INTRODUCTION

New information on the rate of glob-al sea-level rise (2.1 ± 1.3 mm/yr;Nerem et al. 1997) continues the long-standing interest in the history andcomponents of local relative sea levels.

Two important time periods serve asmodels of warmer climate and sea levelposition; the last interglacial ca. 125,000yr B.P., and the middle Holocene ca.5000 yr B.P. (Folland et al. 1990).Various studies in Hawaii and otherareas (i.e., Edwards et al. 1993) rely on

the assumption that the Island of Oahuis stable and experienced a +6 m sea-level highstand (Ku et al. 1974) duringthe last interglacial. Oahu appears tohave undergone uplift (0.03 - 0.07mm/yr) during the Quaternary (Muhsand Szabo 1994; Grigg and Jones 1997),hence, last interglacial sea level on Oahumay have been closer to +2-3 m.Holocene sea level in Hawaii is arguedto have never exceeded present (Eastonand Olson 1976). This interpretationhas been debated (Stearns 1977;Fletcher and Jones 1996). Here wereconstruct Holocene sea level abovepresent that is in better agreement withsea-level histories on other Pacificislands (Pirazzoli 1991; Mitrovica and

Sea level higher than present 3500 years ago on thenorthern main Hawaiian Islands

Eric E. Grossman and Charles H. Fletcher, IIIDepartment of Geology and Geophysics, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology

University of Hawaii, 1680 East-West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822ericg@soest.hawaii.edu

ABSTRACT

New data from an emerged coastal bench and associated fossil beach onKapapa Island (Oahu), Hawaii, preserve a detailed history of middle to lateHolocene sea level. These include 29 new calibrated radiocarbon ages and ele-vations indicating mean sea level reached a maximum position of 2.00 ± 0.35m ca. 3500 yr B.P. These results correlate with additional evidence from Hawaiiand other Pacific islands and provide constraints on Oahu’s long-term upliftrate (0.03-0.07 mm/yr), previously based solely on Pleistocene age shorelines.Our sea-level reconstruction is consistent with geophysical model predictionsof Earth’s geoid response to the last deglaciation and with observations ofincreased Antarctic ice volume during the late Holocene.

MokuluaIsls.

HanaumaBay

SoutheastOahu

Honolulu

Kapapa Isl.157 40 W

21 25 N

0 20 m

Emergedintertidalbench

Emergedintertidalbench

seawardseaward

leewardleeward

Trade windsTrade winds

FossilbeachFossilbeach

Moderninteritdalbench

Modernintertidalbench

1

Excavation pitsExcavation pits

2

3

4

6 offshore samplesseaward and leewardare modern

6 offshore samplesseaward and leewardare modern

Samples buried in solution pipesSamples buried in solution pipesEmerged bnech samplesEmerged bench samples

515

515

3135

3135

3595

3595

modern

modern

2339

2339

3595361835953618

1

3396

2718

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1535

3244

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2778

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2698

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2733

Fossil beach stratigraphy (all ages are cal yr B.P.)

Ele

vatio

n (m

, msl

) 3.0

2.5

2.0

Soil

Sand

Cobble

Eolianite

Key

EE

EE

P

P

E P

2750

4

Figure 1.Geomorphology,stratigraphy, andgeochronology ofemerged fossilbeach sedimentson KapapaIsland, Oahu,Hawaii.

Peltier 1991). Our history is based upona detailed chronostratigraphic analysisof emerged Holocene shoreline featuresand the correction of a preexisting reefaccretion curve for environmental fac-tors and long-term uplift. The new sea-level curve clarifies geophysical modelsof geoidal history and deglaciation, aswell as Oahu’s tectonic stability.

HOLOCENE SEA LEVEL IN HAWAII

Stearns (1935) cited an emergedbench ~2 m above mean sea level (msl)on Kapapa Island and Hanauma Bay(Oahu) as evidence of wave abrasionunder a sea-level highstand 5000 yr ago,the Kapapa Stand of the Sea. He laterbased this age on a radiocarbon date offossil coral (GX-2673, 3485 ± 160 14C yrB.P.) found at 1.95 ± 0.45 m inHanauma Bay (Stearns 1977). Modern

wave overwash (Ku et al. 1974) and saltweathering (Bryan and Stevens 1993)have also been proposed to explain theHanauma Bay bench.

Using 63 14C dates from cores in theHanauma Bay reef, Easton and Olson(1976) proposed that Holocene reefgrowth commenced ca. 7000 14C yr B.P.,and that between 5800 and 3500 14C yrB.P. vertical accretion ensued at 3.3mm/yr; lateral accretion at 22.2 mm/yrhas dominated since 3000 14C yr B.P.They concluded Holocene sea level wasnever above present, despite evidence ofreef truncation (reeftop age ~2500 yrB.P.) and fringing reef growth 2.4 - 3.0m below msl (i.e., reef accretion post-dated sea-level rise). According toMontaggioni (1988), sea level wouldhave been 2 - 3 m higher at the reefcrest and up to 15 m higher at the reef

front. Reef accretion records the lowerportion of the tidal range (Hopley1986). In addition, the Easton andOlson (1976) curve contains a depthbias of 0.5 - 1 m too low due to theirplacement of “recovered” samples lack-ing depth control (cored open cavities)at the base of cored intervals. Despitethese conflicting interpretations, theHanauma Bay reef accretion curve(Easton and Olson 1976) remains as theonly Holocene sea-level curve forHawaii and the central North Pacific.

METHODS

We use proxies of paleosea level fromKapapa and South Mokulua Islands,and Hanauma Bay to reconstruct mid-dle to late Holocene sea level on Oahu.We radiocarbon dated coral clasts, mol-lusc shells, and sands obtained fromfour excavation sites in the KapapaIsland fossil beach and along two cross-shore transects on the bench surface(Fig. 1, Table 1). Sediments of similarcomposition from offshore of Kapapaand South Mokulua Islands were alsodated to establish the temporal varia-tion between offshore and emergeddeposits. Elevations, derived using dif-ferential Global Positioning System andElectronic Distance Measurement, areaccurate to within 0.15 m and arereported relative to modern msl. Allages reported here are calibrated radio-carbon dates (Stuiver and Reimer 1993)and incorporate a 400 yr global marinereservoir correction (Bard et al. 1990)and regional 115 ± 50 yr correction forsamples obtained in Hawaiian watersthat deviate from the global mean(Stuiver and Braziunas 1993).

FOSSIL BEACH GEOLOGY

Kapapa Island is comprised of lithi-fied eolianite. Its surface is wave-planedin the form of an emerged bench rang-ing from 1.5 to 1.9 m in elevation that iskarstified and overlain by a laterite soil.A fossil beach above the bench and soil

TABLE 1. NEW AGES OF HOLOCENE SHORELINE DEPOSITS ON OAHU, HAWAII

14C age† Cal yr B.P.§ HeightMaterials* d 13C (1s ) (2s ) (m msl) Lab No.

Kapapa IslandP. compressa, mid-unit (site 4) -1.2 3050 ± 70 2720 (2870-2450) 2.1 ± 0.15 Beta-76292P. compressa, mid-unit (site 4) -0.7 3160 ± 70 2785 (3025-2685) 2.1 ± 0.15 Beta-76293P. compressa, surface -1.5 3420 ± 70 3135 (3345-2890) 1.68 ± 0.15 Beta-79905P. compressa, surface -1.2 580 ± 105 47 (287-0) 1.68 ± 0.15 AA-18218P. compressa, surface -0.8 3810 ± 50 3595 (3786-3425) 1.68 ± 0.15 AA-18219P. compressa, solution pipe -0.5 3810 ± 55 3595 (3798-3421) 1.53 ± 0.15 AA-18221P. reticulata, solution pipe 2.6 3830 ± 55 3618 (3815-3445) 1.53 ± 0.15 AA-18223P. compressa, solution pipe -1.6 2800 ± 80 2339 (2672-2143) 1.43 ± 0.15 AA-18225P. reticulata, solution pipe -2.5 3530 ± 60 3278 (3448-3006) 1.43 ± 0.15 AA-18226P. compressa, basal unit (site 3) 0.7 3965 ± 65 3807 (4007-3573) 1.81 ± 0.15 AA-18227P. compressa, basal unit (site 3) -2.3 3680 ± 60 3440 (3626-3267) 1.81 ± 0.15 AA-18228P. compressa, mid-unit (site 3) -0.3 3625 ± 55 3371 (3559-3207) 2.12 ± 0.15 AA-18229P. compressa, mid-unit (site 3) -0.2 3080 ± 60 2733 (2893-2490) 2.42 ± 0.15 AA-18231Pocillopora sp., upper unit (site 3) -1.6 2595 ± 50 2114 (2299-1951) 2.73 ± 0.15 AA-18232P. reticulata, upper unit (site 3) 2.8 3510 ± 55 3253 (3417-3047) 2.73 ± 0.15 AA-18233P. compressa, basal unit (site 1) -1.4 3855 ± 100 3638 (3924-3380) 1.92 ± 0.15 AA-18234Cypraea sp., basal unit (site 1) 2.0 3740 ± 55 3492 (3682-3349) 1.92 ± 0.15 AA-18235P. reticulata, basal unit (site1) 0.4 3500 ± 55 3242 (3401-3027) 1.92 ± 0.15 AA-18236P. compressa, mid-unit (site 1) -1.2 3050 ± 60 2718 (2855-2456) 2.31 ± 0.15 AA-18237P. compressa, basal unit (site 2) -2.4 3770 ± 55 3548 (3716-3366) 1.78 ± 0.15 AA-18238P. reticulata, basal unit (site 2) 2.9 3530 ± 55 3278 (3441-3077) 1.78 ± 0.15 AA-18239P. compressa, mid-unit (site 2) -1.1 3590 ± 55 3345 (3518-3156) 2.16 ± 0.15 AA-18240P. reticulata, mid-unit (site 2) 2.5 3380 ± 65 3075 (3292-2860) 2.16 ± 0.15 AA-18241P. reticulata, mid-unit (site 2) 2.2 2965 ± 80 2663 (2759-2340) 2.54 ± 0.15 AA-18242T. variablis, mid-unit (site 2) 3.0 3520 ± 55 3264 (3431-3063) 2.54 ± 0.15 AA-18243P. compressa, mid-unit (site 2) 0.9 2885 ± 55 2462 (2694-2325) 2.54 ± 0.15 AA-18244Pocillopora sp., upper unit (site 2) -1.4 2555 ± 55 2064 (2276-1894) 2.79 ± 0.15 AA-18245Pocillopora sp., upper unit (site 2) -1.0 1750 ± 50 1182 (1300-1023) 2.79 ± 0.15 AA-18246

South Mokulua IslandP. compressa, base of beach 0.0 800 ± 50 305 (465-210) 0.50 ± 0.25 Beta-80884

*Materials: Cypraea sp., Periglypta reticulata, Pocillopora sp., Porites compressa, Spondylus sparsispinosus,Tricolia variablis. †14C ages are conventional radiocarbon ages; ±1 s error reflects counting statistics.§Cal yr B.P. (1950), are calibrated ages (calendar years before present) with 2 s probability-age ranges.

rises to 3.6 m at the berm crest. Incross-section it is asymmetric and has asteep offshore-sloping beach face that isthe product of recent erosion.Interannual extreme storm and waveevents erode the beach face and do notdeposit sediments onto the island. Theseafloor surrounding Kapapa Island isan abraded bedrock surface ofPleistocene-age limestone, largelydevoid of loose sediment.

The fossil beach is composed of low-sloping, fining-upward stratified layersof cobbles and sands that are youngerin age upward and seaward. Thesequence consists of a distinct clast-supported basal layer of cobbles andshells overlain by medium to coarsesands; a middle unit of cobbles andshells; an upper unit of sands withoccasional cobbles; and top soil. Theoldest ages (~3800 yr B.P.) are in thebasal layer, while the youngest (~1200yr B.P.) appear just below the bermcrest. Sample dates are normally dis-tributed with a modal age of 3595 yrB.P. (~3500 yr).

Six samples collected offshore of theseaward and lee sides of Kapapa Island(this study; Fletcher and Jones 1996)dated modern. The occurrence of onlyfossil age sediments on the island andonly modern ages offshore, suggeststhat the onshore and offshore sedimentreservoirs are temporally distinct, andthat the fossil beach represents anepisode of deposition by littoralprocesses that no longer operate on thesurface of the island. Thus, it is unlikelythat modern or historical tsunamis orstorm surge are responsible for the for-mation of the fossil beach. Furthermore,the age distribution and grading ofbeach sediments suggest that depostionwas gradual and sustained over 2500 yr.

SEA-LEVEL RECONSTRUCTION

We interpret the stratigraphy of thebeach as a transgressive-regressivesequence recording the landwardmigration of the foreshore toe during asea-level rise followed by the seawardtranslation of this setting during thesubsequent fall. A region of coarse sedi-

ment, located at the toe where the great-est amount of wave energy is expendedon the beach face, can be observed onmost modern beaches including thoseon Oahu and the lee of Kapapa Island.This is a depositional analog for theHolocene stratigraphy on KapapaIsland.

On South Mokulua Island, eight agesof coral clasts and molluscs (2700 -3600 yr B.P.) were obtained from a car-bonate breccia preserved in a paleosea-level notch carved into and postdatingan emerged reef of presumed last inter-glacial age (Fletcher and Jones 1996).Our GPS surveys correct the elevation ofthe breccia, which is removed from pre-sent-day nearshore processes, from 1.7± 0.25 m to 1.57 ± 0.15 m. As onKapapa Island, samples in the active lit-toral zone are modern.

Tide-gauge data in Hawaii show thatthe islands undergo differential land-sea movements, perhaps due to lithos-pheric flexure, resulting from volcanicloading over the hotspot which depress-es the sea floor, creating a moat and dis-tal arch around the load. Model predic-

u

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seawardedge ofplatform

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0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

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, m

sl)

Age (cal yr B.P.)

Paleo-mean sea level on Oahu: 2.00 ± 0.35 m ca. 3500 yr B.P.

midpointbeachface(2.69 m)

emerged platform(1.76 m)

- minimum- beachface proxy- emerged intertidal platform proxy- best

ad

b c

a bc

d

S. Mokulua Isl.S. Mokulua Isl.modern beachmid-unit

upper-unit

samples from pipe

Kapapa Isl.Kapapa Isl.

emerged platformbasal unit

Observations

s

u

t

Set-up (wind/wave)(Fletcher and Jones, 1996)

Uplift (lithospheric flexure)(Muhs and Szabo, 1994)

Tide (msl-mllw)

Corrections

Figure 2. Paleo-mean sea level between 3800and 2200 yr B.P. is reconstructed fromKapapa and South Mokulua Islands.Minimum estimate (a) is drawn immediatelyabove Kapapa Island samples collected fromemerged platform and basal unit, represent-ing deposition at mean lower low water.Alternatively, we estimate a paleo-msl posi-tion of 2.02 ± 0.35 m (b) by subtractingwave set-up (0.5 ± 0.2 m) and uplift due toflexure (0.17 m, 0.05 mm/yr for 3500 yr)from mid-point of fossil beachface (2.69 ±0.15 m), a proxy for msl (Moberly andChamberlain 1964). Wave set-up is based ondeep water significant waves ranging fromnormal trade wind waves (height 1.46 m,period 8.63 s) dominant 75% of year, toannual maxima (height 3.9 m, period 12.0 s)(Fletcher and Jones 1996). In addition, wecalculate a paleo-msl position 1.99 ± 0.15 m(c) by correcting height of emerged intertidalbench (1.76 ± 0.15 m), a proxy for mllw(Hopley 1986), to msl (0.4 m) and for flexur-al uplift (0.17 m). Our best estimate of paleo-msl (d) peaks 2.00 ± 0.35 m ca. 3500 yr B.P.where (b) and (c) intersect dated samplesand allow for a tidal range correction (0.4m) above lower intertidal sediments, formingthe basis of (a).

tions (Watts and ten Brink 1989) suggestthat Oahu may be in the vicinity of theupward-flexing arch, which is consistentwith the long-term uplift of the island.

We reconstruct middle to late Holocenesea level on Oahu using three differentmethods (see caption, Fig. 2). The firstrelies on the relationship of the sur-veyed fossil beach samples to sea level.The other two are based on the relation-ship of geomorphic surfaces, the mid-point of the fossil beach face (a proxyfor msl) and the surface of the emergedintertidal bench (a proxy for mllw), tosea level and nearshore pro-cesses. Theconvergence of these estimates between1.99 and 2.02 ± 0.35 m ca. 3500 yr B.P.is strong support for the calculatedtradewind wave set-up correction(Fletcher and Jones 1996) and the aver-age long-term uplift rate of 0.05 mm/yr.

DISCUSSION

The emerged intertidal bench atKapapa Island (1.76 ± 0.15 m) hasimportant implications for Oahu’s tec-tonic stability and past interglacial sealevels. An intertidal bench formingtoday at Kapapa Island is a proxy formean lower low water (mllw) (Hopley1986) and a modern analog for theemerged bench above. If the emergedbench is older than Holocene, its sur-face must have been planed off ca. 125000 yr ago, when sea level was last nearits present position. Conservative upliftof 0.03 mm/yr would place the bench~2 m higher than its present elevation.As our data show, a better explanationis that the emerged bench surface isHolocene, abraded by the Kapapa high-stand beginning ca. 5000 yr B.P. andpeaking ~2 m above present ca. 3500 yrB.P. (Fig. 3). Our reconstruction pro-vides late-Quaternary support forOahu’s mean uplift rate.

A regressive marine contact withinthe Hanalei (Kauai) coastal plain(Calhoun and Fletcher 1996) suggeststhe Kapapa highstand has regionalvalidity.

Flexural Uplift (Muhs and Szabo, 1994)

ICE-4G (Peltier, 1994, 1996)

Hanauma reef cores (Easton and Olson, 1976)

(3) Proposed sea level (this study)

Kauai (Calhoun and Fletcher, 1996)

Windward Oahu (Fletcher and Jones, 1996)

Kapapa Isl. (this study)

Hanauma reef surface (Easton and Olson, 1976)

Hanauma reef growth curve (best fit) y = -4.394 + 0.005 x -1.611e-06 x + 1.144e-10 x R = 0.99; y = depth (m), x = age (cal yr B.P.)

2 3* * *

(1)

Coral habitat correction (Montaggioni, 1988)(2)

-14

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

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0 present msl

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4

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

Holocene sea level on Oahu (Hawaii)

Ele

vatio

n (d

epth

) (m

, m

sl)

Age (cal yr B.P.)

Fig. 3

ICE-4G

?

beach-rock

fore reef

(1)

(2) (3)

?

?

Figure 3. Holocene sea-level curve for Oahu is constrained by the minimum and best paleo-mslreconstruction (envelope) of figure 2, and the reinterpretation of Hanauma Bay reef accretionhistory (triangles, Easton and Olson 1976). Reef sample depths are corrected from mean lowerlow water to mean sea level (0.4 m) and for uplift. Sample ages are calibrated to calendar years(Stuiver and Reimer 1993) using Easton and Olson’s “inner skeleton” ages for dated replicates. Athird-order polynomial best fit (R = 0.99) to reef surface samples (open triangles) is the bestmodel of maximum vertical accretion and minimum limit (1) for sea level. To enable coral sur-vival, however, minimum sea level (1) must have been above these data points. ApplyingMontaggioni’s 2.5 m habitat correction, this minimum limit is elevated (2), intersecting ourreconstructed sea-level highstand ca. 3000 yr B.P. In addition, the timing of transgressioninferred from reef accretion assumes that the coral record tracked sea level, and factors includ-ing time lag for coral establishment, rate and magnitude of biological and mechanical erosion,and true depth of “recovered” coral remain uncertain. These considerations have the effect ofshifting the minimum limit earlier in time (e.g., toward right). Our proposed sea-level curve(3), provides a testable hypothesis of sea-level movements on Oahu. An envelope representingthe range of flexural uplift (hatching) shows the amount of uplift a shoreline feature of givenage has undergone; maximum at 8000 B.P. is 0.24-0.56 m.

Wigley and Rapier (1987) proposedthat an increase of 1 °C in global meansurface temperature (the best estimateof temperature during the middleHolocene climatic optimum, Folland etal. 1990) could raise sea level 4-8 cmdue to thermal expansion of the watercolumn. This leaves another ~1.9 m ofthe Kapapa Stand to be explained byother processes. The equatorial oceansiphoning model (ICE-4G, Peltier 1994,1996) is consistent with our interpreta-tion of middle to late Holocene sea levelin Hawaii. However, it still overpredictsthe height of msl in excess of 1 m, andmisidentifies its culmination by ~1500yr. This suggests that our data may notcapture the oldest portion of the high-stand peak (e.g. fossil beach has beeneroded), and/or that the parameterscontrolling the timing and magnitudeof the ICE-4G highstand need refine-ment. In fact, increased rates of iceaccumulation during the late Holocenethat may have led to Antarctic ice-vol-ume expansion equivalent to a ~1.0 ±0.2 m sea-level lowering (Goodwin 1998),would require a revision of the glacio-eustatic histories prescribed by the geo-physical models including ICE-4G.

CONCLUSION

We have constructed a newHolocene sea-level curve for Oahushowing mean sea level higher thantoday between ~5000 and ~2000 yrago with a maximum ~2 m abovepresent ca. 3500 yr ago. This historyshould be used to test and constrainmodels of postglacial sea-levelmovements requiring the amplitudeand timing of the highstand apex.Our reconstruction of Holocene sealevel using three independent linesof evidence, including the elevationsand ages of fossil beach sediments,the mid-point of the paleobeach face(a proxy for msl), and the surface ofthe emerged intertidal platform (a

proxy for mllw), confirms that Oahuis undergoing long-term uplift of~0.05 mm/yr, consistent with lithos-pheric flexure associated with vol-canic loading at the hotspot.Adjustments to the Hanauma Bayreef history (Easton and Olson 1976)for coral habitat range (Montaggioni1988) and uplift nearly reconcileprevious discrepancies in observedand predicted Holocene sea-levelmovements on Oahu.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Support for this research wasprovided by National ScienceFoundation (NSF) grant EAR-9317328, U.S. Geological Surveygrant 1434-94-A-1029, NationalGeographic Society grant 5273-94,and the University of Hawaii(Department of Geology andGeophysics Harold T. StearnsFellowship and William T.Coulbourn Award).

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