Seattle Prep—Junior Collegio/History Project

National History Day, 2009-2010

Innovation in History: Impact and Change

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List of Contents

Contest Rules: 2

Proposed Timeline: 3

2008-2009 National History Day Theme: 4-5

Possible Topics: 6

Selecting a Topic: 7

Preliminary Topic Selection: 8

Formulating a Thesis Statement: 9-10

Incorporating Primary and Secondary Sources: 11

Major Assignments: Article Analysis, Compiling an Annotated Bibliography (sample Annotated Bibliographies for Primary/ 12-13

Secondary Sources):

Research Strategy: 14

Analyzing a Written Document: 15

Research Status Report: 16-17

Sample Paper: 18-21

Rules for National History Day: Paper CategoryThe text of historical papers must be no less than 1500 and no more than 2500 words in length. Each word or number in the text of the paper counts as one word. The word limit does not apply to: citations, annotated bibliography, illustration captions, and supplemental appendix material. Appendix material must be directly referred to in the text of the paper. Extensive supplemental materials are inappropriate.

Issues of Authorship: Plagiarism While completing your papers, it is understood that work conducted by other scholars is needed to compare, contrast, support, and inform your own product. By appropriately documenting the source of information incorporated into your paper you will avoid any allegations of plagiarism.

Plagiarism in its purest form involves the copying of entire passages either verbatim or nearly verbatim, with no direct acknowledgment of the source. Another form of plagiarism occurs when, instead of quoting a passage directly, a writer attempts to avoid the necessity of using quotation marks by making a few superficial changes in the text. But by far the most common (an unconscious) form of plagiarism is when a direct quotation is simply paraphrased. Paraphrasing does not relieve you of the obligation to provide proper identification of source data.1

For further information on contest rules, History Day, or related questions, visit: nhd.org

1 Joan I. Miller and Bruce J. Taylor, The Thesis Writer’s Handbook (West Linn, OR: Alcove Publishing Co., 1987), 20-21.2

Timeline :

Introduction of National History Day Theme and Process

Introduce History Day Sept 7-11

Select Preliminary Topic Monday, September 21

Note and Source Check Friday, October 2

Preliminary Theses Friday, October 9

Article Analysis, Revised Thesis and Source Check Friday, October 16(4 Primary and 4 Secondary in annotated form) Return by Mon., Oct. 26

Thorough Outline Due Friday, October 30(Final Thesis Statement, Topic Sentences, use of Primary Return by Fri, Nov. 6Sources and Annotated Bibliography)

First Draft Due (two copies) Friday, November 20

Return corrected Rough Draft Friday, December 4

Final Draft Due Thursday, December 17

Return graded final draft Friday, January 15

Seattle Prep History Day: January _______

Papers due to Regional Competition: Thursday, February 4

Regional History Day: Friday, March 19

State History Day Competition: Saturday, April 24

National History Day Competition (University of Maryland) June 13-17

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Theme for 2009-10: Innovation in HistoryDuring the 2009-2010 school year, National History Day invites students to research topics related to the theme of Innovation in History. Students need to keep the entire theme in mind: “In History,” as well as “Innovation” as they begin their research. While the most obvious topics come from science like Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, new discoveries like Isaac Newton’s laws of gravity, or new inventions like the automobile, the theme is really much broader than that.

Innovation suggests creative new approaches to any facet of life. Students might explore innovation in artistic or musical forms, for example, by looking at the rise of jazz. The important aspect of any National History Day research project is to situate the topic in the historical context. What was happening in society that supported the rise of jazz at this particular point in time? Another way to extend the topic is to follow the impact of jazz on society through time, e.g., on the African American community or subsequent music forms.

Changes in political, social or religious institutions or arrangements might also be considered as innovations, as new ways to respond to problems facing society. For example, the establishment of the United States of America, the Cultural Revolution in China, the development of settlement houses in America and Europe, or the Protestant Reformation could all be topics for NHD this year. As always, the theme is broad enough to include topics from any period of history and from any part of the world. Whatever topics they choose, however, students must remember to address the theme and place their projects in historical context.

What is Innovation?The initial challenge for students participating in National History Day is to make sure they choose a topic that demonstrates the theme. Innovation, by definition, involves some sort of change, but not all changes are innovations. As students select their topics, they need to ask themselves whether their topic is indeed an innovation. What is it about the topic that is new and different, and is also the result of human ideas or actions? Let’s say a student wants to research something related to the 1900 hurricane that hit Galveston, Texas.Taking the topic of development of better storm warning systems or weather observation technologies that emerged to prevent similar future disasters would fit the theme. On the other hand, simply describing the devastation and loss of life resulting from the hurricane, even if the project showed the legacy of the hurricane for future development on the island in subsequent decades, does not address the innovation part of the theme. It is not the hurricane but the technology. Another example is how the 1906 San Francisco earthquake inspired innovation in the construction industry to design buildings to withstand seismic activity. Remember innovative is synonymous with new. The context sets the stage.

Once an appropriate topic has been identified, the crucial first step in any research project is to learn about the specifics of the topic. What was the innovation called? When was it adopted or developed? Who was involved, or, in other words, who were the innovators who created, designed, or implemented the innovation? What did the innovation look like, how did it work, and what previous ideas, objects, actions, or institutions did it replace? What benefits did it provide, and to whom? How was it received?

What is in History?Capturing the “in history” part of the theme is critical for a National History Day project. While it is tempting to focus entirely on the specific innovation, exploration of the “in history” part of the project takes students into the exciting realm of analysis, of exploring questions of why and so what? This is where students look at how the topic fits into historical context, why the innovation was important or significant, and what it left as its legacy.

An examination of historical context begins with looking at why this innovation came about when and where it did. Establishing historical context means showing what economic, political, social, technological, cultural, religious or other circumstances existed before, and perhaps caused or contributed to, the innovation of interest. It is critical for students to read about the time period first. The development of barbed wire does not make sense unless it is first situated in the cattle industry and grazing rights. The impact of the vacuum cleaner is only

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understood when juxtaposed with the changing roles of women in the 20th century. Without historical context it is impossible for students to analyze the impact of an innovation.

Perhaps it was in answer to a problem. For example, the New Deal could be seen as the United States’s response to the Great Depression of the 1930s. Or maybe the innovation built on other recent developments, with creative individuals taking advantage of opportunities rather than setting out to solve a problem. Thomas Edison’s discovery of ways to understand and harness electricity, for example, made all sorts of further inventions possible: electric lights, automobiles, and labor saving devices for the kitchen, just to name a few. Other innovators built on Edison’s work to develop new systems to distribute electricity from a central utility company to individuals’ homes and businesses. Innovation in government roles, regulation, and policy also took place, as distribution of electricity became increasingly perceived as a public service – most likely to solve problems as well as take advantage of the new technological innovations.

The other aspect of the in history part of the theme is to look at the effects or results of the innovation. How did people react initially, in the short term (within a few years), and over the longer term (in later years and decades), to the new idea, arrangement, organization, or technology? The short term is the impact of the innovation and the long term is the change over time brought about by the innovation. What were the personal ramifications for the innovator? How soon did people adopt or accept the innovation – or did they reject it? What happened to the ideas or items replaced by the innovation, and how quickly did those trends show up? How did it change people’s ideas, scientific knowledge, everyday behavior, political processes, etc.? Did the innovation just influence people locally, or did its influences extend nationally or to other countries, and in what ways did the influences appear? Has the innovation been supplanted by other innovations, and how fast did that replacement process occur? All of these questions are designed to explore the historical significance of the topic.2

2 Julie McCullough, an independent consultant for National History Day.5

Sample of Possible Topics for the theme Innovation in History

• Longbow or the Stirrup or Gunpowder: Revolutionizing Warfare• Metallurgy: Transforming Agricultural, Military and Artistic Tools• Irrigation: Urbanization of Communities• Ox Drawn Plow: Opening Trade, Transporting Goods• Electrum: Standard Unit of Measure• Anesthesia: Improving Surgery, Improving Health• Waterwheel: Harnessing Energy• The Compass and Exploration• Lateen Sails: Sailing Against the Wind• Gatlin Gun or Repeating Rifle: Faster than a Speeding Bullet• Telescope: Bringing the Stars into Focus• Gutenberg Press: Spreading Literacy to the Masses

• Heliocentric Solar System: Centering our Thoughts on Astronomy• Mercator’s Projection: A Grid of Directions• The Sextant: Guided by the Stars• Barometer: Under Pressure• Pendulum Clock: Measuring Time• Telegraph: Communicating through Code• The Steam Engine: Faster and Stronger• Spinning Jenny: Automation of Weaving• Canning: Preserving Food• Cotton Gin: Expanding Production and Slavery• Automated Loom: Speed Weaving• Transcontinental Railroad: Linking a Continent• Electricity: Shedding Light• Photography: Capturing Time• Refrigeration: Cold Storage

• The Reaper: Slicing through Labor Costs• Sewing Machine: Seamless Production• Dynamite: Exploding and Expanding Construction Projects• Plastics: The Gift that Won’t Stop Giving• Internal Combustion Engine: Speed and Energy• Telephone: Communication Connection• X-Ray: Seeing through the Future• Household Vacuum: Cleaning Up• Airplanes: Transforming Transportation: Connecting the World• Polio Vaccine: New Hope• Laser Technology: Curing without Cutting

• Barbed Wire: Fencing the Future

This is by no means a complete list of the possible topics that could be used for this theme. Notice that very few of these suggested topics deal with local history. Local History topics are a great idea, with

relevant sources and individuals who were involved as potential resources. Additionally, read the description for a more broad interpretation of innovations in history. This list unfortunately

includes mostly physical innovations rather than ideological things like democracy or cultural change. Lastly, remember that we follow the American History and Literature curriculum, so topics selected will need to be

American or prove to have significant impact on American history.

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Selecting a Topic(Adapted from “Picking a Topic: The Great History Day Dilemma for Students.”)

Tips on Topic Selection: **************It is essential that the topic is of interest to the student************** The topic should clearly fit the year’s theme The topic should be in-depth and narrow in scope. It is better to focus on one issue in detail than to cover

many issues superficially The topic should reflect the availability of primary and secondary resources. A local topic is often a good

choice, since primary documents are more likely to be available in the community in which an event occurred or in which a person lived.

Discovering an Area of Interest: Following are some suggestions to help students select a topic that appeals to them in a personal way. Consider conducting a brainstorming session using the following guideposts.

Talents, Interests, and Activities : Do students have any talents, hobbies, or academic interests which could relate to the theme? For example, students interested in science might be apt to pick a topic in the field of medical history or the development of a piece of technology. A gymnast might want to learn more about the Olympics.

Ethnic and Religious Heritage: Great topics abound in ethnic and religious history. Students might focus on the migration of an ethnic group to America, or explore a key event in their religion’s history, such as enduring persecution or division.

Popular Culture: Popular books, films, and television provide inspiration to students. Encourage students to probe deeper into topics they think have already been explored in a documentary.

Ancestry: The stories in students’ own families can provide both drama, human interest, and great primary sources. Have students interview relatives to discover topics related to this year’s theme.

Social Studies, Language Arts, and other courses: Students frequently overlook what they already know. Suggest that they recall some of the favorite topics from previous classes and encourage them to discuss topics with other teachers across various subject areas. Their math teacher might have plenty of ideas you might never have considered.

State and Local History Museums and Organizations: Students aren’t aware that they need not “think big.” Lots of professional archivists, historians, and research specialists at the local library, historical society, or museum are eager to help them select topics and access resources. Students should consider visiting these sites and inquiring as to potential topics and resources.

Narrowing Down that Area of Interest:Selecting a History Day topic is a process of gradually narrowing down the area of history in which students are interested and focusing on a specific, manageable subject. Students should pick a topic that appeals to them, inspires a sense of wonder, and that they can put their heart into. To start out, students should think about activities, events, and subjects which have piqued their curiosity. They should also consider historical events or periods that most interest them. They should then look at the annual theme to see if there are subject areas that fit their ideas.Students need guidance to narrow their topic. Often content to proceed with the first appealing idea, they fail to evaluate whether the topic is too broad or too narrow. For example, if a student is interested in Native Americans and the theme is Rights in History, a natural topic would be treaty rights. At this point the student may need to consider that it is impossible to look at the thousands of treaties between Native American tribes and the United States. This means that they have to take another step in the narrowing process and select a specific issue within the topic. Keeping in mind the available resources, the student could investigate a specific treaty involving Native Americans in Washington State.

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Preliminary Topic Selection

Instructions: Use this worksheet to help select and focus your topic for this year’s theme:

History Day Theme: ____________________________________________________________________

My general area of interest is: ____________________________________________________________

Preliminary Topic Ideas: ________________________________________________________________

Issues or questions to be explored in my research: (how to compare, contrast, or interpret using your own ideas)

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Working Title and Subtitle: _________________________________________________________________

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Preliminary Thesis Statement: (my project will examine, compare, discuss, prove, show, etc)

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Sources: Are there both primary and secondary sources available on this topic? What are they (briefly):

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Interest Level: Are you sufficiently interested in this topic to fuel research, writing, analysis of this subject for several months? Why/why not? (Hint: the answer should be yes, if it is not, I worry about this choice of topic for you)______________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Formulating the Thesis StatementExcerpted from the article “A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Good History Day Paper.” By Martha Kohl, OAH Magazine of History 6

(Spring 1992). Organization of American Historians www.oah.org/pubs/magazine/communications/kohl.htm

What is a Thesis Statement?

A thesis is an argument or a hypothesis; it is the point of your paper. You will marshal evidence in support of your thesis. You should state your argument in your paper in a thesis statement.

Example of a weak thesis statement: “This paper is about African Americans after the Civil War.” This thesis statement is weak because it does not make an argument or answer a question.

Example of a strong thesis statement: “After the Civil War, many of the newly freed slaves believed that their children would have substantially better lives and greater opportunities than they had had as slaves. However, their hopes for their children were not fulfilled; in the 1880s, the lives of most African Americans were not much better than those of their parents.” The thesis statement “in the 1880s, the lives of most African Americans were not much better than those of their parents” makes an argument (readers can agree or disagree with it). A good thesis statement can be rephrased as a question. In this case, the question is “Were the children of ex-slaves much better off than their parents?” Or “How much difference did the Thirteenth Amendment make in the lives of most African Americans?”

How to develop a Strong Thesis:

Step One: Think of a question that you want to answer. The question should be a “why” question, not a “what” question. What happened is important, but why it happened is even more so.Example: I am curious about why there were fewer opportunities for women in the 1950s than during the 1940s. So, my preliminary research question is “Why were there fewer opportunities for women after World War II than before?”

Step Two: Engage in preliminary research by reading secondary sources.Example: As I conduct my research, I realize that other people have looked at this issue. The consensus of historians is that when male soldiers returned from fighting in World War II, they took back the jobs that women had been doing in their absence. In the shrinking, post-war economy, tradition gave men first priority over a limited number of jobs. During the war, women working outside of traditional roles were seen as patriotic (doing their part for the war effort). After the war, these same women were seen as stealing men’s jobs.

Step Three: Refine or reformulate your question on the basis of your findings.Example: I realize through my reading that the question I chose has already been researched thoroughly by other historians. I agree with their answers (besides, I realize that the question is too big to answer in a ten-page paper). However, my reading has made me curious about related questions: “How did women respond to the shrinking number of work opportunities? How did they feel about returning to traditional jobs and roles?”

Step Four: Use your new question to narrow and focus your topic.Example: I decided to look at a sampling of women from Seattle who worked in nontraditional jobs (as riveters, cartridge plant workers, etc) during the war and who quit work to become housewives or who took on other traditionally “female” wage-earning jobs after the war. I decided to look at their experiences to answer the following question: “How did these women feel about leaving the nontraditional jobs they worked at during the war?”

Step Five: Continue your research, in an effort to find answers to your questions.

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Example: I found letters and diaries of some women who fit my category at my local historical society. I know some women who worked in the 1940s and became homemakers in the 1950s. I decided to interview them. I also found published speeches relating to women’s work and some books by historians who have looked at similar topics elsewhere.

Step Six: Develop hypotheses to test with your research. (A hypothesis is a guess about what the answer to your question will be). Don’t be afraid to prove your hypothesis wrong or to modify it to accommodate new evidence.Example: Before I started interviewing my informants and reading the letters, diaries, and published information about women in my case study, I hypothesized that they were pushed out of traditionally male jobs and that they resented it. After learning to my surprise that some of them wanted to be housewives, I modified my hypothesis. I decided that a woman’s response to leaving a traditionally male job may have varied depending on the type of job she had held during the war and the options she saw for herself in the 1950s. A woman who worked full-time outside the home at a fairly uninteresting job and full-time inside the home (doing housework and child care) might have looked forward to having only one full-time job to do (homemaking). A woman who could not depend on a husband to support her and who had to work outside the home in the 1950s might have resented losing the high-paying, traditionally male job that she had held.

This hypothesis that women responded in a variety of ways to the change in their work status, and that their response depended on the options they saw for themselves became the thesis of my paper. It was a good thesis because 1) it was arguable, 2) it evolved from my research and therefore I had evidence to support it, and 3) it was clear, focused, and specific.

Hints on Thesis Statements: If you cannot explain your argument in three sentences or less, refine your thesis

If you cannot phrase your thesis statement in the form of a “why” question, refine your

thesis statement

One way to come up with a thesis statement is to look at what other people have written

about a subject and argue against them and/or show how your research supports what they

are saying

Keep you thesis in mind as you conduct research. Develop a tentative thesis early on and

use it to keep your work focused

Do not force the evidence to support your thesis; modify your thesis so that it explains the

evidence

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Incorporating Primary and Secondary SourcesBy Cynthia Smith, historian at Honolulu Community College and a coordinator for Hawai’i History Day

Be sure if you do a great deal of primary research that it shows in your final paper. It is good to have an impressive annotated bibliography that shows a balance between secondary material and primary sources. However, if the information you gathered in this research is not clearly incorporated into your project, that research effort is wasted. For example, if you are doing a paper and have read letters and diaries expressing the ideas of participants, then those voices should be expressed in the paper. It is usually much more powerful to let those who were part of the history tell the story in their own words in your paper.

On the other hand, do not simply use primary sources just because you have them. Don’t use historical [materials] in your paper that you’ve come across, but is not really related to your thesis and the flow of your argument. You are using primary materials to tell a story, and to support a thesis. Make sure that any material, primary or secondary, is part of your story, and helps to prove your conclusion.

Do not “pad” your bibliography with page after page of primary and secondary sources that are only indirectly related to your project. Buried somewhere in the middle is the heart of your research. A judge may give up on finding the key sources that helped you develop a thesis and come to your conclusion. Use the annotation to give weight and significance to your research. You need not include works that “got you started” but are not relevant to your final project. Begin your bibliography with your most important research: that show how you developed and support your thesis, were most “moving” and gave you the greatest empathy into the period, and gave you the greatest insight into understanding the past and its significance. In this way, judges will be reassured that you project is backed by solid and convincing historical research and interpretation. “More” is not necessarily “better.” Many bibliographies are too long and list-like to be effective indicators of your research and historical thinking.

Be creative in pursuing primary sources. Read autobiographies for quotes. Look at the bibliographies of the secondary sources you are using for specific works to look for. Use the Internet and email to contact archives and different libraries. Anthologies or collections are often a good source—for example collections of letters and anthologies of speeches or documents.

Be very clear on the difference between a primary and secondary source. An interview with an historian is not a primary source if that person was not a witness to the event in question. Interviewing someone who was involved in the event, however, is a primary source. Similarly, a newspaper article from two years ago about WWII is not a primary source, it is a backward look by a secondary source. However, an article from a newspaper from the time period can be used as a primary source, to see how the news media at the time dealt with the issue or to see what people at the time were feeling in the editorial page. A common problem in History Day papers is students who use interviews and newspaper articles as primary sources without making that distinction.

You need a blend of both kinds of research for a strong, interesting and persuasive project. Secondary material helps you to understand the issues and to formulate opinions regarding causes and significance. Working with primary material then helps to establish an even deeper understanding and connection to the people and events. At the end of this journey, you will have discovered the joy of an historian, the excitement of understanding other people and another time. You will have had the opportunity to come to your own conclusions and to present them to others. You will have contributed to the continual task of better understanding where we have come from and where we are going in this unfolding human story.

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Major Assignments

Source Checks: Annotated Bibliography

For the assignment due on October 16, students must complete an annotated bibliography with four primary sources and four secondary sources done correctly as per the examples given below. For each successive source check, students must correct their first entries and include them in the assignment.

Article Analysis:

In addition to the assignment described above, students will analyze one scholarly article or one chapter of a scholarly book per source check. The article/chapter should be approximately ten to fifteen pages.

Assignment: In a one-page analysis, identify and describe the author’s thesis or stance in the piece Evaluate the author’s use of evidence. What examples, stats, data, do they provide to support their thesis? Is the author successful in proving his or her thesis? Explain

Compiling a BibliographyKeep a record of all your sources and resources in a notebook or on index cards. The time spent will save headaches in developing your bibliography. You should keep the following information from each source: (if applicable)

1. Title of book, magazine, newspaper, or document2. Author(s), complete name(s), as listed on the

source3. Copyright date or date written4. Date published for newspaper, magazine5. Publisher

6. City where published7. Name of person(s) interviewed 8. Date of interview9. List the page(s) that you actually used10. If you have other information, keep it. It might

prove useful

Annotations:It is very important that you provide an annotation for each source used. An annotation describes the source and what you learned or gained from it. The annotation should also evaluate the source. The following questions may be helpful:

1. What type of reference is it? Is it very specific or a broad overview? Does it discuss just one person or just one part of the event or topic?

2. How did this source help you understand your topic?3. How credible is this source? What do you know about who created the source? Is there bias you need to be aware

of?4. How did you actually use this source in researching and preparing your entry? Be as specific as possible about what

evidence you used in your paper.

You must also divide your bibliography into a section for Primary Sources, and a section for Secondary Sources:

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Sample Annotated Bibliography: Primary Sources“Bishops Support Cesar Chavez.” America 30 May 1970: 574.

This article gave me a rough idea about the public’s response to Cesar Chavez’s actions. The public had mixed views, some supported Chavez’s cause and offered to do anything so support him. Others were angry with Chavez because they did not feel he had a just cause, and they hated paying more for their produce. The article also gave Bishop Donelly’s views on Chavez.

Day, Mark. Forty Acres: Cesar Chavez and the Farm Workers. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971.Mark Day lived with and observed the stand the migrant farm workers took. He recorded their struggle in this book which contains an introduction, written by Cesar Chavez, about the workers’ conditions and the stands he took to better their status. The rest of the book was written by Father Mark Day, a missionary who came to the Chicano farm workers in 1967 and followed the whole labor movement very carefully.

Dunne, John Gregory. Delano: The Story of the Grape Strike. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1967.John Gregory Dunne was an active member for migrant farm workers’ rights, so his perspective seems credible. He lived in their rural villages for many, many years recording their stories and their struggle. This book gave me an in depth look at the UFW’s most challenging battle, the five year Delano grape boycott. This book describes in great detail almost every boycott, march, fast, and strike conducted during this five year struggle. It tells me the major corporations that were targeted, as well as a lot of background information on them. It also guided me step by step through the disputes and conferences which led to the signing of contracts in 1970.

Fitch, Bob. “Tilting with the System.” The Christian CENTURY 18 February, 1970: 204-207.This article is a great primary source. It contains a series of interviews conducted by Bob Fitch with Cesar Chavez. It focuses on the grape boycott of California, and the tactics Chavez used. This article focuses on why Chavez did what he did, why he took matters into his own hands, and risked everything he had to help the migrant farm workers.

Sample Annotated Bibliography: Secondary Sources Berman, Jerry J. and Jim Hightower. “Chavez and the Teamsters.”

The Nation 2 November 1970: 427-432.This article focuses on the strikes of the Salinas Valley, which is where most of your vegetables grow. The UFW probably had their most violent encounters with the International Brotherhood of Teamsters here. The day the UFW was celebrating their victory and the end of the five year grape boycott they heard that many of the growers in the Salinas Valley had signed with the Teamsters. Chavez was not planning to go to the Salinas Valley for quite some time, but this “stab in the back” by Salinas growers forced him to come to the Valley right away. The UFW and Cesar Chavez were despised and hated as soon as they entered the Salinas Valley, because all the Valley is filled with growers and farmers, and none of them wanted their workers unionized with the UFW. The UFW meant better wages, pension plans, and health care for their workers; growers recognized that this would cost them a lot of money.

Mathiessen, Peter. “Cesar Chavez.” The New Yorker 17 May 1993: 82-84.Peter Mathiessen lived with the farm workers for many years. He was a loyal supporter of the UFW and their actions. This article is a recap of Chavez’s life, highlighting the major events and actions that he accomplished. This article gave specific references to the major turning points in the efforts of Chavez and the UFW. I also gained insight on Chavez’s tough life, particularly his struggles as a child. Chavez died while he was away on union business on April 22 1993. An estimated 35,000 people, formed a three mile long funeral procession in his honor. Another topic discussed in this article was the future of the UFW after Chavez’s death. It said that Chavez’s children will carry on their father’s legacy, and hopefully bring new insight and fresh ideas to the union.

Taylor, Robert B. “Huelga! The Boycott that Worked.” The Nation 7 September 1970: 167-169.Robert Taylor, a reporter who lived with the farm workers for many years, describes the victories the UFW faced with the national grape boycott. This one word, huelga, meaning strike in Spanish, brought an $100 million grape industry to the negotiating table. The UFW used their non-violent tactics to win over the Teamsters, who would resort to anything to win. The UFW actually cared about their workers welfare, and that is why they came out on

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top. The UFW was the first union to successfully unionize farm workers, no one thought they could do it. So when they brought a multi-million dollar operation into shambles, the public was both impressed and surprised.

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Research Strategy

Instructions: Use this worksheet to develop ideas on the types of sources you can use in your research and the places where you might locate these sources.

History Day Theme: _________________________________________________________________________

Your Topic:________________________________________________________________________________

What libraries, research centers, archival institutions, museums, or other organizations do you think will have information on your topic?

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What are some key words, dates or people related to your topic that will help you find information in an encyclopedia, book index, internet search, etc? ______________________________________________________

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What materials will you look at to begin your research?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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What types of primary sources do you think exist for your topic?_________________________________________________________________________________________

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Who might you interview (in person, on the telephone, in writing, or by email) to learn more about your topic?_________________________________________________________________________________________

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Analyzing a Written Document(Designed and developed by the Education Branch, Office of Public Programs, National Archives, Washington, DC)

1. TYPE OF DOCUMENT:

_______ Newspaper _______ Map _______ Advertisement

_______ Letter _______ Telegram _______ Government Document

_______ Patent _______ Press Release _______ Census Report

_______ Memorandum _______ Report _______ Other ________________

2. PROVENANCE OF THE DOCUMENT: In the space below, describe specifically where, when, and how you found this document. Give the bibliographical information of the document:

3. DATE(S) OF THE DOCUMENT: __________________________________________________

4. AUTHOR (OR CREATOR) OF THE DOCUMENT ____________________________________

5. FOR WHAT AUDIENCE WAS THE DOCUMENT WRITTEN? __________________________

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6. DOCUMENT INFORMATION: (There are many possible ways to answer A-E)

A. List three things the author said that you think are important

1. _____________________________________________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________________________________________

3. _____________________________________________________________________________

B. Why do you think this document was written? ________________________________________________

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C. What evidence in the document the document helps you to know why it was written? (Quote Doc if needed)

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D. List two things the document tells you about life in the place and at the time it was written:

1. _____________________________________________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________________________________________

E. Write a question to the author that is left unanswered by the document: _____________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

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Research Status Report

Remember, as you research, you must keep in mind several things about your topic and this year’s theme: Always focus on analysis rather than description Clearly relate your topic to the theme, and reiterate this connection throughout the paper Analyze the significance of your topic—what led to it, but also what did it lead to? Are you sufficiently accounting for the context of your topic? Are you knowledgeable on and have you analyzed the

events, time period, and trends around your topic that influenced, or were influenced by your topic? This worksheet is designed both to evaluate where you are in the process, but also to make you think of these

important factors in the paper writing process as you proceed.

1. State your Topic and working Title (please also give us the time frame that your topic

covers) :_____________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Identify three secondary sources you have already found that will help you learn more about your topic. Use proper bibliographic format (consult Writer’s Inc. if needed)

a. Helpful source found in non-fiction book (not a reference work):

b. Helpful source found in periodical (either in print or from the library’s online periodical search, but not simply a website)

c. Helpful source found from a credible website:

3. Use complete sentences to respond to the following:a. Explain how this topic appears to be related to this year’s theme

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b. Explain what makes this topic significant

c. Explain what you know of this topic’s historical perspective (i.e. what led to it and what followed from it)

4. Explain what you know of this topic’s historical context (i.e. what else was happening at about the same time that might have influenced or been influenced by it).

5. Explain why you believe there will be primary sources available to you as you go more deeply into your research

6. Extra Credit: Use proper bibliographic format to cite one primary source you have already found. Next, explain what makes it relevant and helpful.

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Presidents, Congress, and the Use of Force: A Critique of Presidential Powers DEBATES OVER Congressional involvement in foreign military engagements trace back to America's founding.

However, a basic point still remains unresolved: does Congress have the Constitutional right to constrain presidents from

unilaterally exercising force abroad? If so, is directly adhering to the Constitution a government responsibility? In principle,

the Constitution provides the Congress with enough power to make it a "major participant in foreign policy."1 Yet, the past

forty years represent a dramatic departure from the mandates of the Constitution in that they have allowed an unmistakable

trend toward executive domination of United States foreign affairs. Presidential military action without Congressional

authorization subverts clearly specified Constitutional powers, undermines the notions of Constitutional and limited

government, and encourages citizens to accept a government that acts without authorization, thereby posing an enormous

threat to individual liberty.

1

      The most comprehensive discussion of the power to make war occurred at the Constitutional Convention of 1787. "No

group has ever thought more deeply about how a free people ought to be governed than the men who wrote the Constitution of

the United States."2 The framers of the Constitution were "drawn to a formulation of governmental powers that promised to

control human weakness by pitting men and institutions against each other."3 In appropriating such power, "Congress was

given the preeminent position because it most nearly represented, even before universal suffrage, the people."4 The Congress

received not only the powers allotted to it by the Constitution, but also the authority "to make all Laws which shall be

necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing Powers, and all other powers vested by the Constitution in the

government of the United States, or any Department or Office thereof."5 Although there was a fear of Congressional

dominance, James Madison and the framers concluded that if Congress should be "without the substance of this 'necessary and

proper clause,' the whole Constitution would be a dead letter."6

2

      In foreign policy, the Constitution envisions leadership as a partnership between the President and the Congress, but

Congress is assigned the role of senior partner. Article II indicates that the President shares with the Senate the treaty-making

power and the power to appoint ambassadors. Only two powers are assigned exclusively to the president. First, he is

"commander in chief," but he acts in this capacity by and under Congress. Moreover, such a power does not include the ability

to declare war, only to authorize it after a war has been declared. Second, he has the power to receive ambassadors, but the

framers agreed that this was purely a ceremonial ability.7 Such a tremendous role was given to the Congress largely due to the

fear of unbridled executive power. Alexander Hamilton wrote that

The history of human conduct does not warrant that exalted opinion of human nature which would make it wise in a nation to

commit interests of so delicate and momentous a kind, as those which concern its intercourse with the rest of the world, to the

sole disposal of a magistrate created and circumstanced as would be the President of the United States.8

This same fear of executive power fueled the creation of the simplest but most direct indication of Congressional control over

foreign policy, the War Clause. Article I, section 8, paragraph 11 states that "The Congress shall have the power...to declare

war."9 The war making power is specifically withheld from the president. James Wilson, an important architect of the

Constitution, argues

This system will not hurry us into war; it is calculated to guard against it. It will not be in the power of a singly body of men, to

involve us in such distress; for the important power of declaring war is vested in the legislature at large. This declaration must

3

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be made with the concurrence of the House of Representatives; from this circumstance we may draw a certain conclusion that

nothing but our national interest can draw us into war.10

Moreover, such a fact was upheld in several judicial decisions. In 1800, in Bas v. Tingy, the Supreme Court held that "it is for

Congress alone to declare either a limited or general war."11 In 1863, the Prize cases presented the court its first opportunity to

consider the power of the President to respond to sudden attacks. Justice Robert C. Grier, delivering the majority opinion,

argued that although the President has the power to respond to sudden attacks, "Congress alone has the power to declare war."12

      Congressional authorization, then, remains a fundamental principle of the Constitution. Until the mid-twentieth century,

with few exceptions, presidents have respected this right. The United States involvement in the two World Wars, for instance,

was not undesirable since in both instances Congress authorized the President to commit troops to war. It is only in the last

forty years that the Constitutional rights of Congress have been consistently ignored.

4

      Following the overthrow of Vietnamese premier Ngo Dinh Diem and the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, the

United States became increasingly engaged in the War in Vietnam. To combat the apparent North Vietnamese threat, new

President Lyndon B. Johnson began the first of two major presidential usurpations of power by beginning to finance and carry

out covert military operations against the North Vietnamese. Information about Johnson's military activism was withheld from

Congress and the American people. Fearing a loss of popularity, President Johnson openly denied the existence of any covert

operations in Vietnam.13

5

      The more dangerous infringement of power began in August, 1964, immediately following the Tonkin Gulf incident. At

Tonkin Gulf, two American destroyers were attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. In response, Johnson immediately

sent United States planes on a large scale bombing raid in North Vietnam, and followed the attack by sending Congress the

draft of a resolution to legitimize the raids as preexistent. Congress performed no independent investigation of the President's

claims and passed the resolution on a 98-2 vote. The resolution placed Congress on record as declaring that "the United States

is therefore, prepared, as the President determines, to take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any

member of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty."14 Such powers were to expire only when "the President [had]

determine[d] that peace and security were assured."15 In effect, the Congress handed the President a blank check to conduct a

major war. The following exchange between Senators Brewster and Fulbright is illustrative of congressional acquiescence to

presidential leadership:

BREWSTER: My Question is whether there is anything in the resolution which would authorize or recommend the landing of

large American armies in Vietnam.

FULRBRIGHT: The language of the resolution would not prevent it. It would authorize whatever the Commander in Chief

feels is necessary. It does not restrain the Executive from doing it. Whether or not it should be done is a matter of wisdom

under the circumstances that may exist at that time.16

6

      Any reading of the Tonkin Gulf issue reveals the tendency on the part of members of Congress to assume that in military

matters the president is more likely to be right than anyone else. Thus, "instead of checks and balances that allowed for shared

power, as prescribed by the Constitution, Congress began to advocate non-partisan acquiescence to presidential decisions."17

Senator after senator had refuted past Vietnamese policy, but still supported a resolution allowing the President to do whatever

he thought necessary.

7

      Richard M. Nixon, as president, claimed that "as commander-in-chief he possessed sole authority over armed forces and 8

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could order them abroad without congressional approval."18 On April 29, 1969, without consulting Congress, Nixon placed

twenty thousand American troops in Cambodia in an effort to covertly continue the war in Vietnam. Nixon also continued the

secret air war against Laos, again without Congressional authorization.19 In response, discontented legislators charged him with

usurping Congressional war authority by conducting a constitutionally unauthorized war. The Congress, in light of the

Watergate scandal, began to protest Nixon's unauthorized use of force by passing legislation.20

      On November 7, 1973, Congress overrode a presidential veto and enacted the War Powers Act, a resolution that imposed

strict limits on Presidential war-making abilities. The final version of the bill called for the "collective judgement of both

Congress and the president before U.S. troops are sent into combat."21 The main article of the War Powers Act allowed the

President to use armed force for up to 90 days without seeking Congressional approval. Though it was regarded as a limit on

presidential power, it actually "sanctioned a scope of independent presidential power that would have astonished the framers of

the Constitution."22 Thomas Eagleton, a senator and critic of presidential power asked the following questions on the senate

floor to Senator Fulbright from Arkansas:

EAGLETON: Will the adoption of this resolution permit the bombing of Cambodia for the next 45 days? FULBRIGHT: Until August 15th. EAGLETON: Would it permit the bombing of Laos? FULBRIGHT: It would not prevent it. EAGLETON: The president can now exercise his power to bomb in Indochina for the next 45 days, is that correct? A power that will now be sanctioned by our actions? FULBRIGHT: The president has the power to do a lot of things which I do not approve. EAGLETON: He will exercise that power, and whether or not he exercises that power wisely, we know that within the next 45 days he will exercise a right to bomb Cambodia-a right given to him by the Congress of the United States.23

Thus, an act that attempted to restrict Presidential power in war making actually gave the President legal sanction to commit troops anywhere in the world, for whatever reason, for ninety days.

9

      Subsequent presidents clearly abused this power. In particular, President Ronald Reagan was "a tough-minded Cold War

warrior" whose presidency contained many unauthorized military engagements, the first in Lebanon.24 Reagan had agreed to

participate in a peacekeeping mission in which the United States military assisted in the withdrawal of the Palestinian

Liberation Organization (PLO) from Lebanon. After the country's civil war took many American lives, Reagan began a large

scale war in Lebanon, conducting bombing raids from the carrier New Jersey. In the meantime, Congress, expressing their

fierce disapproval of the operation, started the 90 day "clock" as per the War Powers Resolution. Unfortunately, the clock went

beyond the 1984 election, making the clock restart at day one. Although the situation in Lebanon never led to declared war, the

affair is an example of the futility of Congressional opposition to Presidential power. The meaning of the War Powers Doctrine

had been reversed in that it allowed Reagan to legally conduct a war in Lebanon without informing Congress. Before the

resolution, Presidents did not possess that right.

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      Secondly, although less of a war-powers issues than an issue of the "Power of the Purse," Reagan's actions in the Iran-

Contra affair indicate the lack of Congressional control over modern presidents. Reagan not only directly disobeyed the Boland

amendments (legislation restricting Contra funding) by privately funding the Iran-Contras, he illegally sold arms to Iran against

the advice of Congress in order to continue the assistance, while also conducting covert military operations in Nicaragua.25

Such actions created a totally extra-Constitutional government by legitimizing any president's allocation of foreign funds

without congressional authorization as long as the source was private.26

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      As a result of these actions, Presidents in the modern area are slowly building a precedent for their successors to expand

presidential powers, and resist Congressional influence. Presidential initiative in war-making has exploded in the 1990's with

Presidents George Bush and William Clinton, a sure sign of the increasing ease with which they can commit troops abroad.

12

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The two presidents have unilaterally intervened in over half a dozen foreign conflicts in Kuwait, Iraq, Panama, Somalia, Haiti,

and Bosnia. Most often the Congress was not informed and, even if a U.N. Resolution was obtained, it was usually authorized

after troops were committed. Such a dramatic departure from early Constitutional ideals allows for the dangerous subversion

of the Constitution in two major ways.

      The first major violation of the Constitution concerns the Separation of Powers doctrine. Although the Constitution

envisions the conduct of foreign policy as a cooperative effort, the current state of foreign affairs allows the President to

subvert this doctrine and usurp constitutionally granted congressional authority. Most often their actions did not receive prior

congressional approval, nor was there a formal declaration of war by the Congress. In every case, the decision to make war was

initiated only by presidential actions; actions that, as discussed above, are blatantly unconstitutional. Although seemingly

insignificant, each of these constitutional violations is dangerous since the Constitution exists solely as a "protection against

usurpation of sovereign power by those in authority, from who they represent."27 Without such protection, "tyranny is the

inevitable outcome;" i.e. the very fears of the framers will come true.28 Thus, "given both the relatively limited cost imposed by

use of separation of powers and the great severity of the harm sought to be avoided, one should not demand a great likelihood

that the feared harm would result."29

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      The second major violation of the Constitution concerns the actual expansion of power that ultimately culminates in a

legitimate, authoritarian system that encourages citizens to accept a government that acts without their authorization. In the

modern era, a president's foreign policy initiatives occur without the explicit and well considered authorization of the

American people's voice; their representatives. Instead, their actions legitimate a new vision of democracy in which the

president, although still elected, acquires vast institutional powers for controlling public opinion and advancing personal

interests. Most often, claims of "public support" are in fact a form of blatant manipulation (e.g. Johnson and Reagan, who

openly deny their actions). As a result, the government that exists now is an elite-led, presidentially-dominated system in which

there is no representation in government, and no public knowledge of United States foreign policy. Such a system poses a

tremendous threat to individual liberty since it provides no check to the power of the executive and in no way represents a

consensus of the people, the most important characteristic of a democracy.

14

      It has been over two hundred years since the Constitution was created, and the characteristics of warfare and foreign policy

have changed drastically since that time. It is argued that such changes make "quick action and a single authoritative voice

necessary to deal with an increasingly complex, interdependent, and technologically linked world of almost instantaneous

massive destruction."30 Despite such changes, though, the implications of extended United States war-making have created an

even greater responsibility to adhere to the Constitutional demand for joint decision-making. Without it, there is no

accountability in United States foreign policy, nor is there any representation for the citizens of the country. The President has

no constitutional, nor moral right to act militarily without Congressional approval. As long as no headway is made in revealing

the implications of Presidential disregard of this concept, future leaders will continue to circumvent Constitutional restrictions

and endanger American liberty.

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