first marks of drugs boom reached Poland in the 70s of the twentieth century, marking its specifici-ty – much higher than in Western europe popularity of volatile solvents and classic heroin substitute in the form of national makiwara (brew made from Polish poppy straw with low psychoactive substance indicant). the 80s brought the activation of the native criminal world which started to play an increasingly important role in european production of amphet-amine. Joining the european union, especially the validity of Schengen agreement, led to a real revolution of drugs, since the opening of borders has enabled criminals to ‘spread the wings’.

We make these observation not by accident as the etiology of the prob-lem of boosters has obvious sources in the european changes, including the Polish drug market. Hence, at the beginning of the twenty-first centu-ry, toxicologists began to signal a completely new phenomenon:- production of stronger substances and combining them with chemical

‘fillers’,- the emergence of the broader supply of new plant and chemical sub-

stances (synthetic) with a strong psychoactive impact; (e.g. khat, methamphetamine),

- development the cocaine market and the growing role of afghanistan in heroin production, which quickly became the no. 1 player in the supply of the drug, with the parallel development of synthetic marijuana market (much stronger psychoactive impact).Against this background, in the first decade of the 21st century, Poland

(particularly lodz and the surrounding cities) became the area of the first booster attack. let us add, a coordinated action, mass, conducted with so

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far unknown great scale. its result was a wide supply of new psychoactive and psychedelic substances. they had specific features, as shown in the first graphic.

Graphic 1. Specific features of boosters

Source: own study

the occurrence of these substances on the market, supported by mass dissemination of the thesis that they are not prohibited by law, led to a rap-id increase in sales. at the same time, the world of crime noted that it is a source of huge profit, which in turn led to the development of organized forms of import, production, distribution, as well as criminal ‘patronage’. as a result, as soon as at the end of the first decade of this century, a sig-nificant share in the supply of legal boosters belonged to criminal groups. In subsequent years, these influences further strengthened. We can assume that about 80 per cent of the current market of these substances are linked to organized drug crime.

a significant meaning to the enormous danger related to boosters have real consequences for their distribution and use. Although the year 2010 brought reports of tragic, including the fatal consequences of their use, three years was enough time for the collective unconscious to set in. this resulted in another booster boom, except that even more dangerous sub-stances which are synthetic derivatives of tHc and amphetamines, were introduced to the market. Some of them are 100 times more fashionable than classical tetrahydrocannabinol in cannabis. countering this type of practices – as expanded further – brought significant revaluation in the operations of criminals. immediately after putting on the list prohibited products, the underworld offered its modified form – often 2–3 days after the decisions outlawing the substance. Such situation quickly drew atten-tion of researchers signaling state institutions fallacy of such an anti-drug and booster model.

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Graphic 2. Booster poisonings in Poland in the years 2013–2015

Source: data of chief Sanitary inspectorate

Boosters alone (the official name ‘substitutes’) are not a homogenous group – they include fully synthetic substances, dried fruit or plant extracts, as well as mixtures. Toxicology practice quickly pointed out to the effects of taking highs: often faster – in comparison with of classical drugs – ef-fects on the human cnS1, which took place after 30–40 seconds since the absorption into the respiratory tract; numerous cases of irreversible brain damage and long-term stay of patients in intensive care units; variability of reactions (their broad spectrum2); diverse and variable composition3.

Graphic 3. Key ways of taking boosters

Source: own study. Image source: http://img.thesun.co.uk/aidemitlum/archive/02144/SNF3108A---MAIN_2144454a.jpg

1 Most of the products defined conventionally as boosters show disrupting activity after 3–4 minutes after absorption into the body.

2 Some substitutes are characterized by a succession of varying reactions – from laughter, the loss of body control, through aggression to momentary returns to psychophysical balance. very often it comes to a complete loss of contact with the surrounding world, which makes it impossible to assess the risks.

3 for example, a substance with the same name may contain a different composition. an additional problem is the unreliability of the descriptions on packaging.

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Boosters – a phenomenon, scale, conditions

While in the years 2004–2006 Poland became the field of wide distri-bution of these substances, which resulted in the launch of more than 1 700 sale points and the rapid increase of patients in the toxicology wards (in total there were nearly 5 000 poisoning cases recorded), the ‘attack’ of 2015 was significantly stronger, based on the more thoughtful actions of criminals, with the extensive use of the internet supply. al-though the holiday period of 2015 succeeded in reducing the supply of legal highs, especially through the elimination of sale points4, the prob-lem itself has not been solved5.

let us remind here that already in the past decade for better coordi-nation of problems related to counteracting boosters, these issues were placed in the chief Sanitary inspectorate and in District Sanitary and epidemiological Stations. While the role of the DSeS is justified entrust-ing cSi the coordination and leading role in this respect was and is in our opinion a mistake, and the effect of that decision was the low efficiency of the activities of a strategic, long- range nature6.

Boosters – searching for explanations

it is not entirely clear what the key reason for the development of produc-tion and market of new drugs is, but it can be assumed that it is a deriva-tive of three processes:- increase in the effectiveness of security authorities to combat drug mar-

ket (boosters often go beyond the means legally prohibited, having sim-ilar to drugs, and often bigger potency). The possibility to quickly avoid punishment or blurring liability has a significant impact on the growth of the supply of these substances,

4 very soon there appeared large distribution networks operated by people known so far for the drug trade, which would indicate a relationship of some distributors with organized crime.

5 Key points of sale placed in prime locations of large and medium-sized cities, often in quite prestigious places (Warsaw – Marszałkowska Street, Łódź – Piotrowska Street). after the administrative closure of these establishments the facilities in which they were placed remained in the hands of the same owners, and only the range of sales changed.

6 it is reasonable that the problem of boosters found its place in the national Bureau for Drug Prevention, which would be logical and would ensure greater efficiency. thus, the current and flawed organizational model – easy to alter – lies at the basis of significant defeats of the Polish state in the fight with legal highs.

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- tendency to produce new substances as derivative of supply model char-acteristic of the model ‘Style pack’ – there is a growing demand for var-ious types of substances ‘supportive’ of contemporary entertainment and recovery from contemporary stress, especially in terms of profession,

- growing interest in psychoactive substances in the groups of teenagers and people prosperous materially, which is in turn derived from social dysfunction, disorganized educational system and expanding the idea of ‘liquid reality’.

Graphic 4. Boosters – new generation of psychoactive substances7

Substances known conventionally as boosters, until they are put on the list of drugs banned or controlled, they are often legal as multiple meas-ures of psychoactive properties, both of natural origin plant, as well as synthetic or their blends8. What is characteristic of the production market is the search for plants growing massively in Poland or abroad, as the raw material base for the new psychedelics.

let us also add that the process of ‘competition’ among offerors of these substances and legal institutions (security) is a kind of ‘race without end’, as the substance being outlawed is immediately replaced by the new one9. this is facilitated by the presence of naturally huge number of plants with psychoactive properties, the prohibition of which is unrealistic (e.g. dead-ly nightshade, cacti, mushrooms with psychoactive properties, datura) or officially used for food production, in industrial chemistry or pharmacy. expanding the market of new dangerous substances favors the dynamic development of new methods for the production of synthetic substances. it allows, for example, to fast modify the composition of the substance in-

7 the fastest growing supply is the supply of amphetamines and tHc.8 officially, according to the law on the prevention of drug use, a term substitute is used.9 that meant that administrative methods to combat boosters which is now preferred by

the Polish state are not an effective way to stop the phenomenon.

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cluded in the list of products prohibited10. it is this trend that has led to the beginning of production and broad supply of synthetic derivatives of tHc.

a characteristic feature of booster market is its constant dynamics and volatility of products, which, among others, hinders its medical and toxi-cological diagnosis. let us also note that the phenomenon of turnover and the use of legal highs was known already in the middle of the previous decade as a consequence of functioning in some countries of Europe and east asia networks and online fun-type shops, Smart shops selling so-called legal highs.

it is also worth to indicate another possible cause of booster attacks in Poland. now, with the two ‘booster attacks’ supporters of marijuana were massively very active, using the following thesis – if boosters are so dangerous, legalize marijuana. Perhaps this may be the strategic objective.

there is no doubt that, despite the media warnings (it is the media not the state institution that are more active in the prevention of this problem), Polish consumers proved to be particularly susceptible to this kind of range of psychoactive substances, which is an interesting research problem for psychology and social prevention11. this is reflected in the toxicological data and scientific publications on these issues, as well as at conferences. as researchers of the issue note, boosters are becoming increas-ingly popular among young people, and the availability of the Internet and specialty shops favours their use12. on the other hand, anna Krakowiak from the institute of occupational Medicine in lodz indicates important di-agnostic problems associated with the spread of boosters supply: commer-cially available preparations are a mixture of different psychoactive substances of unknown a priori composition; their clinical poisoning picture is still poorly documented; we do not really know the effects of other known and present in the subject psychoactive substances (e.g. alcohol, amphetamine and its derivatives, cannabis) on the picture of boosters’ poisoning13. let us add that only in Jan-10 an example could be a modification of mephedrone in buphedrone, as well as devel-

opment of amphetamine-like substances market.11 We do not have a multidimensional concept explaining the phenomenon of boosters

market development and such a rapid increase in drug use by adolescents and young people in the last two decades.

12 P. Biliński, P. Jabłoński M. Jędrzejko, Narkotyki i dopalacze, oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2011, p. 43.

13 a. Krakowiak, Wpływ dopalaczy i nowych narkotyków na zdrowie i zachowania człowie-ka – pierwsze doświadczenia medyczne, instytut Medycyny Pracy w Łodzi, ppt presen-tation, Łódź 2011.

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uary–July 2015 in key public and commercial television stations the issue of boosters was discussed over 40 times – most often in relation to tragic cases of their use.

the phenomenon known as ‘rush to boost’ has also highlighted the weakness of the Polish prevention – the one addressed to the whole soci-ety and the school (it is reasonable to put a thesis that in the first period state institutions did not tackle this great educational, information and prophylactic challenge14, and the formal elimination of sale points did not lead to a long-term reduction of the problem but to ‘the redeployment’ of forces and means of groups trading in boosters. of course, the causes of drug and booster use are not only related to their growing demand15. one can also assume that in the first few months of functioning, these shops introduced to the market from 0,5 to 1 million doses of drugs, using the existing loophole. Currently, the supply can range from 40 thousand to 100 thousand of servings per month (which is significantly higher during the summer and in the period before new Year’s eve time)16 and is ahead of the state institutions activity.

Similar situation turned out to be with the activity of a significant part of Polish local governments, with the critical assessment being fully justified here, as for many months the necessary organizational and legal actions were not taken, leading to more and more apparent threat, e.g. schools were not provided with resources to implement wise, planned and at the same time offensive booster-drug prevention, focusing on responding to specific, often tragic cases. the result of such a model of prevention turned out to be a famous action with participation of the Prime Minister (2010), declaring war on boosters. let us add, the offensive ended in the state fiasco17.

as it was already pointed out, the scale of the phenomenon showed the ineffectiveness of conducted in Poland preventive measures to counteract

14 unfortunately, this is a feature of many other problems, e.g. pro-marijuana campaigns, e-cigarettes, e-gambling, mass promotion of beer, with the result of state institutions being still too late to respond to real threats.

15 See M. Makara-Sudzińska, Uwarunkowania używania narkotyków przez młodzież a doświadczenia przemocy domowej, [in:] Uzależnienie od narkotyków, a. Kurzeja (ed.), Difin, Warszawa 2012, p. 34–46.

16 The biggest breaking of boosters in July 2015 had a market value of about PLN 1,3 million.

17 During this period almost every day numerous cases of poisoning were reported, in-cluding deaths, which made the national authorities take further steps to limit the

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this threat, and more broadly to the whole problem of drug addiction. let us note, for example, that after late spring booster campaign organized by the world of crime (2015) as late as in September preventive actions in schools began. at the same time, they could have been carried out in the summer, for example, on camps, colonies. current actions are nothing but another example of ‘putting out the fire’, because a key objective of preven-tion should be preparation of activities for April–June 2016 when another action of drug dealers and boosters will start.

from the above observations, we can deduce the following conclusions:- boosters represent a new quality of drugs on the Polish market and are

the substances of a very strong effect, they often pose a deadly threat af-ter just one use,

- we cannot predict the far-reaching consequences of the impact of these substances on the CNS and other human systems; they are mostly mul-ti-component substances, containing various components of natural and/or synthetic nature, with the addition of powerful chemicals,

- the same name of the substance does not guarantee the same chem-ical composition.

Boosters in the light of law

one of the key arguments of the authorities is to use the thesis that the problem of legal highs cannot be solved by the final regulations, therefore it is very difficult to control. let us present at this point a significant example. one of the substances that busters consist, is benzylpiperazine (BZP). In 2007, the EMCDDA18 Scientific committee, made an assess-ment of the risk of using psychoactive substances and submitted a report to the council and the european commission. the risk assessment con-cluded that due to the properties of stimulants, the occurrence of health hazards and the risk to health and the lack of therapeutic benefit, it is nec-essary to control BZP. In March 2008, the council adopted the decision defining BZP as a new psychoactive substance that must be subordinate to the rigour of control and criminal law. the Member States had one year to take the necessary steps in accordance with their national law to submit BZP to control measures proportionate to the risks associated with

availability of psychoactive substances. M. Safjański, J. gołębiewski, Zjawisko obrotu dopalaczami w Polsce, „Kwartalnik Policyjny”, 2010, 4 (14), p. 4.

18 the european Monitoring centre for Drugs and Drug addiction based in lisbon.

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the substance, and to apply the penal sanctions as provided for in their legislation complying with their obligations under the un convention on psychotropic substances, 197119. in spite of this, the supply of BZP did not decline.

the cited council Decision and ineffectiveness of actions taken by au-thorities and public service, in relation to boosters distributors are reflect-ed in amendment of the Act on counteracting drug addiction of 20 March 200920, with effect from 8 May, which resulted in annex of the Act includ-ing 18 new substances: 2 synthetic and 16 plants (and their extracts, es-sence, seeds and dried fruit). Benzylpiperazine (BZP) was included in the Annex no. 2 on the list of psychotropic substances of group II-P, the other substances, that is JWH 018 /1-pentyl-3-(1-naphtoyl)indoles/ and Ary-gyreia nervosa, Banisteriopsis caapi, calea Zacatechichi, catha edulis, echinopsis Pachanoi, Kava Kava, leontis leonurus, Mimosa tenuiflora, Mitragyna Speciosa, nymphaea caerulea, Perganum Harmala, Psychotria viridis /chacruna/, rivea corymbosa, Salvia Divinorum, tabernanthe Iboga, Trichocereus Peruvianus were placed in Annex no. 1 on the list of drugs of i-n group.

the introduced amendment brought rapid effect in the form of with-drawal from sale the aforementioned substances, however, it did not solve the problem of sales in shops other psychoactive substances, because on their place chemical modifications of these substances appeared, often faster and stronger. over time, new substances had in their composition the same or very similar active substance (this is particularly true of prod-ucts of plant origin)21.

lack of efficacy in reducing the sale of legal highs and the emergence of new substances led to a new decision to prepare and introduce another amendment of the Polish Act on counteracting drug addiction of 10 June 201022, in force since 25 August 2010. As a result of the amendment, in Annex No. 1 of the Act ‘The list of drugs’ Part 1 ‘Narcotic drugs of I-N group’ the following substances were included: JWH-073, JWH-398, JWH-250, JWH-200, HU-210, CP-47, 497, all belonging to the group of synthetic cannabinoids. 19 eMcDDa, Stan problemu narkotykowego w Europie, sprawozdanie roczne 2008, p. 103.20 Dz.U., nr 63, poz. 520.21 M. Safjański, „Dopalacze” – further canges in the annex to the Law on prevention of drug

addiction, “Kwartalnik Prawno-Kryminalistyczny”, 2010, No. 3 (5), p. 87.22 Dz.U. 2010, nr 143, poz. 962.

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the presented operations solved the problem partially and for a short period, that is, they did lead to proscription of rotation in the substance, but in its place another substance with similar properties was introduced very fast. an important factor for the increase of legal highs supply was establishing numerous e-shops with boosters. Since the beginning of this decade, they have adopted a completely new formula of action:- shops are placed on servers outside the european union, which makes it

difficult to close them,- apart from selling substances, boosters portals provide detailed briefings

of substance use, and often rules of conduct in the case of the Police ‘raid’; ‘impressions’ of users are regularly published on them,

- part of e-shops went on to tor network, which makes it virtually im-possible to trace them.

Characteristics of supply sources in the years 2008–2015

the first important channel allowing the free supply of the boosters were foreign online shops, mainly located in the Benelux countries and the uK23. They provided a place to procure larger quantities of these substanc-es which were then traded on auction sites, classifieds, as well as through small domestic online shops. the growing demand for this type of sub-stances in 2008/2009 resulted in the opening of online shops targeting the Polish consumer (e.g. local prices had been adjusted to it)24.

Profits from e-commerce led to the development of the distribution network and the creation of a network of stationary shops25 – they were supplied with an assortment imported through the main concern26. trou-ble-free import of highs and trading was assured by its qualification as a product intended for collectors, often with clear warnings like ‘the prod-uct is not suitable for human consumption’. After 201227, one more im-portant direction of imports was added – china. 23 Some of them were placed on the islands between great Britain and france.24 the most popular of this type of online shop operated at www.dopalacze.com. ac-

cording to information contained on the website cited, its owner was a foreign trader with the base in cyprus.

25 Still open is the question of involvement in the dealings of organized criminal groups, both domestic and foreign.

26 Most of the goods was a foreign range, adapted for distribution on the Polish market (e.g. the descriptions in Polish language).

27 Which was supposed to protect sellers against office and private accusations in case of severe poisoning and death.

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We should add at this point that consumers’ interest in new psychoac-tive substances resulted in the development of domestic industry organ-ized in the beginning hastily in many regions of the country, which result-ed in several national networks involved in their distribution. Particularly active in this practice were groups with their own shops. this was accom-panied by numerous advertising campaigns and clear marking of booster shops (they were even placed on the most well-known streets of big cities).

at the same time legal highs distributors took a number of meas-ures touting their campaigns, especially on the internet. the model they adopted led to increased interest in opening new shops – potential organ-izers were offered not only credit but also help in organizing stands and training. this caused the effect of ‘snowball’, first in Łódź and Masovian voivodships and then throughout the country. the first months of the functioning of shops with boosters were characterized by:- increased interest in the use of these substances both, by the existing

drug users and the first-time takers,- fast introduction of new substances,- the development of supply facilities for the storage and use of these sub-

stances (the pipes, cigarette holders, water pipes, heaters, burners, etc.). apart from the ‘official’ booster supply channels, the so-called black

market of their production and distribution was developed. at this stage, the production and placing them on the market was dealt with by people who previously have had links to drug production and trading. an impor-tant source of supply of psychoactive substances at the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-first century, especially of plant origin, was having own crop. the seeds necessary for this purpose as well as advice and product range could be sold in online shops – allegedly being the platform for exchange information on natural ways of healing and using plants in the so-called ritual ceremonies28.

Conclusions

in spite of the two years that passed since the entry into force of the ‘anti-booster’ regulations, the market associated with their trade was not restricted. the rules influenced only the change of distribution and the profile of distributors who are more and more associated with criminal environment. it seems that the factor limiting the effectiveness is lack of

28 M. Safjański, J. gołębiewski, Zjawisko obrotu dopalaczami w Polsce…, p. 5–6.

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an effective strategy in this field. a definite reduction of the availability of these substances is an important issue due to their destructive effect on the human body both, somatic and psychic.

References:

1. Biliński P., Jabłoński P, Jędrzejko M., Narkotyki i dopalacze, oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2011.

2. Jędrzejko M., Młodzież w zaburzonym świecie, 2013 Studio Poligraficz-ne edytorka, Warszawa-Dąbrowa górnicza.

3. Kapka-Skrzypczak l., cyranka M., Kulpa P., Wojtyła a., Dopala-cze – stan aktualny i wytyczne na przyszłość, „Medycyna ogólna i nauki o Zdrowiu”, 2011, Vol. 17, No. 4.

4. Makara-Sudzińska M., Uwarunkowania używania narkotyków przez młodzież a doświadczenia przemocy domowej, [in:] Uzależnienie od nar-kotyków, A. Kurzeja (ed.), Difin, Warszawa 2012.

5. Safjański M., gołębiewski J., Zjawisko obrotu dopalaczami w Polsce, „Kwartalnik Policyjny”, 2010, No. 4 (14).

6. Safjański M., Dopalacze – kolejne zmiany w załączniku do ustawy o prze-ciwdziałaniu narkomanii, „Kwartalnik Prawno-Kryminalistyczny”, 2010, No 3 (5).

7. eMcDDa, Stan problemu narkotykowego w Europie, yearly report 2008, 2009.

8. Burda P., presentation Dopalacze-perspektywa toksykologii klinicznej. Medyczne skutki decyzji wycofania dopalaczy z obrotu – dane ze szpitali, conference paper „Dopalacze – nowe wyzwanie dla skutecznego działa-nia instytucji publicznych”, Warszawa 8 December 2010.

9. fijałek Z., presentation Dopalacze –narkotyki syntetyczne nowych ge-neracji. Aktualne wyniki badań”, conference paper „Dopalacze – nowe wyzwanie dla skutecznego działania instytucji publicznych”, Warszawa 8 December 2010.

10. Parlamentary project of the act on the amendment of the act on Counteracting Drug Addiction, Print no 3021, 2010-04-07.

11. the act on the amendment of the act on counteracting Drug ad-diction and the Act on the State Sanitary Inspectorate of 8 October 2010 (Dz.U. 2010, nr 213, poz. 1396).

12. The Act of 15 April 2011 on the amendment of the Act on Counter-acting Drug Addiction (Dz.U., nr 105, poz. 614).

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Authors

Mariusz Jędrzejko is a social educator, an associate professor at Pułtusk academy of Humanities and a scientific director of the centre of Social Prevention, the creator of the concept of boosters.

Marzena netczuk-Gwoździewicz is a psychologist, a special education teacher, an addictions therapist, an assistant professor in the land forces Military academy, faculty of Security.


M. Jędrzejko, M. netczuk-gwoździewicz, Boosters – a phenomenon and threats, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 99–113.

tHeorY of SecuritY


NO. 17; 2016 (116–139)

formalizaTion and insTiTuTionalizaTion of research insTiTuTes in The Police

Police lt. col. eng. Krzysztof tomaszycki, Ph.D.Police Main Headquarters, POLAND

ABSTRACT

formalization and institutionalization of research institutions in the Police are processes and influence its functioning. changing environment wield influence on the operations of institution and its cooperation with objects participating in solving decent crime problems. the article contains the literature analysis in the range of factors impacting these processes and the empirical analysis of researches in the range of factors shaping both processes in decent research environment.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsresearch institution, Police, formalization, institutionalization, norms, organizational culture

Introduction

operation of institution needs to be investigated with taking into consid-eration its relations with inner and outer environment and its remaining in turbulent conditions, depending on elastic adaptation. research insti-tutions in Police as social groups, function in a larger entity, which is the Police. changes in environment influence the conditions of management of research institutions in the Police. those changes affect social, political, legal, logistical, organizational factors. aforementioned changes also take place in relations with outer environment. the Police, as an institution,

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formalization and institutionalization of research institutes…

had to change its operations and become more open for social expecta-tions. getting into Polish market driven social system, loss of privileges for police officers and adaptation of some services, also forensic research or innovational activities to terms of free competition – all that led to changes in the management of the whole institution. operations driven in research institutions in the Police lead to realization of intended goals. considering the sense of institution, it can be stated that its goals are in the centre of this analysis, resulting from purposeful existence of group1. in social sciences, the term “institution” is at the base of many empirical researches, which are directed for its elements. goals of the institutions often are the starting point for researches concerning its operations and the base of institution’s typology2. considering institution from its goals point of view, we can state that the institution is for the realization of pre-viously stated goals. they create its inner formal structure and what can be even more important, the structure of authority. also, they have a direct influence on the level of education of the institution participants and their motivation3. it is that goals of research institution in Police become funda-mental indicators of its processes of formalization and institutionalization.

Formalization and institutionalization of the institution

taking into consideration research institutions within the Police, as or-ganized groups, there is a need to define the word “institution”. as a classic definition of “institution” we can cite t. Kotarbiński who stated that the institution is something consisting of apparatus and personnel. in other words, he states that it consists of people and their apparatus, which are materials, tools and any other helping objects which are used by cooperat-ing people4. considering organization and functioning of the institution, we need to take a look at the range of norms determining rules and the ways of conducting of members of the institution who head toward pre-viously set goals. all these elements concur to formalization of the insti-tution. By contrast, the idea of formalization of the institution means the 1 t. Stalewski, J. Łucewicz, Socjologia organizacji. Zagadnienie wybrane, Wrocławska ofi-

cyna Nauczycielska, Wrocław 1994, p. 57.2 r. Janik, J. Sztumski, Socjologia organizacji, górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa

im. Wojciecha Korfantego, Katowice 2012, p. 28.3 J. Łucewicz, Organizacyjne zachowania człowieka, Wydawnictwo akademii ekono-

micznej im. Oskara Langego we Wrocławiu, Wrocław 1999, p. 40.4 t. Kotarbiński, Traktat o dobrej robocie, wyd. V, Wrocław-Warszawa 1973, p. 107.

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standardization and solidification in written (regulations and other rules of the institution) or/and graphic form (organization scheme, plans and draws) determined rules of functioning of the organizations. the process of formalization consists of several elements of the institution: goals of the institution and strategies that are taken from them. Plus, to do tasks, methods and ways of their realization, as well as its control, division of labor and structure of organization that is delivered from it, model (type) of organizational authority, rules of management functioning and form of cooperation within organization, responsibilities and entitlements of employees, rules of industrial safety, informational responsibilities of man-agement, ways of communication within institution, link between insti-tution and external environment, rules of protection of institution (legal, organizational, logistical) and other elements that are vital to proper func-tioning of the institution5.

talking about the formalization of institution we can notice that the most important elements emerge during the creation of the institution and the formalization mounts up when institution develops. there might occur one adversely phenomenon as the result of over-formalization of institution’s operations. that is bureaucratization6. those kind of behav-iors might result in worse organizational effectiveness, reduced initiative from employees, which in consequence can lead to lesser organizational development, imposed behaviors and administrational outgrowth. that altogether can cause bureaucratization centralization of leading.

Deliberations about the formalization of institution indicate how im-portant set of rules is, which abiding by guarantees its remaining and functioning in changing and complex inner and outer environment. inner environment consists of conditions and forces within institution. on the other hand, outer environment consists of pretty much everything outside the borders of institution and what can influence it. outer environment can be divided into overall and task-oriented7. overall surrounding is

5 M. Jełowicki, W. Kieżun, Z. leoński, B. ostapczuk, Teoria organizacji i zarządzania, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1981, p. 91.

6 Bureaucracy, bureaucratization – (…) slowness, sluggishness, routine, complicated proce-dure, unadjustedness of organization to the needs which it should fulf ill, frustration of that reason for the person working for the organization, its clients and other people cooperating with it – by M. Jełowicki et al., Teoria organizacji. p. 95.

7 r.W. griffin, Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wydawnictwo naukowe PWn, Warszawa 2004, p. 75.

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made of several dimensions, i.e. economical (elements of economic system within which institution operates), technical (technical infrastructure giv-ing the possibility to change resources into crafted articles), socio-cultural (elements of organization’s functioning in environment – customs, habits, values and demographical characteristics of society), political-legal (rela-tionships between institution and state in the range of legal regulations), international (elements of functioning institution within international and mutual relations). outer surrounding is made of: competitors and in-stitutions that fight for resources, clients, suppliers and strategic partners or strategic allies (disadvantaged people but also people participating in solving forensic problems, prosecutor’s office, courts, schools and acade-mies, media, local and central authorities, local communities, ngo’s, rep-resentatives of the Police from other countries, interpol, europol).

Dynamics of processes within the institution and its surrounding, in-teractive character of links between elements and back reactions, all them cause that the institution changes in a time perspective8. Period of formal-ization, when rules are introduced and sustained has a stable organization-al structure, where efficiency of operation is emphasized and institution becomes more conservative.

alongside formalization, crucial process within institution is institu-tionalization. When formalization is aware, predicted, planned, even ar-tificial, then institutionalization is something opposite – unaware, spon-taneous, natural and long-distanced. With institutional attitude there are connected things like values, symbols, rituals, achieving goals using the potential in employees etc. term of institutionalization switches attention for on the cultural dimension of regulation process, for sense and meaning which given community gives to different behaviors in institution. insti-tution undergoing the process of institutionalization shapes social hab-its, cultural norms and values, lifestyle in inner and outer surroundings. institution created in order to fulfill specific goals important for society, which are fulfilling its needs (providing safety, public security, going after criminalists, cooperating with justice institutions and other public services etc.) is a system of interfering relationships thanks to which people un-der management their authorities go for realization of goals. functioning of institutions depends on many factors which consist of psychological 8 r. rutka, Uwarunkowania ewolucji wiedzy o organizacji i zarządzaniu, [in:] Koncepcje

zarządzania. Podręcznik akademicki, M. czerska, a. a. Szpitter (eds.), Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck, Warszawa 2010, p. 24.

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factors linked with working environment and political science connected with authority and its relations. among psycho-social determinants influ-encing functioning of institution we can distinguish: job hierarchy, lead-ership and leading of the institution, clue and the issue of motivation and trust. on a basis of hierarchy we state relationships dependency between elements of institutions. We distinguish several relationships: supremacy, inferiority and equivalence. From the hierarchy of social system there arise some different stages of competencies, i.e. entitlements and range of au-thority. entitlements and authority linked to given ranks of authority is inhered by everyone who get to proper level despite personal values. from sociological point of view it is important that from the hierarchy order we can deduct appreciation and admiration, so authority and prestige of each position and person who is holding it9. the employees of each institution is a group in which there is a certain hierarchy. on that basis we can distin-guish following subgroups: management (set to control operating process of institution), control (set control over employees of institution), techni-cian–specialists (concept jobs, providing instructions and controlling the production process), administration employees and those who help them (introduction and help jobs), production workers (workers servicing pro-duction machines)10. Basic meaning for the functioning of institution has the attitude of management staff and their competences. Mobilizing com-petences of the managing staff in times of change and uncertainty range key leading skills. that is: building strong relationships with and between members of staff, along with high level of trust and respect, motivating and activating to work people often reluctant to take risk , lost and/or not appreciating themselves. vital are also political awareness and personal “to do” skills, for example ability to come across new people which helps to succeed in job with taking down cultural and functionality splits. last but not least, the essential thing is the ability to train, to activate, sustain and help out with directed training and development of employees.

Managers situated in the hierarchy of institution on higher levels, hav-ing essential competences and fulfilling their roles, are, in a micro-per-spective, at the same level as other employees from the point of view of basic cultural values of given institution. on that basis we can assume that

9 J. Sztumski, Socjologia pracy, górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa im. Wojciecha Korfantego, Katowice 1999, p. 99.

10 Ibidem, p. 126.

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the structure of the organization as well as results of their work can be fig-ured out by appealing to specific values of culture. institutional culture of organization is constructed by the institution itself and the elements that shape it. in that approach, organizational culture is determined by other organizational elements11. e. Shein defied organizational culture as: sys-tem of common basic assumptions, which have been adopted by a group during problems with climatizing to surrounding and inner integration, functioning in such a good way to be assumed as legitimate, thus which new members should be thought as proper way of thinking and feeling in reference to aforementioned problems12. Some aspects of organizational culture are obvious, other hard-er to notice, because they add up to inner resource of institution, which not always the institution wants to share.

reassuming, we can say that formalization is infixing institution in rules. institutionalization hence, is culture.

Research institutes in the Police

The process of implementing of formal requirements in research institute of the Police has been forced by the council’s framework Decision in a case of accreditation of forensic services suppliers delivering laboratory operations13, to certify forensic research in range of Dna and finger-print technology identification. in normalized managing systems, institution undergoes process of certification and accreditation. Quality management system is a part of a complex institutional management. Quality is an universal rule, visible attribute, social relation and process approach. in overall meaning, quality may be defined as visible quiddity (products), ac-tivities (results) and feelings (for example satisfaction)14. introduction of a quality management system is not the very last stage but rather opens quite long process of sustaining and developing the system. Achieving the improvement of institutional management system will be possible thanks to implementation of so called dynamic management. Managing staff 11 D. Walczak-Duraj, Socjologia dla ekonomistów, Polskie Wydawnictwo ekonomiczne,

Warszawa 2010, p. 125–126.12 e. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey Bass, San Francisco 1992, p. 5.13 Council Framework Decision 2009/905/JHA of 30 November 2009 on Accreditation

of forensic service providers carrying out laboratory activities, official Journal of the eu-ropean Union, L 322/14, 2009.12.09.

14 J. Macias, Efektywność zarządzania w świetle prakseologii i norm, „Problemy Jakości” nr 9/2011, p. 15–18.

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able to create and passing precise vision (in order to harmonize operations in several stages of institution), cooperation skills in changing configu-rations and perfect way of communicating (gathering, seeking, process-ing information) using technology in interpersonal contacts and group processes – all that is a basis of dynamic management of functioning of research institution in the Police. it can be used by any institution which is able to define external customer, no matter what sector it represents15. evaluation of operations along with constant development of normalized management systems have requirements status in each standard affecting those systems. Problematic aspects of constant development of the in-stitution is associated with its creator, William edward Deming16. Basic model in range of constant development (shortcut PDca – first letters for activities) consists of four stages: Plan, Do, check, act17. those stages are strongly connected and make up for end cycle used for development of functioning in a formal way of research institutions in the Police.

Apart from formal requirements – a result of the necessity of imple-menting normalized quality management system in research institutions in Police, vital element is the organizational structure of the Police. the structure of the Police Headquarters is a structure of linearity and staff, based on unity of ordering tasks and specialized assistance of manage-ment. there have been created special staff units and jobs, which help linear chiefs with issues tackling the management of “their” units or or-ganizational units (on call officers in the Police staffs, press spokesmen and plenipotentiaries of chiefs on several fields etc.). Structures of linearity and staff are typical ones that we can come across in different organiza-tional units in the Police. as an instance we can point out the structure of each Voivodship Police Headquarter which is based on organizational rules. each organizational rule of units of lower level is accepted by chief of higher level. Suitably, rules of voivodship headquarters and Capital Po-lice Headquarter is accepted by the Police Commander-in-Chief. The same situation is with units that report directly to voivodship command-er-in-chief of the Police (city police units, county units, independent units). it is him who accepts organizational rules of those units. alike, it is

15 P. Jedynak, Znormalizowane systemy zarządzania. Modele, funkcje, wymagania, Wy-dawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2011, p. 9.

16 Ibidem, p. 111–112.17 e. Skrzypek, M. Hofman, Zarządzanie procesami w przedsiębiorstwie. Identyfikowanie,

pomiar, usprawnienie, Wolters Kluwer business, Warszawa 2010, p. 134–135.

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the same with research institutes in Police. on central level it is the cen-tral forensic laboratory of the Police – research institute, while on local levels there are capital forensic laboratory of the Police and voivodship forensic laboratories of the Police. functioning of those institutions is based on organizational rules with stable organizational structure and ac-ceptance (certification or accreditation) of Quality Management Systems. that reflects formalization of functioning of those institutions. Different role is played by institutionalization of research institutes in the Police which includes organizational culture, values and cultural norms in every-day work, which have an effect in mutual inner and outer environment cooperation. important element of institutionalization is a process of re-cruitment, selection and training of future assessors in each scopes of fo-rensic research, which is based on inner experiences of institution.

Methodology of research

in empirical research a case study in documents’ analysis has been used as well as in quality and quantitative researches. That is a method that al-lows to gather an enormous amount of valuable information. it also gives a base to analyze case study that differs in time. that feature affects the scope of usage of this method to describe processes of formalization and institutionalization of research institutions in the Police as an instance of functioning of finger-print workplace. for a specific case, finger-print researches have been used. finger-print researches are conducted in “fin-ger-print workplace” (fingerprint examination Department of central forensic laboratory of the Police on central level and fingerprint Sec-tions in voivodship forensic laboratories and capital forensic labo-ratory on local levels), which is an organizational unit of the Police, by fingerprint experts with a supervision of managers, contracted by units conducting criminal proceeding (i.e. policemen of criminal service, prose-cutors of different levels, judges).

Basic method that has been used was the survey method, where a tool was an environmental survey18 set for contractors as well as units ordering fingerprint researches. results from surveys have been worked out under statistical processing. During the presentation of statistical data, a method of description and mathematical statistics have been used.

18 J. Sztumski, Wstęp do metod i technik badań społecznych, (wyd. vii), Wydawnictwo „Śląsk”, Katowice 2010, p. 193.

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intentional choose of a sample has been performed – typical units choice. the method of typical units choice is based on choice of that units which have values or feature categories that are typical for given collectivity19. on a basis of units analysis that participate in solving specific criminal prob-lems, units participating in empirical research have been named. on one hand they are research contractors: fingerprint experts (direct fingerprints contractors) and management (management of forensic laboratories). on the other hand we can name units ordering researches: criminal service po-licemen, prosecutors, judges. Survey researches are based on surveys sent to specific units. In consequence of empirical researches, 3982 filled surveys have been delivered. Hence, not all of them were correctly filled, so they needed to be checked for possible mistakes. As a result, 3931 of surveys turned out to be correct. Preconceived rule that units ordering fingerprint researches fill at least one survey in each organizational unit in Police, prose-cutor’s office and court, turned out to be correct. By contrast the contractors of researches were asked to fill the survey by each employed expert and the representative of management. number of surveys of each type is shown in table no. 1. What is worth noticing, is the fact that the number of surveys filled in a correct way is 22 times more from the side of units ordering than the contractors. the amount of surveys filled by the management supervis-ing researches is only 0,81% of all correctly filled ones.

Table no. 1. Number of responses for surveys for empirical researches

units ordering researches research contractors

crim

inal

Se

rvic

e

Polic

emen

(P

olice

)

Pros

ecut

ors

(Pro

secu

tor’s

o

ffice

)

Judg

es

(cou

rt)

Man

agem

ent

Staff

(M

anag

emen

t)

exp

erts

(exp

erts)

number of participants 1685 1554 521 32 131

% in research sample

42,86% 39,53% 13,25% 0,81% 3,54%

Source: self-research based on empirical research, N=3931.

19 M. rószkiewicz, J. Perek-Białas, D. Węziak-Białowolska, a. Zięba-Pietrzak, Projek-towanie badań społeczno-ekonomicznych. Rekomendacje i praktyka badawcza, Wydawnic-two Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2013, p. 183.

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among the research of processes connected with formalization of re-search institutes in Police, there were certain issues:1. Concerning knowledge of organizational rules of research institute in

the Police,2. Concerning implementation of Quality Management system in re-

search institute in the Police,3. Concerning ownership of accreditation for forensic research,4. Concerning conduction of forensic research by research institute in Po-

lice based on given procedures,5. Concerning monitoring of quality of conducted forensic research.

graphics shown below present the results of empirical researches con-cerning formalization in research institutes in the Police. During the re-search, the survey of five-degree linker scale where respondents gave their answers, has been used. values on comparative charts reflect to answers from interviewed units and have been set into three intervals: negative (no, rather no), lack of opinion and positive (yes, rather yes). Hence, for the whole research sample they have been shown graphics which state for values like: no, rather no, i don’t have opinion, rather yes, yes.

Graphic no. 1 shows a comparative opinion of units, concerning the knowledge of organizational rule of research institute in Police.

Graphic no. 1. Opinion of units, concerning the knowledge of organizational rule of research institute in the Police


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We can notice the polarization of answers. units ordering forensic researches gave negative answers (respectively: criminal service police-men – 77,21%, prosecutors – 89,00%, judges – 96,55%), when contractors of forensic researches gave positive answers (respectively: management staff – 100%, direct contractor experts – 94,96%). Such difference of an-swers implicates that the employees of research institutes in Police know organizational rules of their institution, when units ordering ones, do not.

In graphic no. 2 has been presented opinion of the whole research sample concerning the knowledge of organizational rules of research in-stitute in the Police. Results of the surveys show that 60,60% of inter-viewees do not know organizational rules of research institute in the Po-lice to which they order forensic researches. 20,61% of interviewees said that they “rather don’t know” such rules and 4,99% of them do not have opinion on that matter. Only 13,81% (respectively: 9,21% “rather know” and 4,60% know) of interviewees answered positively on the matter of organizational rules knowledge.

Graphic no. 2 Opinion of the whole research sample concerning the knowledge of organizational rules of research institute in Police


next issue that indicates the process of formalization of research insti-tute in the Police is the implementation of Quality Management System in this institution. In graphic no. 3 has been shown the opinion of the

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whole research sample on that matter. as a leading answer there was the one stating “I don’t know/have opinion” – 70,19%. Positive answers we re-ceived from 17,91% (respectively: rather yes – 10,89% and 7,02% for yes). Number of negative opinions was 11,90% (respectively: no – 6,05% and 5,85% – rather no). Taking into consideration data from the chart we can indicate that units that order researches said “i don’t know/have opinion” (respectively: criminal service policemen – 65,15%, prosecutors – 76,06%, judges – 86,37%). Hence contractors answered in a positive way (respec-tively: management staff – 90,63%, experts – 74,10%). Such difference in opinions also indicates that only contractors committed to implement and sustain Quality Management System in research institute in Police.

Graphic no. 3 Opinion of the whole research sample concerning implementation of Quality Management System in research institute in Police


another issue that indicates the process of formalization of research institute in the Police is accreditation in the scope of conducted forensic researches. Opinion of whole research sample is shown in picture 4.

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Graphic no. 4 Opinion of the whole research sample concerning accreditation in the scope of conducted forensic researches


also in this case, as well as in the Quality Management system, in-terviewees answered “i don’t know/have opinion” as a leading answer – 75,10%. Positive opinions – 14,22% and negative – 10,68%. Such differ-ence in opinions indicates that interviewees saying “i don’t know/have opinion” really do not have a knowledge about whether the institution has accreditation in a scope of conducted forensic researches.

the issue with a strong emphasis for the process of formalization, is an assessment of research institute under conducted forensic researches based on guidelines and procedures. this element of formalization pro-cess indicates a very tight relationship of functioning research institute in the Police based on normalized system of rules. In graphic no. 5 has been shown the interviewees’ opinion on conduction of forensic research by the research institute in the Police based on guidelines and procedures.

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Graphic no. 5 Opinion of the whole research sample concerning conduction of forensic researches based on guidelines and procedures


Predominant answer is “I don’t know/have opinion” – 48,23%, but not many less answers were positive – 56,24%. There was only 5,52% of neg-ative ones. from that answers we can conclude that interviewees know that ordered forensic researches are based on guidelines and procedures. that affects contractors of forensic researches – experts, management staff supervising functioning of research institutes and direct ordering units – criminal service policemen.

last issue connected with the process of formalization of research insti-tute in the Police is forensic researches quality monitoring – picture no. 6.

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Graphic no. 6 Opinion of the whole research sample concerning forensic researches quality monitoring


Monitoring of researches should be conducted on each level of foren-sic researches. Monitoring activities guarantee opinion on highest quality level avoiding random formal and substantive mistakes. Main opinion is “I don’t know/have opinion” – 65,89%, next is negative – 21,09%, positive opinion is only 13,02%. It indicates that interviewees do not have opinion on that matter or they have negative one.

among all processes with institutionalization of research institutes in the Police, some issues occurred:1. Concerning cooperation between units participating in solving specific

forensic problem,2. Concerning the exchange of knowledge between units participating in

solving specific forensic problem,3. Concerning participation in common meetings and briefings of units

participating in solving specific forensic problem,4. Concerning the issue of getting entitlements for conducting forensic

researches for one’s own.in graphics below, results of empirical researches of institutionaliza-

tion in research institutions in the Police are shown. results are shown in pretty much the same way as in the results of empirical researches of institutionalization in research institutions in the Police.

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In graphic no. 7 we can notice a comparative opinion of researched units concerning cooperation between those units in solving specific fo-rensic problem.

Graphic no. 7 Opinion of researched units concerning cooperation between those units in solving specific forensic problem


opinions of researched units concerning cooperation between those units in solving specific forensic problem are different for units ordering researches and different for contractors of forensic researches. units that order researches say that there is a lack of this cooperation (respective-ly: criminal service policemen – 51,99%, prosecutors – 57,53%, judges – 65,83%). On the other hand, contractors of researches say that there is a cooperation indeed (respectively: management staff – 90,63%, experts/direct contractors – 72,66%). For the whole research sample, leading opin-ion is negative – 54,06%, while for the existence of cooperation there were 30,68% of interviewees opinions. Results are shown in graphic no. 8.

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Graphic no. 8 Opinion of whole researched sample concerning cooperation between those units in solving specific forensic problem


another issue connected with the process of institutionalization is a matter of knowledge exchange between units participating in solving forensic problems. Results are shown in picture no. 9. Majority of inter-viewees – 66,42% said that there is absolutely no knowledge exchange. Only 15,54% of interviewees answered positively.

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Graphic no. 9 Opinion of whole researched sample concerning knowledge exchange between units participating in solving forensic problems


Participation in common meetings or briefings of units taking part in solving forensic problems is another issue in a process of institutionaliza-tion of research institute in the Police. interviewees responded negatively in 59,35%. Participation in meetings or briefings was confirmed only by 21,70%. Results of empirical researches of an issue mentioned above is il-lustrated in graphic no. 10.

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Graphic no. 10 Opinion of whole researched sample concerning participation in common meetings or briefings of units taking part in solving forensic problems


In graphic no. 11 we can notice an interviewees’ opinion concerning exchange of remarks in scope of conducted forensic researches. 90,31% of interviewees indicate that the exchange of remarks is no good (negative answers). Only 3,99% of them said it was ok. Such difference in answers shows that there is a lack of remarks exchange among units participating in solving forensic problems.

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Graphic no. 11 Opinion of whole researched sample concerning exchange of remarks in scope of conducted forensic researches


last issue that was looked into paying special attention to institution-alization of research institute in the Police, is a way of getting entitle-ments to perform forensic researches by candidates for forensic experts (assessors). Major opinion in that matter is “i don’t know/have opinion” – 78,12%. After an analysis of opinions, it can be stated that contractors of researches have positive opinions on that system (respectively: manage-ment staff – 75%, experts – 64,03%), while units ordering “don’t know” the system (respectively: criminal service policemen – 82,49%, prosecutors – 76,64%, judges – 86,95% said “I don’t know/have opinion”). The reason of unfamiliarity is lack of passing this information to other units.

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Graphic no. 12 Opinion of whole researched sample concerning getting entitlements to perform forensic researches

Source: self-research based on empirical research , N=3931

summary

the conduction of empirical researches and their results led to analysis in scope of two processes taking place in research institute in the Police: formalization and institutionalization. results show that interviewees as-sessing those processes have different king of knowledge about them.

Process of formalization based on implementation and abiding by the rules of functioning the institution is not fully known by the respondents other than participants of research institute in the Police, i.e. management staff and direct contractors – experts. as a leading issue in a process of formalization, the level of knowledge of organizational rules in research institute in Police, has been assumed. interviewees answered negatively in 81,21%. Alongside leading issue, other ones in connection with formal-ization of institution have been analyzed. the analysis of results indicate that respondents do not have opinion in scope of:- implementation of the Quality Management System in research insti-

tute in the Police – 70,19%,- ownership of accreditation in scope of conducted forensic

research – 75,10%,

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- conduction of forensic researches based on procedures and guidelines by research institute – 48,23% of answers, where 46,24% of them were positive,

- monitoring of quality of conducted forensic research – 65,85%.Scrutinous analysis of received answers indicate for division of respond-

ents into two groups, which asses the issue of formalization in the Police in a totally different way. units ordering forensic research – criminal service policemen, prosecutors, judges – do not have opinion, while contractors of ordered researches – management staff, experts – present positive attitude. Performing operations of implementing normalized managing systems and conduction of specific activities should be delivered by contractors, but the information of such activities should also be passed to units that participate in solving forensic problem. lack of information passage of formalization operations to other units is one of basic elements that create cooperation between units. issues of cooperation are very important when comes to institutionalization of research institute in the Police.

Institutionalization, which often enough is equated with organization-al culture, was a vital element of empirical researches that were conducted. as a leading issue in a process of institutionalization, the level of coopera-tion between units participating in solving forensic problem, has been set. Interviewees assessing the level of cooperation in 54,06% showed negative attitude. Only 30,68% of them gave positive answers. Alongside leading issue, the process of institutionalization has been enriched with other is-sues that underwent researches and analysis of results. the results of sur-veys show:- Knowledge exchange between units participating in solving forensic

problem – 66,42% negative answers,- Participation in common meeting and briefings of units participating in

solving forensic problem – 59,35% negative answers,- Exchange of remarks in scope of delivered forensic researches – 90,31%

negative answers,- System of getting entitlements for self-conduction of forensic research-

es – 78,12% of interviewees do not have opinion.alike the case of formalization process, the process of institutionaliza-

tion with enriched analysis, taking into consideration answers of units, is assessed double-sided. ordering units gave negative answers, while con-tractors of forensic researches responded positively for performed activities.

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Processes taking place in research institute in the Police are assesses double-sided by units participating in solving forensic problems. Differ-ence in received answers indicates for the lack of cooperation and infor-mation passage on the matter of functioning of research institutes in the Police. Inadequacy in relationships require different, new approach which should be created by institution’s management staff. That process requires specific actions, which should be performed by representatives of manag-ing staff from the Police units in which research institutes are located.

References:

1. griffin r. W., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wydawnictwo na-ukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004.

2. Janik r., Sztumski J., Socjologia organizacji, górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa im. Wojciecha Korfantego, Katowice 2012.

3. Jedynak P., Znormalizowane systemy zarządzania. Modele, funkcje, wy-magania, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2011.

4. Jełowicki M., Kieżun W., leoński Z., ostapczuk B., Teoria organizacji i zarządzania, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1981.

5. Kotarbiński t., Traktat o dobrej robocie, (wyd. v), Wrocław – Warsza-wa 1973.

6. Łucewicz J., Organizacyjne zachowania człowieka, Wydawnictwo akade-mii Ekonomicznej im. Oskara Langego we Wrocławiu, Wrocław 1999.

7. Macias J., Efektywność zarządzania w świetle prakseologii i norm, „Pro-blemy Jakości” nr 9/2011.

8. rószkiewicz M., Perek-Białas J., Węziak-Białowolska D., Zięba-Pie-trzak a., Projektowanie badań społeczno-ekonomicznych. Rekomendacje i praktyka badawcza, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2013.

9. rutka r., Uwarunkowania ewolucji wiedzy o organizacji i zarządzaniu, [in:] Koncepcje zarządzania. Podręcznik akademicki, czerska M., Szpitter A. A. (red.), Wydawnictwo C. H. Beck, Warszawa 2010.

10. Schein e., Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey Bass, San Francisco 1992.

11. Skrzypek e., Hofman M., Zarządzanie procesami w przedsiębiorstwie. Identyfikowanie, pomiar, usprawnienie, oficyna a Wolters Kluwer busi-ness, Warszawa 2010.

12. Stalewski t., Łucewicz J., Socjologia organizacji. Zagadnienie wybrane, Wrocławska Oficyna Nauczycielska, Wrocław 1994.

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13. Sztumski J., Socjologia pracy, górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa im. Wojciecha Korfantego, Katowice 1999.

14. Sztumski J., Wstęp do metod i technik badań społecznych, (wyd. vii), Wy-dawnictwo „Śląsk”, Katowice 2010.

15. Walczak-Duraj D., Socjologia dla ekonomistów, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2010.

Legal acts:16. Council Framework Decision 2009/905/JHA of 30 November 2009

on Accreditation of forensic service providers carrying out laboratory activ-ities, Official Journal of the European Union, L 322/14, 2009.12.09.

Author

Krzysztof tomaszycki, Ph.D. eng. Doctor of Philosophy in scope of so-ciology, specialized in sociology of dispositional groups, criminology and public security. Practitioner, expert in fingerprints research, longstanding chief of fingerprint examination Department of central forensic labora-tory of the Police research institute. author of numerous publications con-cerning fingerprint technology, criminology, management and sociology.


K. tomaszycki, Formalization and Institutionalization of Research In-stitutes in the Police, “Security Dimensions. international and national Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 116–139.

HoliStic PerSPective of KineSiological aSPectS

of SecuritY culture


NO. 17; 2016 (142–156)

Training load and Training effecTiveness in The PreParaTory Phase by The case of kickboxing fighTers of uks gladiaTor club

assoc. Prof. tadeusz ambroży, Ph.D.The Faculty of Physical Educ. & Sport, University of Physical Education in Cracow, POLAND

amadeusz Kwiatkowski, M.a.The University of Physical Education in Cracow, POLAND

assoc. Prof. Dariusz Mucha, Ph.D.The Faculty of Physical Educ. & Sport, University of Physical Education in Cracow, POLAND

Krzysztof Wrześniewski, Ph.D.The Faculty of Physical Educ. & Sport, University of Physical Education in Cracow, POLAND

assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D.University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, POLAND

ABSTRACT

the aim of the paper it to analyze the effectiveness of training of fighters of uKS gladiator club in the preparatory phase and to analyze training loads used during that time. Participants included a group of 12 fighters of UKS Gladiator Club who have achieved high sports results – this group includes medalists of Polish championships and of the cup of europe. test were carried three times in the preparatory phase. Physical fitness parameters have been evaluated by means of selected tests of eurofit testing battery. Summing up, it should be noted that an important cognitive element of the research carried out is an observation of improvement of the level of physical fitness in case of the majority of investigated features, which was the intended effect of training in the preparatory phase. the adopted training load has caused an average increase of investigated parameters, which proves training effectiveness.

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training load and training effectiveness…

Introduction

Kickboxing was created and popularized in the united States. its roots are found in far eastern martial arts. eastern martial arts reached the united States through soldiers carrying out military service in various countries. together with soldiers came numerous immigrants who opened schools of close combat arts and the golden period of far eastern marital arts started because of popularity of exoticism. as a result of ongoing commer-cialization, sports competition in those disciplines combined with obtain-ing sports results started as well. In 1960s Mike Anderson, an instructor of karate, adopted techniques of classic box and combined them with karate and tae kwon do kicks for the first time. this has resulted in new sports discipline called american Karate or full contact Karate1.

In 1968 first full contact karate tournament was organized (however, at the time participants did not yet wear body protection against too strong kicks), which resulted in a great number of injuries (almost all contestants were injured) and led to introduction of pads which have been used to this day. In 1970 in Florida a fight between contestants lewis and Baines was labelled as full contact karate, but this time with the use of pads. this fight received incredible media coverage. Since this fight the name kickboxing started to be used. In 1974 first World championship in Kickboxing were organized.

At present kickboxing is a combination of boxing punching techniques with kicking techniques borrowed from Eastern marital arts2. various forms of sports competitions are used: 1. Musical forms which is a type of competition in which contestants per-

form a staged fight with one or several opponents to music.

1 K. Wieczorek, Podstawy Kick-boxingu. Historia, technika, metodyka treningu [the basis of kick-boxing. History, technique and methodology of training], Siemiatycze 2008.

2 l. ufel, Świat Kickboxingu [the world of kickboxing], Wydawnictwa Sport i turysty-ka, Warszawa 1991.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordskickboxing, preparatory training, training effectiveness, training load

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tadeusz ambroży, amadeusz Kwiatkowski et al.

2. Semi-contact is a fighting discipline in which fighters fight with a goal of scoring the greatest number of points by using correct, precise, light and well-controlled punching and kicking techniques. This is a techni-cal discipline which emphasizes the speed and accuracy of techniques equally, and scoring is based on the rule of controlled actions. The fight is halted directly after a successful action and points are awarded.

3. Light contact is a continuous fight. It is very important for the punch-ing and kicking techniques to be light. Fighting too hard can be a rea-son for disqualification.

4. Full contact is a match in which punches and kicks can be made with full power and strength. fights can be held only in rings with strict-ly defined parameters. Forbidden techniques include attacking with the knee, kicking the opponent below the hip line as well as attacking with the elbow, the forearm, the knife-hand, striking backhanded, spin-ning backfist. contestants fight with naked torsos and head protection, mouth-guard, gloves for full contact sport, groin protection, shin guard and foot protection, hand wraps are compulsory too.

5. Low kick is a fighting form during which punching and kicking tech-niques can be used with full power and strength; thighs can be attacked as well. Prohibited techniques include attacking with the knee, attack-ing with the elbow, the forearm, the knife-hand, striking backhanded, punching from above. contestants fight with naked torsos and wear shorts. obligatory protection include head protection, mouth-guard, gloves for full contact sport, groin protection, shin guard and foot pro-tection, hand wraps are compulsory too.

6. K 1 is a form of fighting in which punching and kicking techniques have to be performed with full strength and power and which allows attacking thighs and attacking with the knee. Prohibited techniques in-clude elbow techniques, attacking with the forearm and the knife-hand. Depending on tournament, it is prohibited to attack the head with the knee (then it is allowed to attack the torso repeatedly with the knee) or to perform repeated attacks with the knee (then it is allowed to attack the head with the knee). contestants fight with naked torsos, they wear shorts. obligatory protection include head protection, mouth-guard, gloves for full contact sport 10 Oz, groin protection, shin guard and foot protection, hand wraps are compulsory too.

7. Muay Thai is fighting in which punching and kicking techniques have to be performed with full strength and power and which it is allowed

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to attack thighs, to attack with the knee, the elbow and the forearm. Prohibited techniques include attacking the groin and the back part of the body. it is also allowed to attack knee joints. clinching is allowed as well. contestants fight with naked torsos and wear shorts. obligatory protection include head protection, mouth-guard, gloves for full contact sport 10 Oz or 12 Oz, groin protection, shin guard and foot protection, hand wraps are compulsory too.

8. full contact Karate is fighting which is used by karate organizations and which is an intermediary element between the rules of K 1 and low kick. In this fighting punching and kicking techniques have to be performed with full strength and power, it is allowed to attack thighs. Single attack to the torso with the knee is allowed as well. Prohibited techniques in-clude attacking with the elbow, the forearm, the knife-hand, kicking the head with the knee. Duration of a fight is 3 rounds, 2 minutes each. Con-testants fight with naked torsos and wear long trousers. obligatory pro-tection includes full contact helmet, mouth-guard, gloves for full contact 10 Oz, groin protection, shin protection, hand wraps are compulsory too. training load and competition burden in kickboxing characterize ef-

fort made by a contestant. the magnitude of this effort exerts a direct influence on the energetic and psychological sphere organism and can positively or negatively influence the effectiveness of training process. the relations between used loads and their effects in organism are subject of the analysis which confirm the effectiveness of training process.

load applied during physical (training) exercises and in the course of a sports fighting (starting operation) can be divided into:- external one – it is identified with physical effort which is made dur-

ing training,- internal one – this is individual reaction of the body to effort, which is

expressed by the level and character of physiological and biochemical changes, as well as the level of psychological engagement. external load is the product of volume, namely the work that was made,

and intensity, namely the value of developed power. Whereas the volume of training work causes long-term functional changes and exerts influence on the length of maintaining shape, intensity decides about the speed at which it is obtained. in order to obtain better and better results, it is nec-essary to increase training load3.

3 Obciążenia treningowe, dokumentowanie i opracowywanie danych [training load, docu-menting and compiling data], H. Sozański, D. Śledziewski (eds.), Wydawnictwo coS, Warszawa 1995.

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Tab. 1. Classification of load according to applied means takes three areas of influence into account:

area Means Symbol effect

1Means having comprehensive nature.

Wthey shape contestants’ general fitness. they do not influence the development of special fitness.

2 targeted means. u they develop leading features.

they get fitness ready for specialist need.

3 Means having special nature. S they develop movement and performance

characteristics for starting needs.

There are three types of training means (table 1) and five scopes of intensity in which heart rate before and directly after effort (Hr) and duration of effort are used as criteria (table 2).

Tab. 2. Classification of load in the energy area is related to performing exercises and specific intensity.

Scope type of effort intensity Heart rate Duration of effort

ianaerobic effort (supporting effort).

very low or low. From 130 to 140.

a few or several hours.

iiaerobic effort (developing effort).

Moderate or high. From 160 to 180.

from 300 s to 3 and more hours of continu-ous work.

iiiaerobic and anaerobic effort (mixed effort).

High or submaximal. Above180. up to 300 s.

iv anaerobic, lactic acid effort.

Submaximal or close to maximal.

above 190.

From 20 s to 120 s.

vanaerobic, non-lactic acid effort.

close to maximal and maximal.

From 130 to 180.

up to 20 s.

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vi scope is also found in literature, which is defined as one that strengthens anabolic changes in muscles (strength training).

an analysis of load is based on presenting energetic costs incurred as a result of effort, thanks to transforming data about partial and summary time of performed work. as a result of the fact that training load is a reac-tion of the organism to the used means, presenting energetic costs seems to be closest to real structure of load.

Fundamental start burden in amateur kickboxing lasts 8 minutes, but it has to be divided into three periods of continuous, 2 minute long work, namely rounds separated by two periods of incomplete rest lasting 1 minute, namely breaks between subsequent rounds. When analyzing the work of contestants in energy areas it can be concluded that in kickboxing we deal mainly with work in the fourth and fifth scope (round) as well as the third scope (the whole fight). Situation changes a bit during professional fights where rounds last 3 minutes and where contestants work mainly in the third scope. In case of such efforts, lasting up to 20 minutes, energy needs of the organism are satisfied by blood glucose and liver and muscle glycogen4.

a classic training cycle of a kickboxing contestant involves a complex of organizational activities, studies and training tasks which aim to devel-op fitness and then stabilize and use it, as well as necessary regeneration. A 12-month training of kickboxing fighters can be divided into macrocy-cles, mesocycles and microcycles5.

long cycles (macrocycles) – they most often last twelve or six months, which are related to the specificity of rivalry in this discipline; they are divided into three phases: the preparatory phrase (developing form), the participation phase (stabilization and application of form), the transitional phase (partial and controlled reduction of form); in order to optimize form both volume and intensity have to change incrementally in accordance with the rule of gradual increase of training load. Many trainers resign from the transitional phase because of a tight schedule of participation in competitions6 (tab.3).4 a. ronikier, Fizjologia sportu [the physiology of sport], Biblioteka trenera, coS,

Warszawa 2001.5 t. ulatowski, Teoria Sportu. Trening [the theory of sport. training], resortowe centrum

Metodyczno-Szkoleniowe Kultury Fizycznej i Sportu, vols I & II. Warszawa 1992.6 t. ambroży, D. Mucha, D. ambroży, a. ostrowski, J. omorczyk, Logistyka działań

w procesie treningu zawodników ju-jitsu [logistics of actions in the course of ju-jitsu fighers’ training], „Logistyka”, 2014, no 6, p. 13964-13974.

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training periodization in kickboxing involves two main start periods in which the most important competitions are held in april/May, this is the time when such competitions as Polish championship, the cup of Poland, the World cup, the cup of europe are organized, and in September, when World championship and european championship are organized.

Tab. 3. An outline of a macrocycle7Pr

e-sta

rt ph

ase

Mai

n co

mpe

titio

n

Pre-

start

phas

e

Mai

n co

mpe

titio

n

Perparatory phase 1 Start phase i Start phase

ii Start phase ii

transitional phase

the preparatory phase in kickboxing lasts approximately four months and is divided into two shorter phases: general participation phase and special participation phase. the main aim of the general preparation sub-phase is to improve the level of motor skills by using general de-velopment training. However, developing techniques should not be ne-glected. in general preparation we should focus mainly on developing strength and endurance. Special preparation in the preparatory phase is a process in which transition to the participation phase takes place. the volume of effort is still high, motor skills are still developed, but by means of specialist actions, namely actions that are typical of kickbox-ing and while still doing general development exercises, which volume should equal 30% of the volume of the training. The main skills that are developed in this sub-phase include speed and speed endurance. at the end of this phase first contestants should in low ranking com-petitions of the season, which are to facilitate entering the start phase. achievements of the preparatory phase, namely optimal general and special form, constitute a basis for preparation of the contestant to ob-tain maximal sports results.

7 Roczny Plan Szkolenia Zawodników Light-contact [an annual training plan of contest-ants], T. Skrzypek (ed.). 2000.

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the aim of the paper

the aim of the paper it to analyze the effectiveness of training of uKS gladiator club fighters’ in the preparatory phase and to analyze training loads used during that time.

Material and methodology

Participants

Participants included a group of 12 fighters of UKS Gladiator Club (the average age: 13,2±2,2) who have achieved high sports results – this group includes medalists of Polish championship and the cup of europe. table 4 presents a description of the test group.

Tab. 4. A description of the test group

Parameter Mean Standard deviationage [in years] 13,17 2,21Height [cm] 160,42 14,91Weight [kg] 51,13 15,95

tools

Physical fitness parameters have been measured by means of selected test of eurofit testing battery:- agility test – 4 x 10 meter run measured in seconds,- explosive strength test – a standing long jump measured in centimeters,- sit and reach flexibility test – measured in centimeters,- static strength test – bent-arm hang test measured in seconds,- cardiorespiratory strength test – a shuttle run, the so-called beep test,

measured in meters8.training loads have been measured on the basis of trainer’s training

documentation.

the test procedure

the performed tests were of longitudinal character – they were conducted in the start period, which lasted from 02.11.2015 to 22.02.2016. During

8 eurofit, Europejski test sprawności f izycznej [the european test of physical fitness], Translation from English: H. Grabowski & J. Szopa. AWF, Kraków 1989.

150


this time 3 measurements were made: 1) pretest – at the beginning of the preparatory period (03.11.2015), 2) second measurement – in the middle of the preparatory period (05.01.2015) and 3) posttest – at the end of the preparatory period (23.02.2016).

statistical analysis

Because of a small number of the test group, a decision has been made to use Friedman test (Friedman, 1940), which is a non-parametric counter-part of analysis of variance anova for dependent variables. When dif-ferences between the measured parameters have been found, Dunn-Bon-ferroni (Dunn, 1964) test was used as post hoc test.

Statistical calculations have been made by using a statistical software by Statsoft Poland, namely Statistica 10. The alpha level for p ≤ 0,05 was set as statistically significant in all comparisons. all descriptive data have been presented in mean ± SD format.

test results

training load

When analyzing training documentation, it has been found that train-ings took place three times a week, each lasting from an hour to an hour and a half. There were 66 training sessions in total, which correspond to 3960 minutes of training. Whereas comprehensive training lasted 1583 minutes, 1346,4 minutes were devoted to specific means, which con-stitutes 40% and 34% of all training time respectively. The least time was spent on targeted training means – only 26% of all training time, which is 1029,6 minutes (table 5).

Tab. 5. A distribution of training means of the preparatory mesocycle

Means time distribution (min)

Percentage distribution (%)

targeted (u) 1029,6 26%Special (S) 1346,4 34%comprehensive (W) 1584 40%SuM 3960 100%

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Physical fitness

Descriptive statistics of performed fitness test has been presented in table 6.

Tab. 6. Average values of selected fitness tests

variable Measurement 1 Pre-test Measurement 2 Measurement 3

Post-testStanding long jump [cm] 172,67 ± 32,37 178,83 ± 28,52 182,00 ± 30,19

Bent-arm hang test [s] 19,47 ± 17,29 19,73 ± 18,06 22,62 ± 19,17

Run 4x10 [s] 11,94 ± 1,14 12,12 ± 1,22 10,88 ± 3,54

flexibility [cm] 10,83 ± 4,95 10,46 ± 5,55 11,92 ± 5,53

Beep test [m] 835,00 ± 266,99 861,67 ± 264,57 986,67 ± 245,44

While table 7 presents the results of statistical analysis using Friedman test, figure 1 presents percentage change of fitness test results in the course of preparatory phase. these results serve only supportive role in the inter-pretation of observed differences.

Figure 1. Percentage change of values of adopted fitness tests

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in case of results of standing long jump test, statistically signifi-cant differences between performed measurements have been found (c2(2, N = 12) = 12.311; p = .002). In comparison to the first measurement, statistically significant (p <.05) improvement of results obtained in the second (by 3,6%) and third (o 5,4%) measurement have been observed.

When analyzing the results of arm-bent hang test, statistically significant differences between the performed measurements (c2(2, N = 12) = 10.167; p = .006) have been found as well. The results of posthoc test indicated statistically significant (p < .05) differences between the first and third measurement in which arm-bent hang longer on average by 16,2% has been observed.

in case of 4x10 run statistically significant differences between per-formed measurements (c2(2, N = 12) = 6.426; p = .040) have been ob-served. the results of Dunn-Bonferroni test9 have indicated statistically significant (p < .05) shorter duration time of this fitness test in the third measurement in comparison to earlier measurements – first and second ones. After the preparatory phase ended, the duration of 4x10 run short-ened on average by 8,8% in comparison to the first measurement.

in case of beep test statistically significant differences between measure-ments (c2(2, N = 12) = 14,851; p = .001) have been observed as well. Post-hoc analysis has indicated significant (p < .05) improvement of distance run between pretest and posttest (on average by 18,2%).

no statistically significant differences between measurements in flexi-bility test (p > .05) have been found.

9 o. J. Dunn, Multiple comparisons using rank sums, “Technometrics”, 1964, 6, p. 241–252.

153


Tab. 7. The results of Friedman test10

variable

average rank

c2 pMeasure-ment 1Pre-test

Measure-ment 2

Measure-ment 3Post-test

Standing long jump 1,21 2,29 2,50 12,311 .002

arm-bent hang test 1,58 1,67 2,75 10,167 .006

4x10 run 2,21 2,38 1,42 6,426 .040

flexibility 2,00 1,88 2,13 .439 .803

Beep test 1,29 1,88 2,83 14,851 .001

Discussion and summary

the basic aim of training in the preparatory phase was to increase the level of general fitness, which constitutes a basis for specialist training, as well as to improve already known and learn new elements of fighting techniques. Technical training, which constitutes 30–50% of all training means used in this phase is necessary since ceasing exercises of this type results in re-ducing the accuracy of movement and response time11.

the performed tests indicate a growth of investigated characteristics of physical fitness in the majority of contestants. the highest progress can be observed in the explosive strength test, the static strength test and car-diorespiratory strength test. as the results of test show, these are the most important features, which are necessary to achieve success in kickboxing12. 10 M. friedman, A comparison of alternative tests of significance for the problem of m rank-

ings, “The Annals of Mathematical Statistics”, 1940, 11 (1), p. 86–92.11 Z. czajkowski, Poradnik trenera [a guidebook for trainers], rcMSKfiS, Warsza-

wa 1994.12 a. Kwiatkowski, Analiza wybranych składników przygotowania motorycznego zawod-

niczek uprawiających kickboxing na różnym poziomie mistrzostwa sportowego [an analy-sis of selected elements of motor preparation of female contestants training kickbox-ing at various level of sports mastery], B.A. paper, Rzeszów University 2012.

154


the smallest effects of training in the preparatory phase have been ob-served in flexibility and agility tests.

the distribution of training means in the investigated period is close to that of taekwondo contestants. taekwondo contestants preparing for World championship used the following training means in the prepara-tory phase: W-41%, U-16%, S-43%. This ration is close to the ration of investigated kickboxers, however taekwondo fighter devoted more time to specialist training13. other studies have also analyzed the structure of training loads in taekwondo, e.g. in orient Kłobuck club. they devoted 52%, 15% and 33% of all training time to comprehensive, targeted and specialist training respectively14.

Summing up, it should be noted that an important cognitive element of the research carried out is observation of improvement of the level of physical fitness in case of the majority of investigated features, which was the intended effect of training in the preparatory phase. When planning the next preparatory phase, one has to pay greater attention to the devel-opment of such skills as flexibility and agility.

the adopted training load has caused an average increase of investi-gated parameters, which proves training effectiveness. the final pictures of the effectiveness of training carried out in the preparatory phase will be reflected by sports results obtained in the most important contests this year, namely Polish championship in May and World champion-ship in September.

Bibliography

1. ambroży t., Mucha D., ambroży D., ostrowski a., omorczyk J., Lo-gistyka działań w procesie treningu zawodników ju-jitsu [logistics of ac-tions in the course of ju-jitsu fighers’ training], „Logistyka” no 6.

13 Bujak Z., litwiniuk S., czubak D. Charakterystyka obciążeń treningowych kobiet up-rawiających taekwon-do i zapasy w wybranych cyklach treningowych [the description of training load of woman training taekwon-do and wrestling in selected training cycles], “Sport i Turystyka Quarterly”, ZWWF, Biała Podlaska 2008.

14 Jaskóła S. Wielkość i struktura obciążeń treningowych zawodników taekwon-do klubu Kwang-Gae Kłobuck [the magnitude and structure of training loads of fighers train-ing taekwon-do in Kwang-gae Kłobuck], a diploma paper – a typescript, iWfiS, Biała Podlaska 2000.

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2. Bujak Z., litwiniuk S., czubak D., Charakterystyka obciążeń trenin-gowych kobiet uprawiających taekwon-do i zapasy w wybranych cyklach treningowych [the description of training load of woman training ta-ekwon-do and wrestling in selected training cycles], „Sport i turystyka Quarterly”, 2008.

3. czajkowski Z., Poradnik trenera [a guidebook for trainers], rcMSKfiS. Warszawa 1994.

4. Dunn, o. J., Multiple comparisons using rank sums, „technometrics”, 1964, 6, .

5. eurofit, Europejski test sprawności f izycznej [the european test of phy-sical fitness], translation from english: H. grabowski, J. Szopa, aWf, Kraków 1989.

6. friedman M., A comparison of alternative tests of significance for the problem of m rankings, “The Annals of Mathematical Statistics”, 1940, no. 11 (1).

7. Jaskóła S., Wielkość i struktura obciążeń treningowych zawodników ta-ekwon-do klubu Kwang-Gae Kłobuck [the magnitude and structure of training loads of fighers training taekwon-do in Kwang-gae Kłobuck], A diploma paper – a typescript, IWFiS, Biała Podlaska 2000.

8. Kwiatkowski a., Analiza wybranych składników przygotowania moto-rycznego zawodniczek uprawiających kickboxing na różnym poziomie mi-strzostwa sportowego [an analysis of selected elements of motor pre-paration of female contestants training kickboxing at various level of sports mastery], BA paper, Rzeszów University 2012.

9. ronikier a., Fizjologia sportu [the physiology of sport], Biblioteka tre-nera, COS, Warszawa 2001.

10. Skrzypek t. (ed.), Roczny Plan Szkolenia Zawodników Light-contact [An annual training plan of contestants], a collective work 2000.

11. Sozański H., Śledziewski D. (ed.), Obciążenia treningowe, dokumento-wanie i opracowywanie danych [training load, documenting and com-piling data], Wydawnictwo COS, Warszawa 1995.

12. ufel l., Świat Kickboxingu [the world of kickboxing], Wydawnictwa Sport i turystyka, Warszawa 1991.

13. ulatowski t., Teoria Sportu. Trening [the theory of sport. training], resortowe centrum Metodyczno-Szkoleniowe Kultury fizycznej i Sportu, vol. I, II, Warszawa 1992.

156


14. Wieczorek K., Podstawy Kick-boxingu. Historia, technika, metodyka tre-ningu [The basis of kick-boxing. History, technique and methodology of training], Siemiatycze 2008.


t. ambroży, a. Kwiatkowski, D. Mucha, K. Wrześniewski, J. Piwowar-ski, Training Load and Training Effectiveness in The Preparatory Phase by the Case of Kickboxing Fighters of UKS Gladiator Club, “Security Dimen-sions. International and National Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 142–156.

HiStorY of SecuritY


NO. 17; 2016 (158–171)

Provisions of civil defence Training in czechoslovakia – hisTorical consequences

col Štěpán Kavan, Ph.D.Fire Rescue Service of South Bohemia, CZECH REPUBLIC

ABSTRACT

this article is a reflection of the research focuses on the period after the czechoslovak Republic in 1918 to the time before World War II in 1939. The aim of the research is to explore the basic approaches to the implementation of education for statehood in terms of the creation of a new state in relation to civil defence education in czechoslovakia. the comparative historical analysis will be utilized as the research method on the subject of education for statehood. the comparative historical analysis is used as a specific tool for qualitative research. This is a procedure which can be applied to the statehood issue of education to its basic elements, by which it will be possible to learn more about this phenomenon and subsequently explain it.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsczechoslovak republic, civil defence education, protection

1. Provisions of civil defence training

civic education was included in the system for the education of the popu-lation since 1919. Civic education and training on a higher national school level was to include some basic elements that were a clear precursor of military training. in addition to military training, a need was perceived to have in the state a group of prepared people who would, if necessary and if

159

Provisions of civil Defence training in czechoslovakia…

the situation was not related to war, be ready to help the population during disasters, epidemics, internal disturbances, etc. civics gave moral incen-tives for the cultivation of appropriate properties, understanding the needs of the state entity and love for the homeland. to these areas of education belonged (Skořepa, 1933):- the fighting urge of boys to convert to morally-permissible forms and

forms of defence,- the development of physical abilities, hardiness, courage, fearlessness

and strength,- familiarization with information about the army and military institu-

tions with emphasis on the defensive and educational nature of mili-tary service,

- information about war and new chemical and biological weapons, with the assumption that the civilian population will suffer to the same extent as soldiers,

- interest of the state in peace, the importance of the league of nations.in the first decade of the existence of the czechoslovak republic,

the state did not pay specific attention to military training issues and mil-itary training had not been implemented at schools during this period. initially, military training was developed on a club basis, first as an ac-companying activity of sports associations and organizations, e.g. the czechoslovak Sokol organization, the scout movement, hiking, shooting clubs and auto clubs. However, these were mutually uncoordinated actions (Čapák, 1986).

Cultural and political events in Europe after 1930 stressed the need for direction and the necessity of introducing systematic preparation for civil defence training. Since 1932, cultural, sports and other organizations or-ganized various activities through which they wanted to increase the civil defence ability of the population (Matula, 1937). It was first recommend-ed to include the topic of military training and defensive national works in the higher classes of national schools so that young people could take part in the potential defence of the Republic (Pech, 1932). When teaching civil defence education and training, it was recommended to take into account the events of the period in relation to the nation’s civil defence ability. it was necessary to include the issue into teaching in order to avoid various confusion and misinformation. another reason was civil defence prepar-edness (Kočí, 1935).

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1.1. Legislative basis

However, it was not possible to achieve the required objective via random ac-tions. Therefore, through a Decree of 1 February 1934, No. 141.026/33-II, the Ministry of education and national culture set out that civil defence education as a component of civil education is part of the educational and teaching work at middle schools and teacher training institutes. at higher levels of general schools, junior secondary schools and lower secondary schools there was a requirement to include themes about the army, its organization, its tasks and the main concepts that were important for the moral justification of civilian civil defence duties (Dolenský, 1935).

A Decree of the Ministry of Education dated 24 May 1935, No. 26.969/35-I, was issued for national schools. This Decree on the ed-ucation of students of primary schools on civil defence required that at-tention be paid to the requirements of military training in everyday school practices. this meant the moral education of students – a conscious and selfless devotion to the state and determination to defend the country if necessary, civil reciprocity, discipline, courage and bravery. these ideas were to permeate all subjects at primary schools (Dolenský, 1937).

legislative provisions and the direction of military training were also dealt with abroad, for example in russia, germany and italy. on this basis, the Act on Military Training (Act No. 184/1937 Coll.) was adopted in the czechoslovak republic. During this period military training was seen as a deepening of civic education.

the purpose of military training was characterized as “cultivating in the population of the czechoslovak republic according to age, educa-tion and profession / employment, the moral qualities, physical fitness, knowledge and skills that are needed for national defence” (Section 2, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.). Educational care and military training educa-tion were expanded via the act on Military training, to which czech-oslovak citizens were subject, regardless of gender, from the day when their school attendance began until the end of the year in which they reached the age of 30. Even older persons up to the age of 50 were sub-ject to training assignments in civilian air raid protection. if the interests of national defence required as such, training could also be implemented by a government decree for people up to the age of 60. Participation in civil defence education was a civic duty and there was no financial com-pensation for its fulfilment.

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Military training components consisted of (Section 3, Act No. 184/1937 coll.):- moral, doctrinal and physical civil defence preparation,- training in assistance and protective services, in particular training in ci-

vilian air raid protection tasks,- civil defence training.

Military training of pupils and students of public schools of all types and levels took place in schools. Military training was provided for the rest of the population in clubs, institutes, departments and military training centres.

according to the act, military training matters at schools belonged, according to the type of school, to the field of competences of the Min-istry of education and national culture, or the Ministry of agriculture (Section 6, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.). These ministries issued general reg-ulations on military training matters in agreement with the Ministry of national Defence, and with regard to physical military training, also in agreement with the Ministry of Public Health and Physical education. if military training was also provided at schools, the Ministry of educa-tion and national culture or the Ministry of agriculture also proceeded in agreement with the Ministry of national Defence, and with regard to assistance and protection services training, also in agreement with the Ministry of the interior and with their cooperation.

the act scaled military training of youths according to age (Act No. 184/1937 Coll.):- students aged 6–14 completed basic educational training; an educa-

tional task,- youths aged 14–17 took part in assistance and protection services prepa-

ration; a civic task,- members of the population aged 17–21 took part in civil defence train-

ing; a military task.the educational task mainly consisted of sensory and habit-forming

training which evolved into knowledge adoption and culminated in moral and social education. it is worth noting that military training that was already fairly elaborated and applied in 1938 was not inclined toward such a conceptualization that was based on uniformity, the use of different des-ignations, ranks, etc. Such an approach shows that patriotism, bravery and discipline were perceived as real education.

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Military training matters outside of schools belong to the field of com-petences of the Ministry of national Defence, which cooperates in civ-il defence moral and doctrinal training in agreement with the Ministry of education and national culture, in physical civil defence training in agreement with the Ministry of Public Health and physical education as-sistance and protection services training in agreement with the Ministry of the interior and other participating ministries. However, civil defence, moral, doctrinal and physical preparation offered in physical education associations belongs to the field of competences of the Ministry of Pub-lic Health and Physical education which proceeds in agreement with the Ministry of national Defence, and in terms of civil defence, moral and doctrinal preparation, also in cooperation with the Ministry of education and National Culture (Section 6, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.).

to discuss military training matters related to several branches of public administration, an inter-ministerial military training association was es-tablished at the Ministry of national Defence as a subsidiary body, which consisted of representatives of the participating ministries, to whose field of competences military training belonged, and with representatives of the Ministry of finance and other ministries involved in the matter (Section 7, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.). A military/Unit and district military training authorities were established for individual units, as well as for individual military training precincts into which the area of units was divided (Sec-tion 8, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.).

the following committees cooperated in securing the coopera-tion of professional and interest groups in military training (Section 9, Act No. 184/1937 Coll., Matula, 1937):- the central civil Defence committee of the Ministry of national De-

fence for Matters of national importance, - Provincial civil defence committees for military training matters in prov-

inces (Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) at provincial offices,- District civil defence committees for military training matters in dis-

tricts at district offices.The Military training bodies specified in the Act are (Section 8, para-

graph 3 a 4, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.):- army bodies for military training that organize and manage military

training belonging to the competences of the Ministry of national De-fence and supervise it; they cooperate in the organization and imple-

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mentation of military training and in supervising it if this training be-longs to the competence of other ministries,

- Ministry of education and national culture bodies and bodies of offic-es subordinated thereto with regard to military training at schools (with the exception of agricultural schools),

- Ministry of agriculture bodies with regard to military training at agri-cultural schools,

- Ministry of Public Health and Physical education bodies with regard to moral, doctrinal and physical civil defence preparation in physical edu-cation associations authorized to provide military training,

- Bodies of the Ministry of the interior with regard to training in civilian air raid protection tasks.Military training was mandatory for pupils and students of pub-

lic schools of all types and degrees in the following scope (Section 11, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.):- moral, doctrinal and physical civil defence preparation as of the date

when their obligation to attend school began,- assistance and protection services training from 1 September of the year

in which a pupil (students) reaches the age of 14,- civil defence training from 1 September of the year in which a pupil –

student reaches the age of 17, with the exception of girls, who are not subject to civil defence training.

1.2. state civilian air raid protection school

The Act on Civilian Air Raid Protection (Act No. 82/1935) and imple-menting decrees set out the legislative basis and obligation in the area of protecting the population against air attacks, which was only preceded by a regulation with fulfilment on a voluntary basis. from the beginning there were some perceived gaps, in particular a lack of trained staff and trained units. efforts to come up with solutions were realized by the issu-ing framework directives, but these were insufficient. the situation thus led to the issuing of numerous guides and manuals that were not uniform and often contradictory. cities and towns themselves organized courses, in which the lecturers involved military officers, fire-fighters, doctors and members of the czechoslovak red cross. Partial unification of themes of civil protection was also achieved thanks to the publishing of the periodi-cals “Magazine for civic education and training”, which was renamed to

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the “Magazine for civic education and Military training and Protection of the Population” in 1936 (Zatočil, 1937).

active work in the field of professional preparation and training of members of air raid protection facilities in Hradec Králové brought results in terms of the intention to build the first civilian air raid Protection State School in the czechoslovak republic. the School was built by the Ministry of the interior, and the city of Hradec Králové donated land plots free of charge. The school was to have two purposes (Zatočil, 1937):- training and education of instructors who were appointed to carry out

training in civilian air raid protection tasks at military training centres, training and education of commanders and executive civilian air raid protection units in municipalities,

- carrying out research activities in terms of the application of all findings for the practical purposes of civilian air raid protection.trainees of the School underwent practical and theoretical training un-

der simulated, almost real conditions and the actions of the individual ser-vices and their management were practiced. observatories were designed for the warning service for training observation and command posts and different types of shelters were located in the school. the school was also included a first aid station, infirmary, decontamination area – washing and disinfection station for the sanitation service. The equipment was to serve both for demonstrations for trainees and for the practical needs of train-ing. the training also included practice with a protective mask, familiari-zation with the function and efficiency of a filter and protective clothing.

The first courses at the new school began on 14 December 1937 via a course for trainers of military training civilian air raid protection tasks. this was an eight-day course. civilian air raid protection schools were perceived as a necessity (Zatočil, 1937).

1.3. Civil defence training specifics

education is to secure good people for society and good citizens for the state. Raising children must be done with love and life (Štorch, 1929). Providing military training for schoolchildren who were taught privately was determined by a government decree. Private schools were obliged to ensure the military training of children who attended the school in the same manner as public schools. Schoolchildren who were allowed to be taught at home under the law (Section 2, Act No. 72/1936) were not ex-

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empt from school attendance with regard to physical education lessons, in which physical civil defence preparation was incorporated. these children were obliged to participate in this training together with children who went to the schools, with the only exception being exemption from physi-cal education pursuant to the relevant school regulations. regarding moral and doctrinal civil defence preparation of the relevant degree incorporated into individual teaching subjects, “children absolved of attending school were to be tested on these teaching subjects during an examination at the end of the year” (Section 7, Government Decree No. 109/1938).

Military training purposes were also duly taken into account in the selection of books for school libraries. in particular, the libraries were not allowed to have books that downplayed military training or were directed against it. Students of universities where military training was not im-plemented either at all, or not in its entirety, underwent military training wholly, or in those components which were not implemented at school. the teaching staff at universities were to ensure that military training was provided at universities properly and in all of its components; for mili-tary training matters, the professoriate could choose a special officer from among its ranks (paragraph 3, Section 4, Government Decree 109/1938).

The law (Section 12, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.) set out that the elements of moral and doctrinal civil defence preparation pervade individuals being taught, where appropriate, separate teaching and test subjects can also be implemented. Physical civil defence preparation was provided by physical training lessons, from which the required number of hours were spent on practicing in wild areas. the Board of education established the extent and in what manner, possibly for several schools together, physical civil defence preparation was to be provided at those schools where teaching physical education was not a compulsory subject at that time.

Pupils and students underwent assistance and protection services train-ing and civil defence training at schools in appropriate teaching subjects. Military training (Section 24, Act No. 184/1937 Coll.) was carried out by military training trainers who have been appointed for for this training. these trainers may be appointed to provide all or only some components of military training. in addition to military training trainers, when car-rying out military training, it was also possible to cooperate with other competent persons. if this task cannot be taken care of in individual com-ponents in whole or in part by the staff established by the Board of educa-

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tion, military training trainers at schools are appointed, upon the request of the school authority, by the relevant district military training head-quarters (Section 13, Government Decree No. 109/1938). In the agree-ment with the Ministry of finance, the Ministry of national Defence sets out the principles according to which reimbursement of cash expenses can be granted to military training trainers and other persons specified in the previous text.

the issuing of detailed regulations on military training at schools was secured by the Ministry of education and national culture, or by the Ministry of agriculture for the schools they administered upon agreement with the Ministry of national Defence, in physical civil defence prepa-ration matters also in cooperation with the Ministry of Public Health and Physical education, and in assistance and protection services training matters upon agreement with the Ministry of the interior.

the act on Military training had a far greater impact than the act on civic education. the essential difference lay in the fact that extracur-ricular participation of the population in civic education was voluntary; the obligation merely consisted of organizing civic education courses, while participation in military training was compulsory. the act on Military training primarily emphasized physical education, assistance and protection services training and military training before moral and educational training.

When comparing the ratio of civil and military training, Section 1 of the Act on Military Training (Act No. 184/1937) should be taken into consideration, which stated: “Public care for education and training is ex-panded by military training”. civic education was expanded and supple-mented by military education. Moral, doctrinal and physical military train-ing at schools up to 17 years of age was called civil defence preparation by the law. There was no requirement set out that military training dominates in education and teaching. this was an intention to naturally incorporate military training in civic education. Military training taught individuals and society to protect life and its underlying conditions from violence and enemy attack. Military training was included in the educational process as an integral part alongside moral, social, aesthetic and technical education. Due to social development, in particular in neighbouring germany and its tendency towards fascism, an extraordinary surge of interest was devoted to military training.

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collective military training supplemented individually-carried out moral education in strengthening social and national solidarity; it created a civil defence spirit on the basis of feeling, supported awareness of shared responsibility and collective will. initiative in military training was based on civil liberties and civic responsibility, and it was therefore also assumed that good military training was not possible without good civic educa-tion – there can be no quality whole without a quality part (Dolenský, 1938). This was the education of pupils and the entire population so that the necessity and effectiveness of defensive measures – even those that were unpleasant, such as tax burden, restrictions under the law on national defence, etc. – was understood.

1.4. Civil defence training in soviet Russia and soviet Union

Brief characteristics of the development of Soviet military training are presented so that a comparison can be made with developments in czech-oslovakia and other countries, but in particular given the significant im-pact on the development of military training and subsequent civil defence in Czechoslovakia from 1948 to 1989. The Soviets put high emphasis on preparing the population, particularly youths in the area of military train-ing. the beginning of a systematic approach can be found at universities, where military training was mandatory from 1925. Every year, univer-sity students had to undergo three months in military training camps. this followed the preparation at secondary, junior secondary and primary schools. attention was devoted to shooting and rifle corps consisted of not only boys, but also existed at girls’ schools (Soukup, 1932).

in the union of Soviet Socialist republics, all pre- and post-military training was concentrated in the osoaviachim national organization. this was is an acronym of the russian word “ОСОАВИАХИМ” (Общество содействия обороне, авиационному и химическому строительству) – association for the Support of Defence and aviation and chemical con-struction, which focused on the organization of anti-aircraft and chemical defence from 1927 to 1948. Education and training was carried out at schools, factories and even in places of residence or employment, in special clubs and courses and at schools and camps. it included all of the compo-nents of training and employment that had a relationship to the defence of the state. university students underwent so-called top-level pre-military education outside the army which was equivalent to full-time military ser-

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vice and was controlled by members of the army. it had a theoretical part at universities and a practical part with the units of the red army or at training camps. at some colleges, so-called top-level military-production preparation was established (Machník, 1936).

other organizations became involved in civil defence preparation in russia. at the beginning of the building of the military training system, one such organization was “Авиахим”, pronounced aviakhim, (Общество друзей авиационной и химической обороны и промышленности) – association for air and chemical Protection and Defence of industry from 1925 to 1927 (Nikonova, 2010).

the “ВСЕВОБУЧ”, pronounced vsevobuch (Всеобщее военное обучение) – General Military Teaching organization was formed in 1918, which the government accommodated in the use of training grounds, gyms and clubrooms. In 1923 the state took over the control of military preparation and made the Supreme committee for Physical culture re-sponsible for it. Via the Decree of 1 August 1923, military training was determined as an integral part of school education. each school formed a military unit and conducted military exercises.

The Decree prescribed the following (Soukup, 1932):- formation of military units and instruction on the basic principles of war,- infantryman and gunner training,- theory of firing automatic rifles and pistols,- knowledge of service regulations,- training with a machine gun and hand grenades,- theoretical instruction on war gases and protecting against them,- instruction on the air force and its significance,- theory of class struggle and civil war,- field exercises, trench training using modern trench warfare equipment.

training of students of middle schools and universities was to be at such a level so that if necessary, school battalions could be immediately sent to the battlefield. communist youths underwent three stages during military training. the first stage was focused on physical education and ended at age 16. The second stage lasted from age 16 to 18, and in addition to physical education, emphasis was placed on strengthening the so-called revolutionary and military spirit. the third stage was implemented as spe-cial training for certain types of weapons. Particular attention was paid to children who were organized, in particular Komsomol members. a School for naval and Higher Military education was established for preparing

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trainers. The military-scientific society was founded in 1924, which later transformed into military-science clubs at universities and factories.

Conclusion

Statehood education and military preparation primarily focused on awak-ening love for country, nation, state, and of instilling a sense of duty thereto and encouraging efforts for protecting one’s home. the aim was to focus mental and physical strengths to defend the state. Primarily, civil defence education in the broader sense and military training was to be emphasized and deepened at schools. civil defence education is clearly seen as a cer-tain foundation and a precursor to military education. School training was to support the subsequent physical fitness of the army, and its spirit. the foundation for defence training and education of the entire nation from childhood was thus laid out. the basic idea was that advanced mil-itary abilities can avert a war, or at least reduce its negative consequences.

a nation that considered to be safe was the one that educated the pop-ulation to carry out creative activities with the same care as that used for education in defensive awareness. civil defence education was the vital in-terest of the national unit itself, and its level was a contemporary measure of security. civil defence involved a sense of responsibility, duty, order and discipline, and it was also an expression of patriotism and civic solidarity (Kováčová, 2013; Marcinek, 2014). The aim was to support civil defence for the entire population, regardless of age and whether they were subject to military duty.

References

1. Čapák i., Švancer M. Branná výchova II. Branný systém státu. Jednotný systém branné výchovy obyvatelstva ČSSR, univerzita Jana evangelisty Purkyně, fakulta pedagogická, Brno 1986.

2. Dolenský J., Poměr občanské a branné výchovy, [in:] Časopis pro občan-skou nauku a brannou výchovu, Ročník III, (XV), sešit 1, Státní nakla-datelství, Praha 1938.

3. Dolenský J., Příručka branné výchovy pro učitelstvo národních škol, Státní nakladatelství v Praze, Praha 1937.

4. Kočí K., Brannost v občanské nauce a výchově, [in:] Časopis pro občan-skou nauku a výchovu, Ročník XII, sešit 10, Státní nakladatelství, Pra-ha 1935.

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5. Kováčová l., Efektívne a inovatívne trendy procesu vzdelávania bezpeč-nostných pracovníkov v podmienkach vysokých škôl, [in:] Košická bezpeč-nostná revue, 2013, roč. 3, č. 1, p. 67–72.

6. Machník f., Melichar v., Brannost národa a střední škola, novina Praha, svazek 2, Praha 1936.

7. Marcinek M., Možnosti využitia počítačových simulácií pri edukácii krízo-vých manažérov, Mezinárodní konference k projektu č. VF20132014026 „Zvýšení účinnosti vzdělávacího systému v krizovém řízení v oblasti vnitřní bezpečnosti“, Policejní akademie ČR v Praze, 2014.

8. Matula a., Branná výchova mimo školu, Svobodné učení selské, Štěpni-ce 1937.

9. nikonova o. Ju., Воспитание патриотов: Осоавиахим и военная подготовка населения в уральской провинции (1927–1941 гг.), Новый хронограф, Москва 2010.

10. Pech r., Naše obranné jednoty, „Časopis pro občanskou nauku a výcho-vu“, Ročník IX, sešit 7, Státní nakladatelství v Praze, Praha 1932.

11. Skořepa M., Výchova pro stát, „Časopis pro občanskou nauku a výcho-vu“, Ročník X, sešit 4, Státní nakladatelství, Praha 1933.

12. Soukup f. a., Školní výchovou k brannosti národa. Studie pedagogic-ko – didaktická, Svaz československého důstojnictva, Praha 1932.

13. Štorch e., Dětská farma. Eubiotická reforma školy, Dědictví Komenské-ho v Praze a Ústřední spolek jednot učitelských na Moravě, v Praze a Brně 1929.

14. Zákon č. 184/1937 Sb. z. a n., o branné výchově, ze dne 1. července 1937.

15. Zákon č. 72/1936 Sb. z. a n., o zproštění povinnosti choditi do veřejné školy obecné nebo měšťanské, ze dne 27. března 1936.

16. Zákon č. 82/1935 Sb. z. a n., o ochraně a obraně proti leteckým úto-kům, ze dne 11. dubna 1935.

17. Zatočil g., Státní škola civilní protiletecké ochrany v Hradci Králové, [in:] Obrana obyvatelstva. Ústřední orgán pro obranu a ochranu obyvatelstva proti leteckým útokům. Ročník III (1937 – 1938), VOK, Praha 1937.

Author

Štěpán Kavan – a member of the fire rescue Service of czech republic. in the professional activities he is engaged in activities of fire protection units, cooperation of the integrated rescue system, civil protection and

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crisis management issues and training of rescuers and the general pop-ulations in preparing for emergencies. graduate doctoral program civil Protection, faculty of economics and Management, university of De-fence, Brno, 2010. Co-investigator of the three grant projects. Regular-ly publishes articles in professional journals in the czech republic and abroad, an author of monographs and study texts. He actively participates in international conferences. Member of the czech association of fire officers and Security consortium for research Projects.


Š. Kavan, Provisions of Civil Defence Training in Czechoslovakia – His-torical Consequences, “Security Dimensions. international and national Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 158–171.

internal SecuritY


NO. 17; 2016 (174–191)

Preliminary evaluaTion of Pomeranian social PrevenTion Program „razem bezPieczniej” [“more secure TogeTher”]

Józef Pruchniak, M.a.University of Business and Administration in Gdynia, POLAND

ABSTRACT

the paper is a preliminary evaluation of governmental program to limit crime and antisocial behaviour „razem Bezpieczniej” [“More Secure together”], which was completed 15 October 2015. It is an example of institutional influence on inappropriate social attitude. the paper’s hypothesis assumed that a change in attitudes in environments subject to a program does not necessarily have to be the result of actions of the “More Secure together”. the work is an attempt to assess the effectiveness for generation of positive change in the area of security and public order in the Pomeranian region.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsprevention program, regional security, social security, program „razem Bezpieczniej”

Introduction

in the paper author assumes that prevention is an action aimed at prevent-ing the emergence or progress of negative phenomena. the governmental program “More Secure together” was one of the ways to respond to social phenomena that have been assessed as harmful and undesirable.

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Preliminary evaluation of Pomeranian Social Prevention Program…

All the actions in terms of the quality of public security in Poland are now extremely valuable, because the sense of the threat of crime may cause deterioration of the standard of living, marginalization and, in particular, reducing the trust to state institutions1. Moreover, this condition does not permit person’s sense of security in the immediate vicinity and the actual perception at regional and local level. Disclosure and accurate precising the security risks is the basis for establishing and creating cooperation with local communities, in order to build local se-curity systems2. the institution traditionally responsible for security at the analised level is the Police, performing the leading role in this area. Striving to improve security with awareness of limited abilities of the Police resulted in the search for new forms of action and enlargement the partners group, who would be able to meet the challenges and work for the improvement of security, at local and regional levels. in this area important for the Police become the institutions. an essential point of reference in description of current state and ongoing changes is a part-nership of all bodies, which, due to their tasks and responsibilities and opportunities should work in favour of that security. feelings and as-sessments, which are created by the actors of social life, have a large im-pact on actions taken by the authorities and services obliged to protect security, including local security3.

evaluation of the “More Secure together” program at regional and local level of the Pomeranian voivodeship tends to treat negative so-cial phenomena in terms of threats. it is generally considered that an effective social prevention is the best way of stopping the progress or to reduce the scale of phenomena socially considered as unacceptable4. the paper is an attempt to assess the efforts taken by the participants of the program to eradicate and to reduce these phenomena.

1 See J. gierszewski, c. tatarczuk, Rola prewencji kryminalnej w kształtowaniu bezpie-czeństwa publicznego w Polsce na przykładzie rządowego programu „Razem Bezpieczniej”, [in:] Prevencia kriminality – vyzva spolocnosti, Bratysława 2010, p. 17–39.

2 t. Biernat, J. gierszewski, Poczucie bezpieczeństwa społecznego młodzieży w małym środo-wisku, Akapit, Toruń 2013, p. 169.

3 J. gierszewski, c. tatarczuk, Rola prewencji…, p. 19.4 See J. gierszewski, Organizacja systemu bezpieczeństwa społecznego, Difin, Warsza-

wa 2013, p. 178.

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Regional and local security

Security, in spite of different definitions, is one of the desired values not only by persons, but also social groups and nations. from the spatial per-spective, security can be seen as: global (universal); transregional, regional, local, personal (individual)5.

Processes is regional and local environments caused the necessity to take the considerations and, above all, a studies on the social evaluation of prevention programs.

local communities generate specific values and social cohesion, create a sense of their own national identity and connection with a particular re-gion. they can also create a negative factor, expressed in destabilizing and inhibiting progress and civilization and social development. it is generally considered that regional and local security constitute an essential condi-tion for the development6.

regionalisation of security results that in higher degree into con-sideration is taken the specificity of local risks and ways and means of prevention, particularly in matters relating to the patologisation of behavior. of increasing importance is the shaping of regional and local security within all sorts of social prevention programs. regional and local security covers only part of the territory of state and social com-munity in the particular territory. this area may be a separate territory within the district (voivodeship), or involve several entities (counties and communities). as a local territory is understood a homogeneous area comprising one or more units of local self-government. into ac-count shall be taken awareness of the population of the area, which involves not only the identification with a specific area, but it shall be regarded as distinct from the other sites, having different traditions, habits, economic and social characteristics, often other socio-economic interests. as dictionary definition of local says that it is appropriate to a particular place or limited to a particular place. in contrast, the term localism, is used locally.

also the region term should be referred to. as dictionary definition says, it is an area with a specific geographical and ethnographic fea-

5 See J. gierszewski, Bezpieczeństwo społeczne. Studium z zakresu bezpieczeństwa narodo-wego, Difin, Warszawa 2013, p. 66.

6 t. Wałek, Struktura porządku publicznego i bezpieczeństwa społeczności lokalnej, „Kultura Bezpieczeństwa. Nauka – Praktyka – Refleksje”, 2015, no 17, p. 195.

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tures, a large part of the country with cultural specific7 and regionalism is a social movement supporting cultural heritage8. Without a doubt the regionalisation of security means that local specificity of risks and the methods and means of counteraction are taken into account.

as we can see from the above, regional and local security is the pro-tection of values and interests of any particular community by all sorts of “security institutions”, as well as provision of conditions for social devel-opment. in the area of administrically shaped local self-government units occur characteristic for them social threats: crime, road traffic accidents and all kinds of addictions.

the role of public administration in the implementation of the “More secure together” program in Pomeranian region

Social security refers to institutions of public administration and non-gov-ernmental organisations, whose aim is to prevent negative social trends, important from the point of view of security. this causes the need to extract social administration structures from the public administration. the most important challenge is to create an appropriate level of adop-tion to new societal challenges and to create a new model of partnership9.

the diagram shows the actors involved in the implementation of the program at various levels. it was coordinated by the Minister of internal Affairs and Administration. Since 2007, as a part of it, each year, voivodes presented the Minister of Internal Affairs up to 7 projects for public tasks, which could effectively support government action to improve security. the coordinating team, affiliated to the Minister of internal affairs, evaluated submitted projects (as part of the team group of experts were set up, in each of the seven areas of action of the program). top rated projects were presented for approval of the Minister of internal affairs. financial resources from the state budget of the special-purpose reserve was transferred to the budgets of voivodeships. in accordance with pro-visions of the “More Secure together” program, voivode granted finances for implementation of projects in the form of funding tasks performed by non-governmental organisations and local self-government entities10.

7 Mały słownik języka polskiego, Warszawa 1995, p. 776.8 ibidem.9 J. gierszewski, Organizacja systemu bezpieczeństwa społecznego…, p. 192. 10 Ibidem, p. 5–6.

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at the level of the tasks arising from the “More Secure together” pro-gram was coordinated by the voivode of Pomerania with the help of team, which consisted of representatives of local self-government administra-tion, above all, Police, State fire Service or Border guards. this team initiated and coordinated activities of the program in their area, collected information about its implementation, and then submitted reports and applications to the Minister of internal affairs12.

counties and communities joined the program on a voluntary basis. this program was designed to provide an effective tool to support the implementation of the statutory activities of the public administration en-tities. in district the leading role in implementation of the program should provide starost as a head of commission for security and order, supported by district’s combined administration. While in the communities tasks of “More Secure together” should be implement by executive authority (village mayor, mayor, president of the city)13.

tasks carried out by work groups established by mentioned authorities, composed of representatives responsible for security and invited special-ists. Partners of voivode and local authorities in implementation of pro-grams were social organizations, social associations, foundations, churches and religious communities and various associations.

social determinants of “More secure together” in Pomerania

Security, directly or indirectly, affects everyone. in its smallest dimension, we can talk about personal security, or entity, of which the essence is to protect and ensure conditions for implementation of vital and important social interests and against internal and external threats.

the genesis of antisocial behavior can be found in a variety of contexts. the most important include:a) changes in the labour market (unemployment, corruption),b) education (weakness of educational role of schools, school failures),c) culture and entertainment (commercialization, the lack of an alternative

form of leisure time),d) the weakening of positive family model (socioeconomic status),

12 J. gierszewski, Bezpieczeństwo społeczne. Studium z zakresu teorii bezpieczeństwa naro-dowego, Difin, Warszawa 2013, p. 212.

13 See J. gierszewski, Zarządzanie bezpieczeństwem lokalnym (powiatu) na podstawie przeglądu kompetencji i zadań administracji publicznej, [in:] Bezpieczeństwo społeczności lokalnej, A. Lewkowicz, T. Majer (eds.), UWM Olsztyn 2012, p. 185 and foll.

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e) health (mental illness, biophysical development)f ) marginalization and social exclusion,g) the media (violence)14.

Prevention is an anticipating and corrective activity to fight negative criminogenic phenomena. it has to support insufficient social control, which is not able to reduce the number of delinquent behavior and re-inforce the process of socialization15. the problem of crime prevention is a complex concept which is said in the context of prophylaxis16. it is aimed at avoiding, minimizing or eliminating negative factors affecting the se-curity and public order. Prerequisite of successful crime prevention is the proper coordination of the various institutions, the aim of which is to stop potential perpetrators before committing a crime17.

In Poland in 2007 the national program for reducing crime and anti-social behavior, named “More Secure together”18, was implemented. its basis was the creation of regional and local security systems in order to re-duce common crime. the objectives of the program were as following: real growth of so-called “a sense” of security, crime prevention and anti-social behaviour, improvement of the image and increase in trust in the Police and other services active in the area of security and public order.

this program assumed partnership with academic research centres. Measurement tools were: statistics, opinion polls, social dialogue and working at local level and the exchange of experience in the “Bank of good Practices”.14 comp. B. urban, Dewiacje wśród młodzieży. Uwarunkowania i profilaktyka, Kra-

ków 2001; J. Wódz, Problemy patologii społecznej w mieście, PWN 1989; Zjawisko-we formy patologii społecznych oraz profilaktyka i resocjalizacja młodzieży, t. Sołtysik, J. Sudar-Malkiewicz (eds.), Wydaw. Akademii Bydgoskiej, Bydgoszcz 2003; B. Ho-łyst, Narkomania i lekomania a przestępczość, „Problemy Alkoholizmu”, 1998, no 3; K. ostrowska, D. Wójcik, Teorie kryminologiczne, Warszawa 1986.

15 J. Błachut, a. gaberle, K. Krajewski, Kryminologia, p. 321.16 comp. a. urban, Prewencja kryminalna, Szczytno 2006; T. Cielecki, Prewencja krymi-

nalna, Opole 2004; Mit represyjności albo o znaczeniu prewencji kryminalnej, J. czapska, H. Kury (eds.), Kraków 2002.

17 the eu created the european network for crime Prevention on the basis of a De-cision of the Council of the European Union of 28 May 2001 as part of police coop-eration in the european union. By criminal prevention is understood “any measures seeking to quantitative and qualitative reduce crime and citizens’ feelings of uncertain-ty either by direct discouraging to criminal activities or through policies and means to reduce the potential of criminal causes of crime”.

18 http://razembezpieczniej.mswia.gov.pl/, accessed 17.12.2015.

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the strategic objective is the security in: public places, schools, traf-fic, public transport, economic activity, home violence and protection of national heritage. there is nothing mentioned about elimination of the causes of specific risks or creating favourable conditions for security and order. You can find them in other documents constituting the need for im-plementation of specific areas of risks to the “More Secure together” pro-gram19. in strategies targeted at specific social groups adopted the conduct of educational activities (bike camps, talks, training), preventive (increased number of patrols in certain places and times, sobriety control) and crisis (therapy, helpline, hostel). forms of impacts has been left to the bodies pursuing the program20. financing of the program was implemented in the framework of current activities, special-purpose reserve to be used in the framework of agreements with self-government administration21.

Bank of Good Practices

the literature identifies three levels of crime prevention: primary, second-ary and third-level22. analysis of prevention programs in the “Bank of Good Practices” indicates that the Police local headquarters of the Pomer-anian voivodeship involved in the implementation of prevention programs and registered them in accordance with the evaluation form of the pro-gram. they considered mainly strategic goals as shaping the image of the Police and, to a lesser extent for removal of the reasons, protection against repeated victimisation or prevention of repeated offences. items directly relating to crime prevention were skipped. there are also no elements of addiction prevention of children and young people, so important in the process of socialization. they relate mainly to primary prevention, which include precriminal and information activities. the Bank of good Prac-

19 comp. Krajowy Program Bezpieczeństwa Ruchu Drogowego 2005–2007–2013, gambit 2005, objectives and priorities adopted up to 2013 should reduce the number of deaths at 17 thous. people, injured about 180 thous. people and limit the costs of road colli-sions about 68 billion zł. and the threat of “road security” – a part of the “More Secure Together” program (Voivodeship Police HQ’s Gdańsk; „Truck”, „Bus”, „Prędkość”, Pasy bezpieczeństwa”, „Trzeźwość”, „Dynamiczny nadzór”, „Niechronieni uczestnicy ruchu drogowego”, „Bezpieczne powroty”).

20 in my opinion, it was necessary to specify some specific parameters as in the building of “orlik” (the number of towns, emergency hostels, etc.).

21 In 2007 Pomerania voivodeship was granted 288 400 zł.22 B. Hołyst, Psychologia kryminalistyczna, Warszawa 2006, p. 1309.

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tices was a base of proven initiatives to improve security, from which could benefit local communities in solving specific problems in their area.

the analysis of the objectives contained in the “Bank of good Prac-tices” indicates that reform and projective actions were marginalized in favour of typical preventive and educational23. Statistical surveys show that on the level of crime, in addition to the listed at outset, the impact may have the following factors: severity of punishment, inevitability, alcohol and drug consumption, demographic change and the level of unemploy-ment24. Mostly on these factors are influenced by social policy, and this may not always be within the competence of the local government or self-government authorities.

the tasks for the Police in the framework of the “More Secure togeth-er” program have been commissioned under command and guidance25. as part of these tasks, the Police voivodship HQ’s in gdansk pursues goals mainly in terms of broad public education. this are meetings with elementary school children and teachers during which are discussed the threats on particular area or in a given period of time26. responsible for coordinating the tasks of social prevention and implementation of crime prevention programs is the Prevention Division of the Police voivodship HQ’s in gdansk.

examples of local prevention programs

in addition, local organizational units of the Police carried out all kinds of preventive-educational actions and theirs representatives participated in the festivals, events organized in districts of the Pomeranian voivodeship. local organizational units of the Police, together with partners, imple-ment preventive programs in the area of widely understood security, which

23 comp. cz. czapów, S. Jedlewski, Pedagogika resocjalizacyjna, Warszawa 1971, pre-venting is the removal of exo-and endogenous macrosocial determinants of breaking standards. See a. Krukowski, Problemy zapobiegania przestępczości, Warszawa 1982.

24 Cross National Studies in Crime and Justice, D. P. farrington, P. a. langan, M. tonry (eds.), Department of Justice USA, Waszyngton 2004, p. 59 quoted after: J. Czabański, Czy kara działa? Przegląd amerykańskich badań dotyczących efektów odstraszania i izolac-ji kary więzienia, www.bezpiecznepanstwo.pl.

25 http://bip.kgp.policja.gov.pl/portal/kgp/784/2394/RZADOWY_PROGRAM_OGRANICZANIA_ PRZESTEPCZOSCI_I_ASPOLECZNYCH_ZACHOWAN_ RAZEM_BEZPIE.html, accessed: 20.12.15.

26 topics: first days in school, secure way to school, holidays, vacations, etc.

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are parts of the governmental program for reducing crime and anti-so-cial behaviour “More Secure together”, including: District Police HQ in gdynia – gdyński Policyjny Program Prewencyjny „Bezpieczna Przystań gdynia”, with included subprogram targeted to pupils of first class of pri-mary school „Policyjna Foczka uczy zasad bezpieczeństwa”; District Police HQ in Kartuzy – „Bezpieczny rower”; District Police HQ in Puck – „Mal-uchu Razem Bezpieczniej”; District Police HQ in Starogard Gdański – „Odpowiedzialny Gimnazjalista”; in Gdańsk „Ramowy Program Profilak-tyczno-Edukacyjny Gdańskiej Policji”, „Kieruj Bez Procentów”, „Młodość Bez Procentów”, „Szkoła Bez Nudy i Nałogów”; in Słupsk „Prewencja ale inaczej”; in Chojnice „Stop agresji i przestępczości nieletnich”; in „Trzy minus”, „Bezpieczna szkoła”; in Kościerzyna „Trzy minus”, „Bezpieczna szkoła”; in Kartuzy „Żyj Normalnie”; in Malbork „Na progu dojrzałości”, „Nie biorę”; in Puck „Odlot-dokąd”, „Twardziel czy tchórz”, „Granice”; in Starogard gdański „odpowiedzialny gimnazjalista”27. in each district at least one preventive program is implemented.

the analysis of regional programs (due to taken measures) indicates that they were dominated by prevention aimed at young people at the age of adolescence (junior high schools and elementary schools) mainly con-cerning drug prevention at local level and juvenile delinquency. They are to prevent negative behavior and strengthen desirable by attitudes. they are aimed at activity of young people who do not deal with threats in their environment (school, home). they are geared to offensive prevention that seeks to balance the influence of risk factors and protective factors28. in their intention they should have creative and innovative nature. crime prevention has an interdisciplinary character. Requires coordinated action of not only the Police units, but educational programs, solutions for so-cial issues or town-planning constraints. the action taken should be im-plemented, as recommended in the program, on the basis of cooperation with local self-governments, universities, civil society. Superficial analysis of topics indicates that preventive programs of regional Police units wear not only regional in nature, but also local, and the main recipient are most-ly schoolchildren. these are educational assistance programs and do not

27 http://209.85.129.132/search?q=cache:19vAiKfdy_AJ:www.wrotapomorza.pl/res/BIP/PUW/sprawozdania_roczne_wojewody/sprawozdanie_wojewody_2008_za__ nr_1.doc+programy+prewencyjne+kwp+d%3Dgda%C5%84sk+pomorze&cd= 13&hl=pl&ct=clnk&gl=pl, accessed 17.12.2015.

28 comp. J. Kwaśniewski, Społeczeństwo wobec dewiacji, Warszawa 1984.

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miss a negative pressure from peers, eliminating the causes or building your own values by the youth. they lack the information if, in addition to statistical data, diagnostic tests were preceded. Definitely they have el-ements of training and media (propaganda). Prevention in its assumption should carry an alternative to social maladjustment and encourage positive choices and to promote a conscious and rational social development.

the analysis of reports on implementation of the “More secure together” program (Pomeranian Voivodeship), a summary attempt at regional level

it is worth at this point, to take a look at reports (diagnostic assessments) on implementation of the tasks. reports submitted by work groups, i. e. Se-curity in Public Place and Place of residence team, generally stressed that cooperation between bodies responsible for state security was maintained at existing levels. the “More Secure together” program caused the inten-sification of cooperation in eliminating and preventing crime. in the Po-meranian voivodeship in 2014 concluded a total number of 57 596 crimes which is a dynamics of 89% compared to previous year. Also in 2014 41 699 criminal offences were reported, being 92% of dynamics, com-paring to 2013. Conclusions of evaluations has been mostly reduced to description of present state, with omitting important assessment of causes and forecasts. the diagnosis of causes, not just the symptoms, is of vital importance for prevention. Data from table 2 indicate clearly that over the years 2007 to 2014, we are dealing with a real reduction of crime, however this is not expressive, fulfilling expectations after implementation of the “More Secure together” program. By comparing the number of crimes from 2007 to 2014, we can see a decrease of 4 926 crimes over a period of eight years (Pomeranian voivodeship), that can give a little optimism. However, the lowering of the dynamics of crime every year at more than 90 percent, means that the process is too slow, and thus little efficient to force involved. also uneasy is the situation at level of communications se-curity. The data contained in table no. 3 shows that this area of operations designated by the program (Pomeranian voivodeship), has not fulfilled the expectations, because there has been no radical reduction in quantity and quality of road accidents. In 2007 there were 3 050 inland traffic accidents, in 2014 there were 2 714. In this case, is the difference in absolute terms of 336 less crime events. However, the dynamics indicator in 2014 at 102,8%

185


is troublesome. Also from the tabular data it appears that between 2008 and 2011 the growth rate of traffic accidents increased to levels and 104% and 109,6%. The number of people killed as a result of these events consti-tutes small effectiveness in this area. During the analysed period dynamics indicator increased five times, peaking in 2011, the maximum level of the 121,5% (2 900 casualties, 147 were killed). In particular, these two priority areas presented at the “More Secure together” program should be care-fully assessed.

Table no 1. criminal offences on the area of the Pomeranian voivodeship HQ’s of the Police in Gdansk, in the years 2007 to 2014

total number of criminal offences2007 2008 WD

46 625 46 575 99.92008 2009 WD

46 575 45 918 98.62009 2010 WD

45 918 43 486 94.72010 2011 WD

43 486 46 555 107.12011 2012 WD

46 555 45 507 97.72012 2013 WD

45 507 45 326 99.62013 2014 WD

45 326 41 699 92.0Source: own study based on data provided by the Police voivodeship HQ in gdansk

186

Józef Pruchniak

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187


An assessment of the effectiveness of local security programs

A question must be raised: how many preventive programs have affected and will affect the crime rate? it turns out that residents of small towns, more than inhabitants of large metropolis, are worried about dangers of trafficking and road pirates. residents of medium-sized cities more fre-quently than all citizens avoid certain places, streets or people. More often they fear brawls, beatings and the theft of cars or flats29. Prevention is not only pre-criminal but also after-criminal action30. Hence is the division of prevention at: criminal, criminological, penitentiary and penal policy31. the “More Secure together” program also refers to criminological and forensics prevention.

crime prevention cannot be torn from the social and economic condi-tions. technical protection of property is propagated by the Police at the level of so-called crime prevention. Program uses as a tool leaflets of pre-ventive nature, talks, maps and monitoring. in assessing the level of secu-rity victimization studies shall be taken into account, which rely on asking questions about crime32. it is associated with so-called “dark number” of crimes, which is unknown to law enforcement authorities. respondents mostly fear of: bravado drivers; property destruction by vandals; aggressive youth verbal attacks; assault; armed robbery; burglaries; aggressiveness of drunken, drug addicts; brawls, beatings.

in the analysis of programs, there is a lack of information on the link between costs and efficiency. lawrence J. Schweinhart, together with his team, calculated that one dollar spent on crime prevention program ulti-mately allowed to save seven dollars (1993). Maybe it is worth to carry out such studies?

the economic dimension is for many an important element. the grant for funding prevention programs can be, after all, carried out with clear-ly defined criteria (relevance for the program, expected results, justifica-

29 http://www.pomorska.policja.gov.pl/serwisb.php?nr=6740.30 a. Krukowski, Wybrane zagadnienia nauki polityki kryminalnej, wyd. uniwersytet

Warszawski, Warszawa 1991, p. 21.31 B. Hołyst, Kryminalistyka, Warszawa 1996, p. 785–787.32 a. Siemaszko, Atlas przestępczości, http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:eyd

IhKSWX7sJ:razembezpieczniej.mswia.gov.pl/download.php%3Fs%3D23%26 id%3D1056+siemaszko+badania+wiktymizacyjne&hl=pl&gl=pl&sig=AFQjCNFk 2d7lD8f3RWPWmqzH8K3sJbw9ZQ.

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tion of the needs, the amount of resources and the time limit may not be blurring of boundaries and freely interpreted). The important question is whether the allocated resources are adequate. In district the natural body to evaluate the programs is security commission affiliated by starost, and in voivodeship – voivode’s assembly, and funds on programs are distrib-uted centrally. the Pomeranian Police introduced a system - Building of the local information systems on the basis of “concept of meetings with representatives of local community”.

the obligation to provide information about threats mainly have estate Police officers, what is nothing new33. the role of estate Police officer is a widely understood cooperation with local community. in his tasks we can also read that it is “the concern about security of citizens of district should be realistic and connected with work to improve the quality of life”. unfortunately it has not been specified. estate Police officer should seek partnerships with: school teacher, probation officer, social worker, priest, nurse, local community leaders (MPs, councillors, business people), foun-dations and associations. in addition, the Police officers to collect infor-mation about dangers use mass media, internet (web forums), results of surveys, information obtained from other departments, internal informa-tion of the Police arising from citizens’ complaints, and the information obtained from the analysis of the state of security.

the effectiveness of the “More secure together” program and an attempt to summarize

Within the framework of the “More Secure together” program the effi-ciency of local projects has to be tested in the framework of governmen-tal program “More Secure together” for reducing crime and anti-social behaviour, co-funded and implemented in all areas of support. the study should provide an assessment of mechanisms of its activities and to devel-op further recommendations. an analysis of sources of the monitoring of results adequate to the objectives set out in the applications for funding of projects should be provided. to complement these studies research team should provide online surveys and telephone interviews with the members of coordination team of the project promoters.

“More Secure together” is one of the most important and the largest program in Poland. It focused about 400 projects, 410 self-government

33 J. gierszewski, Zadania i funkcje dzielnicowego w II RP, „Policja”, 2006, no 3.

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units and 45 non-governmental organizations. Estimates indicate that about 15 million people were involved in the project – these are just some of the numbers, which can sum up in the “More Secure together”. During the 9 years it supported 397 preventative projects totaling close to 27 mil-lion zł. On particular projects applied 4 300 entities. In their realizations 410 self-government units and 45 non-governmental organizations were involved. Therefore, it should be ask the question, is this the level on which program should be terminated, or reactivated in this or a similar form.

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Author

Józef Pruchnak – lecturer at the university of Business and administra-tion in Gdynia. Retired major of the Police, in service in 1982–2013. For several years had been Head of Department of investigation and then Head of Department of Prevention in District Police HQ in lębork. at the same time, the “More Secure together” program was implemented. author specializes in issues of management of public security.


J. Pruchniak, Preliminary Evaluation of Pomeranian Social Prevention Program „Razem Bezpieczniej” [“More Secure Together”], “Security Di-mensions. International and National Studies”, 2016, no 17, p. 174–191.

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