Second Language Writing Anxiety and Translation

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Second Language Writing Anxiety andTranslationJackie Xiu Yana & Honghua Wanga

a City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, ChinaPublished online: 12 Feb 2014.

To cite this article: Jackie Xiu Yan & Honghua Wang (2012) Second Language WritingAnxiety and Translation, The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 6:2, 171-194, DOI:10.1080/13556509.2012.10798835

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The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 6(2), 2012, 171-94

ISSN: 1750-399X © St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester

Second Language Writing Anxiety and Translation Performance in a Hong Kong Tertiary Translation Class�

Jackie Xiu Yan� �� n��ua �an�� n��ua �an�� n��ua �an��City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

A�stract��stract� The acquisition of foreign language and translation skills exposes learners to tasks and pressures that the literature defines as anxiety-provoking. But whilst a large number of studies have investigated the impact of second language anxiety on thesecond language anxiety on the language anxiety on the classroom performance of foreign language learners, few empiri-cal studies have been conducted to examine the problems derived from second language anxiety in translator training contexts. To fillsecond language anxiety in translator training contexts. To fill language anxiety in translator training contexts. To fill this important gap, this study investigates the impact of secondsecond language writing anxiety in a Chinese-to-English translation class. Drawing on the data provided by a sample of 50 translation major students in a Hong Kong university, the analysis shows that that there are significant correlations between second language writ-are significant correlations between second language writ- significant correlations between second language writ-ignificant correlations between second language writ-second language writ- language writ-ing anxiety, translation performance, and language ability (real and perceived). �� number of factors provoking second language. �� number of factors provoking second language�� number of factors provoking second languagesecond language language writing anxiety in the translation class are identified. ��mong these, the fear of being evaluated and the general apprehension of writing in English have been found to contribute significantly to predicting success in translation learning. The findings suggest that, in a translation class, it is important for teachers to be aware of anxiety-provoking practices, help learners reduce anxiety levels, and encourage student translators to form correct and positive self-perceptions about their language abilities.

Keywords. Translation learning, Translation performance, Second language learning, Foreign/Second language anxiety, Writing anxiety, Individual dif-ferences, Chinese-to-English translation.

1� Introduction

Translation and second language instructional settings share common or-ganizational features and pedagogical strategies, not least because second language learning plays an important curricular role in professional translator

� In this study, the terms �foreign language�� and �second language�� are used interchangeably.In this study, the terms �foreign language�� and �second language�� are used interchangeably.the terms �foreign language�� and �second language�� are used interchangeably.foreign language�� and �second language�� are used interchangeably.�� and �second language�� are used interchangeably.second language�� are used interchangeably.�� are used interchangeably.

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172 Second Language Writing ��nxiety and Translation Performance

training programmes. The interplay between language learning and translator training, however, continues to pose a number of important practical challenges. While possessing a high degree of proficiency in the students�� language pair(s) is normally listed as a requirement for entry onto translator training courses, the linguistic competence standards of translation students in many university translation programmes tend to be far from satisfactory. The growing aware-ness of this mismatch between curricular expectations and reality has fuelled a wealth of studies focusing specifically on language learning in translator training contexts. Li��s (2000) survey of the translator training scene in Hong Kong, for example, suggests that the widely held assumption that students have mastered Chinese and English before entering university does not hold. Similar conclusions are reached by other scholars, such as Pym (2005), Yan et al. (20�0) and, more recently, Zabawa (20�0) – who also argues that translation programmes should aim to develop students�� proficiency in both their foreign and native languages.

Given the pedagogical and curricular connections that exist between second language teaching and translator training, instructors working in both domains rely on similar classroom materials to develop a common set of language skills among their respective groups of students. Both language learners and translator trainees, for example, are required to speak in public “via a medium in which only limited facility is possessed” (Horwitz et al. �986:�27). Similarly, both groups are regularly exposed to complex tasks in their second language, whether reading materials that can be difficult to comprehend or writing tasks that need to be completed under time constraints. More generally, both second language and translation classes require “con-tinual evaluation by the only fluent speaker in the class, the teacher” (Horwitz et al. �986:�28). However, in addition to these shared activities developing learners�� fluency in both the student��s native and second languages, translator training programmes need to provide curricular opportunities for the develop-ment of translation-specific skills, including but not limited to the acquisition of translation strategies and techniques, public speaking competence, and the capacity to conduct conceptual and terminological research in a wide range of fields of subject-specific knowledge.

Foreign language anxiety has long been an important focus of research within second language learning studies (Horwitz 20�0). Categorized as a form of situation-specific anxiety (MacIntyre �999), foreign language anxiety has been defined as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (Horwitz et al. �986:�28). Drawing on the premise that the skills acquired during language learning and translator training courses overlap significantly, this paper sets out to investigate the role that anxiety plays in the training of translators. Although

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Jackie Xiu Yan and Honghua Wang and Honghua Wangand Honghua Wang 173

students have often reported feeling anxious in translation classes, research on language anxiety in translator training is rather scant. Designed to fill this gap, this study examines the impact of second language writing anxiety on Chinese (L�)-to-English (L2) translation learning in a tertiary institution in Hong Kong. There are two main reasons why this article focuses on second language writ-ing anxiety. On the one hand, the production of written output is particularly important in translator training programmes. On the other hand, translating into the student��s second language is particularly challenging, which is bound to provide the researcher with ample opportunities to study how anxiety arises and is managed by students.

The research questions addressed in this study are:

�. How does the students�� degree of anxiety in second language writing correlate with their translation performance?

2. How does students�� language ability correlate with their second lan-guage writing anxiety and translation performance?

3. What are the factors provoking second language writing anxiety in translation classes?

2� Literature review

2.1 Research on second language anxiety

Research on second language anxiety has grown exponentially in recent decades, to the extent that it is possible to identify several strands on this research topic.

Early studies contributed to developing instruments for measuring second language anxiety. Horwitz et al. (�986), for example, developed the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), which has become a “standard measure of language anxiety” (Horwitz 20�0:�58) widely applied by many scholars (Aida �994, Cheng et al. �999, Liu 2006, Sparks and Ganschow 2007). Further attempts to measure anxiety have taken place since FLCAS was first proposed. For example, Sánchez-Herrero and Sánchez (�992) de-veloped a scale to measure second language learners�� anxiety in the Spanish context and to investigate the predictive power of second language anxiety through the participants�� performance in English. Onwuegbuzie et al. (2000), on the other hand, have opted for a staged exploration of anxiety, proposing three different scales to measure anxiety during the input, processing and output stages of the foreign language learning process. More recently, Cheng (2004) has developed an instrument to measure second language writing anxiety and attempted to validate it using a sample of 42� students majoring in English as a Foreign Language from seven colleges in Taiwan.

Other studies have looked specifically into the sources of second language

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anxiety (Young �990, �99�, Hilleson �996, Liu 2006). Woodrow��s (2006) study on the major causes of second language anxiety among students taking English for academic purposes classes in Australian universities found that interacting with native speakers was the most frequent cause of anxiety. Yan and Horwitz (2008), on the other hand, employed a qualitative approach to investigate learners�� perceptions of the sources of second language anxiety in a Chinese university. Their research identified �0 factors that could lead directly or indirectly to language anxiety. Among these factors, interest and motivation, learning strategies and comparison with peers were found to be the most direct sources of language anxiety, while parental influence, classroom arrangement, gender, test types, language aptitude, teacher char-acteristics and regional differences were revealed as more indirect sources.

A third strand of research on second language anxiety consists of studies focusing on anxiety in relation to specific language skills, including listening (Arnold 2000, Kim 2000, Elkhafaifi 2005), speaking (Young �990, Woodrow 2006), reading (Oh �992, Hilleson �996, Saito et al. �999, Sellers 2000, Argaman and Abu-Rabia 2002), and writing (Cheng et al. �999, Argaman and Abu-Rabia 2002, Cheng 2002, 2004).

The strategies that students can rely on to cope with second language anxiety have also received scholarly attention (Young �99�). Kondo and Yang��s (2004) study informed by the input of 209 students learning basic English at two universities in Japan identified five types of coping strategies: preparation, relaxation, positive thinking, peer seeking and resignation. This study found no significant correlation between language anxiety and the frequency rate in the use of each strategy, although preparation was reported as the most frequently used one.

A final research strand examines the relationship between anxiety in the second language classroom and other parameters, including psychological factors, socio-demographic variables (Dewaele 2002) and non-verbal behav-iour (Gregersen 2005). For instance, Gregersen (2005) has looked into the non-verbal behavior of second language learners in a videotaped oral exam. Gregersen divided his sample of �3 students enrolled in a French beginner��s class into groups, placing eight of them either in �the most anxious�� and �the least anxious�� categories. Significant differences were found between the non-verbal behaviour of students belonging to these two groups.

Having completed this overview of the different strands of general re-search on second language anxiety, the next section surveys studies focusing exclusively on second language writing anxiety.

2.2 Research on second language writing anxiety

Early studies on second language anxiety tended to concentrate on anxiety

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arising from students�� oral performance in the second language classroom. It was not until the late �990s that attention shifted to other areas of language anxiety, including second language writing, listening and reading anxiety (Cheng et al. �999, Saito et al. �999). Existing research on second language writing anxiety focuses mainly on its sources, the strategies that can be used to reduce it (Liang 2005), the development of instruments measuring it (Cheng 2004), and the impact of parameters such as the learners�� gender and years of English schooling on their writing anxiety (Cheng 2002).

Overall, the research conducted so far suggests that second language classroom anxiety and second language writing anxiety are “related but distinguishable constructs” (Cheng et al. �999: 436). Existing studies have also identified differences between second language writing anxiety and first language writing anxiety. On a related note, they have also found that the students�� perceived second language writing competence helps to predict the degree of anxiety that they experience when writing in their second language more reliably than their actual performance in second language writing tasks (Cheng 2002).

2.3 Second language anxiety and translation training

A number of studies have investigated the stress or anxiety that arises while translating and interpreting (Riccardi et al �998, Gile �995, 2004). Drawing on a comparison between the stress involved in translating and interpreting, Gile (2004: �2) concludes that stress in business (written) translation derives mainly from “the required speed of processing and associated fatigue”, while anxiety in conference interpreting arises primarily from “stage fright”, the booth setting and the fact that “interpreters cannot correct their initial utter-ance (with some exceptions)”. Except for these very general studies, there is a dearth of research that addresses specifically the relationship between second language anxiety and translation learning.

A few studies have examined second language anxiety in interpreting classes. For example, Chiang (2009) investigated the prevalence of foreign language anxiety in a Taiwanese undergraduate interpreter training program. The degree of anxiety of 327 (252 females and 75 males) students learning Chinese-to-English (mainly consecutive) interpretation was measured using the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale. Results showed that the Taiwanese student interpreters investigated here did exhibit foreign language anxiety – even though the learning and use of foreign languages is so central to their training and future profession. Although anxiety was slightly less prevalent among Taiwanese student interpreters than among Asian second language learners, the trainee interpreters�� anxiety was more far-reaching than among European learners. Chiang (20�0) further examined the influence

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of second language anxiety on the performance of Chinese-English inter-pretation students. The mid-term exam scores and end-of-semester grades of 2�3 participants were used as the basis for this study. Drawing on both the Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale, Chiang��s study showed that foreign language anxiety was significantly and negatively correlated with both sets of grades. More generally, although significant and positive correlation was found to exist between trait anxiety – i.e. manifestations of stress that are not motivated by second language competence issues – and the students�� overall foreign language anxiety, no significant correlation was found between trait anxiety and the achievement measures.

Despite these advances, none of the existing studies on foreign language anxiety and translation have examined the interplay between translator training and foreign language anxiety in relation to specific language skills. For example, no research has, to the best of our knowledge, investigated how writing anxiety affects the learning of the written translation. Against this backdrop, the current study aims to gain a better understanding of the interplay between second language writing anxiety and the development of Chinese (L�)-to-English (L2) translation skills. A diagrammatic representa-tion of the main variables addressed in this study is provided in Figure �.

Perceived L2 Writing Competence

L2 Writing Anxiety L2 Competence

L1→L2 Written

Translation Performance

Perceived L2 Competence

Figure 1. Main variables in the study of second language anxiety among student translators

3� Method

3.1 Participants

The participants in this study were 50 students (eleven males, thirty-eight females and one student who did not disclose his/her gender) majoring in translation at a tertiary institution in Hong Kong. Most of the participants

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were taking the Chinese-to-English translation course and had previously taken the English to Chinese translation course in previous semesters.

3.2 Instruments and procedure

The questionnaire used for the study (see Appendix I) consisted of two components:

• An instrument to measure students�� anxiety levels when writing English using Cheng��s 5-point Likert scale (Cheng 2004). Responses could thus range from � point (strongly disagree) to 5 points (strongly agree); all negatively worded items were reverse scored. The internal consistency of the instrument using Cronbach��s alpha – a reliability coefficient rang-ing from 0 (not reliable at all) to �.0 (perfectly reliable) – was 0.887, indicating that the questionnaire was highly reliable.

• Secondly, a background information component including two sets of questions. The first one elicited information on demographic vari-ables, including the participants�� age, gender, grade level, years of schooling in English and experience of living in or visiting foreign countries. The second set consisted of a range of 5-point Likert scale questions on the students�� Chinese and English reading and writing habits; family��s language background; translation learning experience; opinions on the importance of learning translation; perceptions of their ability to speak/listen/read/write English; and self-perceptions of translation ability. Self-perceptions are central to the notion of “translator��s self-concept” articulated in a number of translator com-petence studies (Kussmaul �995; Kiraly �995, 2000) and defined as “the image of the translator��s social role, the translator��s appraisal of his or her competency for translating a particular text and understand-ing of responsibility toward the other personalities in the translation context of situation (author, commissioner, user and reader)” (Kiraly (�995:�00).

Questionnaires were administered in class. Participants – who were given assurances that the data drawn from their responses would be used for research purposes only – had around �5 minutes to complete the questionnaire.

Course examination results and their English proficiency grades (HKCEE2

2 HKCEE (Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination) is a standardizedHong Kong Certificate of Education Examination) is a standardized examination that students take at the end of their five-year secondary education, admin-that students take at the end of their five-year secondary education, admin- students take at the end of their five-year secondary education, admin- take at the end of their five-year secondary education, admin- admin-admin-istered by Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). The HKCEE by Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). The HKCEEHong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). The HKCEE (HKEAA). The HKCEE. The HKCEE English exam is a comprehensive test covering English reading, writing, listening anda comprehensive test covering English reading, writing, listening and covering English reading, writing, listening and English reading, writing, listening and speaking (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority 20��).(Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority 20��).Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority 20��). 20��)..

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English scores), that were used in this study as indicators of Chinese-to-English translation performance and English proficiency, respectively, were obtained from the course instructors and the students.

4� Results

4.1 Language anxiety and translation performance

To investigate if English writing anxiety affects students�� Chinese-to-English translation performance, Pearson product-moment correlations3 between both variables were computed and significant correlations were found. Table � shows that the Pearson correlation coefficient is - .3�7, which suggests that there was a negative correlation between English writing anxiety and Chinese-to-English translation performance. In other words, the higher the level of the English writing anxiety was, the lower the Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks were. The correlation coefficient is moderate but significant.

English writing anxiety Chinese-to-English trans-lation final exam marks

English writing anxiety -

Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks

-.3�7* -

Note: *significant at p < .05

Table 1. Pearson product-moment correlation between English writing anxiety and Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks

4.2 Language ability and translation performance

Most of the participants in this study had taken their HKCEE exam by the end of their five-year secondary education. Although they were already col-lege students at the time of participating in this study, the HKCEE English

3 The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is a measure of the correlation (linear dependence) between two variables. In the study of relationships, two variables are said to be correlated if change in one variable is accompanied by change in the other – either in the same or reverse direction.

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exam scores were chosen as the most useful and methodologically compara-ble indicator of their English proficiency – in recognition of the popularity of this standardized examination in Hong Kong. To further understand the relationship between the students�� language ability (real and self-perceived) and their translation performance, Pearson product-moment correlations between HKCEE English results, students�� self-perceived English abilities and Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks were employed. Table 2 shows that the Pearson correlation coefficient between HKCEE English results and Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks is .343. This indicates that there was a significant and positive correlation between the HKCEE English grades and the Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks. In other words, students with higher HKCEE English results achieved higher Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks.

Chinese-to-English trans-lation final exam marks

HKCEE English grades


-

HKCEE English grades .343* -


Table 2. Pearson product-moment correlation between HKCEE English results and the Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks

The self-perceived English abilities were broken down into five vari-ables: self-perceived overall English level, self-perceived English speaking level, self-perceived English listening level, self-perceived English reading level and self-perceived English writing level. Table 3 shows significant correlations between the students�� Chinese-to-English translation exam marks and both their self-perceived overall English proficiency (Pearson correlation coefficient = .307, significant at p < .05) and their self-perceived English writing proficiency (Pearson correlation coefficient = .340, sig-nificant at p < .05). However, the students�� Chinese-to-English translation performance does not correlate with self-perceived English speaking levels, self-perceived English listening levels, or self-perceived English reading levels. These results suggest that the higher the perceived overall English levels and English writing levels, the higher the grades they are likely to achieve in the Chinese-to-English translation exam.

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Chi

nese

-to-E

nglis

h tr

ansl

a-tio

n fin

al e

xam

mar

ks

Self-

perc

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dov

eral

l Eng

lish

leve

l

Self-

perc

eive

dEn

glis

h sp

eaki

ng le

vel

Self-

perc

eive

dEn

glis

h lis

teni

ng le

vel

Self-

perc

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dEn

glis

h re

adin

g le

vel

Self-

perc

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dEn

glis

h w

ritin

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-

Self-perceived overall English level

.307* -

Self-perceived English speaking level

.238 .3�8* -

Self-perceived English listening level

.244 .437** .374** -

Self-perceived English reading level

.�59 .4�5** .055 .304* -

Self-perceived English writing level

.340* .552** .�59 .237 .308* -

Note: **significant at p < .0�; *significant at p < .05

Table 3. Pearson product-moment correlation between Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks and self-perceived English abilities

4.3 Reading habits, writing habits and translation performance

In order to investigate whether there were significant correlations between reading habits, writing habits and translation performance, Pearson product-moment correlations were computed between the frequency with which students read English newspapers or magazines and their Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks, on the one hand; and the frequency with which students wrote blogs and diaries in English and their Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks, on the other.

No significant correlation was identified between the blog-/diary-writing frequency and the marks for the Chinese-to-English translation final exam. However, as shown in Table 4, a positive and significant correlation was found between the newspaper/magazine reading frequency and the marks achieved in Chinese-to-English translation final exams – with a Pearson correlation coefficient of .3�2.

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Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks

Reading frequency English newspapers/magazines

Chinese-to-English transla-tion final exam marks -

Reading frequency English newspapers/magazines .3�2* -


Table 4. Pearson product-moment correlation between the frequency of reading English newspapers or magazines and Chinese-to-English trans-

lation final exam marks

4.4 Components that contribute to predicting Chinese-to-English translation performance

The relationship between English writing anxiety and translation perform-ance was investigated using a multiple regression analysis,4 which involved a number of stages. First, the 22 constitutive items of our English writing anxiety scale were subjected to a principal components analysis with varimax rotation to explore the components structure that most adequately represented the constructs underpinning the anxiety measures.5 The selection of the best rotated solution was based on the eigenvalue > � and scree test criteria.6 Factor analysis can also solve the potential problem of multicollinearity among the items, which is a major cause of unstable regression equations.7

Multiple solutions were then computed, extracting different numbers of components. Based on the principles of explaining as much variance as pos-sible and retaining a simple and conceptually interpretable factor structure, a

4 A multiple regression analysis expresses the relationship between a set of independentultiple regression analysis expresses the relationship between a set of independentexpresses the relationship between a set of independent variables (in this case, the factors subsumed under our scale) and a single dependent vari-able (translation performance). There are several types of multiple regression analyses. There are several types of multiple regression analysesThere are several types of multiple regression analyses (e.g. standard, hierarchical, setwise, stepwise). The stepwise regression is used in this. The stepwise regression is used in thisused in this study because it can help the researcher identify the best combination of independent help the researcher identify the best combination of independenthelp the researcher identify the best combination of independent the best combination of independentindependent variables to predict the dependent variable (translation performance). to predict the dependent variable (translation performance).to predict the dependent variable (translation performance). (translation performance)..5 For more information on the aim of principal components analyses and the advantagesFor more information on the aim of principal components analyses and the advantages of varimax rotation, see Brown (2009).6 For more information on the rationale for these statistical choices in language research, see Brown (200�).7 This is often the case when each of the predictor variables correlates highly with theThis is often the case when each of the predictor variables correlates highly with the dependent variable but correlate at most only minimally with each other.

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three-factor solution was chosen, accounting for 53.8% of the total variance. Table 5 shows the rotated component matrix, sorted by factor. To sharpen our focus on the salient loadings, loadings under .40 in absolute value were blanked out.

Factor � was defined by six items which were related to students�� ap-prehension of writing in English. This factor was labelled �general fear of writing in English��. Factor 2, which received high loadings from seven items pertaining to others�� perceptions of students�� writing in English, was labelled �fear of being evaluated��. Factor 3 was defined by five items referring to the demands of writing under time constraints and was therefore labeled as �impact of time pressure��. Factor loadings under .40 were excluded from the next stage of the analysis, involving the interpretation of results.

Factor 1 2 3

Q1. While writing in English, I��m not nervous at all.

Q10. I do my best to avoid situations in which I have to write in English.

0.453

Q19. I usually feel my whole body rigid and tense when I write English compositions.

0.474 0.452

Q22. Whenever possible, I would use English to write compositions.

0.62�

Q12. Unless I have no choice, I would not use English to write compositions.

0.7�8

Q5. I usually do my best to avoid writing English compositions.

0.720

Q4. I often choose to write down my thoughts in English.

0.77�

Q18. I usually seek every possible chance to write English compositions outside of class.

0.802

Q3. While writing English compositions, I feel worried and uneasy if I know they will be evaluated.

0.435

Q9. If my English composition is to be evaluated, I would worry about getting a very poor grade.

0.576

Q7. I don��t worry that my English compositions are a lot worse than others��.

0.6�7

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Q17. I don��t worry at all about what other people would think of my English compositions.

0.627

Q21. I��m not afraid at all that my English compo-sitions would be rated as very poor.

0.649

Q20. I��m afraid of my English compositions being chosen as a sample for discussion in class.

0.795

Q14. I��m afraid that the other students would deride my English composition if they read it.

0.842

Q8. I tremble or perspire when I write English composition under time pressure.

0.40�

Q6. My mind often goes blank when I start to work on an English composition.

0.588

Q13. I often feel panic when I write English com-positions under time constraint.

0.699

Q11. My thoughts become jumbled when I write English compositions under time constraint.

0.7��

Q2. I feel my heart pounding when I write English compositions under time constraint.

0.790

Q15. I freeze up when unexpectedly asked to write English compositions.

Q16. I would do my best to excuse myself if asked to write English compositions.

Table 5. Factor analysis of writing anxiety variables

A stepwise multiple regression analysis8 was then conducted to establish which of the factors listed in Table 5 would most significantly contribute to the prediction of translation performance. As Table 6 shows, two out of three factors contributed significantly to predicting the participants�� Chinese-to-English translation performance. The best predictor was the fear of being evaluated, which could explain �2.8 % of variance. The second significant predictor was the general apprehension of writing in English, which could explain an additional 8.5% of variance.

8 In stepwise multiple regression analyses, the independent variables are entered accord-tepwise multiple regression analyses, the independent variables are entered accord-the independent variables are entered accord-ing to their statistical contribution in explaining the variance in the dependent variable. Stepwise regression is thus designed to find the set of predictors that are most effective in predicting the dependent variable.

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Predictor variable F change Cum. R Cum. R2 R2 Increment

Fear of being evaluated 6.754** .358 .�28 .�28

General apprehension of writing in English

4.888** .462 .2�3 .085

**significant at p < .0�F-change = Test of the significance of the R2 increment.

Cum. = cumulativeR = R is the correlation between the observed and predicted values of depend-

ent variable.R2 = This is the proportion of variance in the dependent variable which can be

explained by the independent variables. This is an overall measure of the strength of association and does not reflect the extent to which any particu-lar independent variable is associated with the dependent variable.

Table 6. Stepwise regression of translation achievement (exam marks) on writing anxiety factors

5� Discussion

This study has examined the relationship between language abilities (real and perceived), second language writing anxiety and L�-L2 translation perform-ance. This section summarizes the main findings.

Firstly, English writing anxiety has been found to be significantly and negatively correlated with Chinese-to-English translation performance, thus corroborating the results of earlier comparable studies (Chiang 2009, 20�0). Given the growing awareness of the interconnectedness between research in the fields of second language acquisition and translator training (Colina 2002, Zannirato 2008), exploiting the synergies between studies on language anxi-ety by scholars working in both disciplines is bound to be mutually enriching and lead to further advances of our understanding of this research topic.

Secondly, the results show that both actual and perceived English lan-guage proficiency are significantly correlated with Chinese-to-English translation performance. This general finding can be broken down into a number of more specific ones:

• A positive correlation has been identified between HKCEE English grades and Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks, which suggests that the students with higher HKCEE results performed bet-ter in Chinese-to-English translation. Results also show that HKCEE grades can serve as a reference for the prediction of students�� translation performance, thus bringing into sharp relief the importance of improv-ing English writing ability in translation classes.

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• The students�� perceptions of their own proficiency in English and their Chinese-to-English translation performance are also closely related. Significant correlations have been found between self-perceived overall English levels and Chinese-to-English translation exam marks, self-perceived English writing levels and Chinese-to-English translation exam marks. These results lend support to previous studies arguing that learning perceptions can be very helpful and dependable (Cheng 2002, Yan and Horwitz 2008, Yan et al. 20�0). In the light of this finding, fostering more positive self-perceptions of English proficiency among students should be a priority for translation trainers.

• Out of the four second language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) considered in this study, only self-perceived writing ability appears to be significantly correlated with Chinese-to-English transla-tion performance. This would appear to justify the need to investigate separately the interplay between each individual language skill and the prevalence of language anxiety. There is, however, scope for more spe-cialized analyses. For example, investigating the relationship between L� and L2 reading anxiety, L� and L2 language proficiency and L2 to L� written translation performance could shed light on directionality issues in translation studies.

Thirdly, the current study has also identified a positive correlation between the frequency with which students read English newspapers or magazines and their Chinese-to-English translation performance. Other learner-specific factors, such as gender, length of study, age, family background, have not been found to be significantly correlated with translation performance. The limited size of the sample used in this study may be partly responsible for this result. Further investigation drawing on larger samples needs to be conducted on learner-specific features in the future.

Finally, the stepwise multiple regression analysis of writing anxiety fac-tors and their impact on translation performance has shown that the variable �fear of being evaluated�� has the strongest predictive power over translation achievement with the largest share of variance (�2.8%). �General apprehen-sion of writing in English�� is the second significant predictor. This finding is consistent with Horwitz et al (�986), who found that fear of negative evalu-ation was one of the three factors contributing to foreign language anxiety (the other two being communication apprehension and test anxiety). Further investigation is required on the reasons for students�� fear of being evaluated and writing in English, as well as on the formulation of pedagogical strate-gies to gradually reduce this fear.

6� Conclusion

This study has demonstrated that language anxiety affects translation learn-ing in a tertiary institution in Hong Kong. As far as Chinese (L�)-to-English

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(L2) translation is concerned, L2 writing anxiety has been found to have a negative impact on translation performance. The need to strengthen students�� L2 writing competence calls for the inclusion of more writing activities in the curriculum – in what is already a growing trend in translator training institutions worldwide.9

In the current study, a significant correlation has also been found between students�� self-perceived overall English proficiency, self-perceived English writing ability and Chinese-to-English translation final exam marks. Again, this has confirmed the importance of learners�� self-perceptions, bringing to the fore the importance of the connections between learners�� self-image in language learning and students�� self-awareness and self-confidence in translator training programmes (Kussmaul �995).

Forming a benign circle for student translators in the classroom is one of the main recommendations to emerge from this study. On the basis of our findings, building a comfortable and relaxing learning atmosphere is crucial to help students gain confidence and gradually overcome the fear of being evaluated and having to write in English. This can be achieved by minimiz-ing the provision of unduly negative feedback on students�� performance and maximizing the opportunities for trainees to form correct and positive per-ceptions about their language abilities. The gradual reduction of translation learning anxiety that obtains in benign circles should stimulate the students�� desire to improve their language competence and translation skills.

The findings reported in this article arise from a study on a Chinese-to-English translation course delivered in Hong Kong. Further research involving other language pairs, directions and educational backgrounds is required to gain a better understanding of the dialectic between second language anxiety and translation learning. Finally, while researchers have long been investigating the interplay between first language writing anxiety and writing performance (Bannister �992, Daly �978, Faigley et al.�98�), few studies, if any, have been conducted on the role of first language writing ability and anxiety in the context of translator training. It would therefore be useful to look into the interplay of first language ability, second language ability, language anxiety and translation achievement in future research.

JACKIE XIU YAN & HONGHUA WANGDepartment of Chinese, Translation and Linguistics, College of Liberal ��rts and Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee ��venue, Kowloon, Hong Kong S��[email protected] / [email protected]

9 Ulrych (2005:��) reports that, in addition to translation activities, 33% of the 4� European and North-American institutions surveyed in her study “included written composition in L� as a translation-related activity, [and] 38% written composition in L2”.

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APPENDIX I

This questionnaire is part of a survey designed to gather information about anxiety in writing in English at university. This survey will contribute posi-tively to the learning of language and translation in City University of Hong Kong. Please ensure that your responses match your actual feelings.

The questionnaire will take about 15 minutes to complete. Please complete it in class and hand it back to your teacher. For each question please circle the appropriate answer. Please respond to all the questions. The information you provide will be used only for research purposes.

I� Questions a�out English Writing Anxiety (Cheng 2004)

1. While writing in English, I��m not nervous at all. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

2. I feel my heart pounding when I write English compositions under time constraint. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree3. While writing English compositions, I feel worried and uneasy if I know they will be evaluated. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

4. I often choose to write down my thoughts in English. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

5. I usually do my best to avoid writing English compositions. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

6. My mind often goes blank when I start to work on an English composition. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

7. I don��t worry that my English compositions are a lot worse than others��. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree8. I tremble or perspire when I write English composition under time pressure. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

9. If my English composition is to be evaluated, I would worry about getting a very poor grade. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

�0. I do my best to avoid situations in which I have to write in English. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

��. My thoughts become jumbled when I write English compositions under time constraint. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree�2. Unless I have no choice, I would not use English to write compositions. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

�3. I often feel panic when I write English compositions under time constraint. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

�4. I��m afraid that the other students would deride my English composition if they read it. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

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�5. I freeze up when unexpectedly asked to write English compositions. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

�6. I would do my best to excuse myself if asked to write English compositions. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

�7. I don��t worry at all about what other people would think of my English compositions. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

�8. I usually seek every possible chance to write English compositions outside of class. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

�9. I usually feel my whole body rigid and tense when I write English compositions. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

20. I��m afraid of my English compositions being chosen as a sample for discussion in class. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

2�. I��m not afraid at all that my English compositions would be rated as very poor. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

22. Whenever possible, I would use English to write compositions. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree

II� Background Information

23. Your name (English): Surname: __________ Given Name:_________

24. Your student ID: __________

25. Your sex: Male: __________ Female:_________

26. Which of the following written translation courses you have taken?

�) Chinese-to-English 2) English-to-Chinese both �) and 2) 27. You are a _____You are a _____

Freshman Sophomore Junior Other:________28. How long have you been studying English (including self-study and taking private English courses)? _____ years ___months.29. How would you rate your father��s English proficiency level? very poor poor moderate good very good30. How would you rate your mother��s English proficiency level? very poor poor moderate good very good3�. My parents have high expectations for my English grades. strongly disagree disagree no strong feelings either way agree strongly agree32. How would you rate your English proficiency level? very poor poor moderate good very good33-36. How would you rate your proficiency levels in each of the following language skills in English? Speaking very poor poor moderate good very good

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Listening

very poor poor moderate good very good

Reading


Writing


37. How would you rate your English-to-Chinese translation level?


38. How would you rate your Chinese-to-English translation level?


39. Your HKCEE English result is ___________

40-43. How would you rate the strength of your motivation for acquiring each of the following language skills in English?

Speaking

not at all a little moderate quite strong extremely strong

Listening


Reading


Writing


44-47. How would you rate the levels of your interest in acquiring each of the following language skills in English?

Speaking

not a little a little moderate quite high extremely high

Listening


Reading


Writing


48-49. How would you rate the strength of your motivation for learning translation?

English-to-Chinese


Chinese-to-English


50-5�. How would you rate your levels of interest in learning translation?

English-to-Chinese


Chinese-to-English


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52. Have you ever travelled or lived in an English-speaking country? Yes. a. What country (countries)? _____________________

b. How long? ____years____months. No.

53. How often do you have contact with native English speakers outside the English class? never seldom sometimes often very often54. How often do you watch TV in English? never seldom sometimes often very often55. How often do you watch TV in Chinese? never seldom sometimes often very often56. How often do you read English newspapers or magazines? never seldom sometimes often very often57. How often do you read Chinese newspapers or magazines? never seldom sometimes often very often58. How often do you write diaries or blogs in English? never seldom sometimes often very often59. How often do you write diaries or blogs in Chinese? never seldom sometimes often very often60-63. How would you rate the importance of each of the following language skills in English? Speaking not a little a little moderate quite important extremely important Listening not a little a little moderate quite important extremely important Reading not a little a little moderate quite important extremely important Writing not a little a little moderate quite important extremely important64-67. How would you rate the difficulty levels of each of the following kinds of English learning activities? Speaking not a little a little moderate quite difficult extremely difficult Listening not a little a little moderate quite difficult extremely difficult Reading not a little a little moderate quite difficult extremely difficult Writing not a little a little moderate quite difficult extremely difficult68-69. How would you rate the importance of learning translation? English-to-Chinese not a little a little moderate quite important extremely important

Chinese-to-English

not a little a little moderate quite important extremely important

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70-7�. How would you rate the difficulty levels of learning translation? English-to-Chinese not a little a little moderate quite difficult extremely difficult Chinese-to-English not a little a little moderate quite difficult extremely difficult72. What do you believe contributes most to high achievement in English learning? Learning methods Teachers Effort Giftedness Other:_________73. What do you believe contributes most to high achievement in translation learning? Learning methods Teachers Effort Giftedness Other:_________

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Documents

Second Language Writing Anxiety and Translation