HDR’s safe DRinking WateR act neWsletteRSDWA

A Publication of HDR

INSI

DE 2 7

6Water Infrastructure Replacement Costs

Nitrosamines in the Regulatory Pipeline3 EPA Study of Fracking

in Wyoming

Politics vs. Science for Hexavalent Chromium

Learning from the Swedish Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak4

SPRING 2012

San JuSto ReSeRvoiR | CalifoRnia

[2] SDWA Newsletter | HDR

RegulAtoRy

In spite of political pressure on the united States environmental Protection Agency (ePA) to speed up release of the hexavalent chromium (Cr-6) health assessment, the agency has indicated that the assessment will be delayed in order to include the results of an industry-funded study.

the risk assessment is part of the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) and eventually will be used to determine whether a change in the chromium regulation is warranted.

the peer-reviewed primary research is supported by $4 million from the American Chemistry Council (ACC) and is composed of several studies conducted at toxicology labs across the country. the objective of the research is to determine whether the chemical causes cancer. the ACC has attempted to keep some distance from the researchers to avoid criticism regarding interpretation of results.

At a preview of the findings from the study, researchers suggested that hexavalent chromium only causes cancer at extremely high exposure levels. the research results are expected to include findings on the mode of action from oral exposure to the chemical,

and the uptake, distribution and metabolism of the chemical in the body.

the ePA has made a decision to allow for a full review of all new research that is completed and published by June 2012, including the ACC results and any other work completed by that date. this decision effectively shifts the completion of the risk assessment to late 2014. At that point, the ePA would decide if the current total chromium regulation needs revision to address Cr-6.

Issues that are currently unresolved in the scientific debate are the potential health effects threshold for Cr-6 and the conversion of trivalent chromium (Cr-3, which is non-toxic) to Cr-6 (and back). In addition, the current treatment technologies available to water systems can only reduce chromium to single-digit parts per billion levels.

the ePA released enhanced Cr-6 monitoring guidance in January 2011 which recommended that systems monitor for Cr-6. the unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule 3 (uCMR3), which was signed by ePA on April 16, 2012, includes monitoring for Cr-6.

Politics vs. Science for Hexavalent ChromiumBy Sarah Clark, P.E.Sarah.Clark@hdrinc.com

[3]SDWA Newsletter | HDR

WAteR QuAlIty

Pavillion

Cheyenne

Casper

Gillette

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

TETONWILDERNESS

WIND RIVER INDIAN RESERVATION

CLOUD PEAK WILDERNESS

THUNDER BASINNATIONALGRASSLAND

Fracking impacts on drinking water remain in the forefront as the united States environmental Protection Agency (ePA) released a draft analysis of data from its Pavillion, Wyo., ground water investigation in December 2011.

Residents requested that the ePA investigate impacts of fracking activities on private wells several years ago. Since then, efforts to assess ground water quality in the area have been the focus of work supported by the state of Wyoming, the local community, the owner of the gas field – encana – and the ePA.

Water quality test results from deep monitoring wells in the area show that compounds likely associated with gas production, including hydraulic fracturing, are present in the aquifer. the monitoring wells had detections of synthetic chemicals, like glycol and alcohols consistent with gas production and hydraulic fracturing fluids, benzene concentrations well above Safe Drinking Water Act standards, and high methane levels. the ePA is concerned, based on the geology

EPA Study of Fracking in WyomingBy Sarah Clark, P.E.Sarah.Clark@hdrinc.com

of the area, about movement of these compounds to drinking water wells.

Sampling of private and public water supply wells in the Pavillion area contained similar chemicals, including methane and other petroleum hydrocarbons, but at levels generally below established health and safety standards.

In 2010, the u.S. Department of Health and Human Services Agency for toxic Substances and Disease Registry reviewed the ePA’s data and recommended that affected well owners take precautionary steps, including using alternate sources of water for drinking and cooking, and ventilation when showering. those recommendations remain in place, and encana is funding alternative supplies of water.

the draft report on the Pavillion study is available for public comment until october 2012. the report and related documents can be found on the ePA web site at: http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/wy/pavillion/index.html .

[4] SDWA Newsletter | HDR

WAteRboRNe DISeASeS

• Regular testing of oocyst levels in raw sewage may be a useful tool to monitor changes in infection rates

• Viability testing for oocysts should be established locally or with a neighboring country (samples were sent to the u.S. for viability testing)

• Health care clinicians and pathology laboratories need to have a higher awareness of Cryptosporidium as a pathogen of concern

the second report was completed by the Swedish Defense Agency. An estimate of societal costs of $32 million (uSD) for the outbreak was discussed in this report. the cost estimate includes assumed costs for discomfort from illness, lost production and medical costs.

Municipal departments did not have adequate contingency plans for a boil water situation. Agencies that normally prepared meals for large numbers of people struggled with boiling and cooling large quantities of water.

Dairy and meat processing facilities decided to purchase their own uV systems to prevent future incidents from impacting business. Restaurants lost an estimated $2.2 million.

the existing water system had failed to identify Cryptosporidium as a significant threat to water quality and did not have treatment in place to protect the drinking water supply.

two major reports were published late last year providing details of the impacts of the November-December 2010 cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Östersund, Sweden. the outbreak sickened approximately 45 percent of the 60,000 residents of the community and required a boil water notice that was in effect for 84 days.

High levels of Cryptosporidium oocysts were identified in a creek which received water from the storm water drainage system and flowed into the drinking water supply lake. A cross connection was discovered between a wastewater pipeline draining into this creek.

genotyping of oocysts from the creek matched the genotype found in faecal specimens from human cases of cryptosporidiosis. Currents in the lake carried water from the creek to the intake of the water treatment plant with little mixing.

the Swedish Institute for Communicable Disease Control report discusses ways in which outbreak detection, emergency planning and responses could be improved. Among their findings were:

• Phone calls to a medical advice hotline which showed an increase in calls about abdominal illness indicated that this system could provide an early disease outbreak warning

Learning from the Swedish Cryptosporidiosis OutbreakBy Sarah Clark, P.E.Sarah.Clark@hdrinc.com

[5]SDWA Newsletter | HDR [5]

RegulAtoRy

Fortunately, a uV system was quickly acquired from another water company which had purchased the unit but not yet installed it. Sourcing a new uV system through normal processes would have taken much longer and extended the boil water notice.

For additional information, report references are:1. Cryptosporidium in Östersund. SMI’s work with the drinking

waterborne outbreak in Östersund 2010-1011. Artikelnummer: 2011-15-4, ISbN: 978-91-86723-12-5, November 2011.

2. Cryptosporidium in Östersund during the Winter 2010/2011: Consequences and Costs from an outbreak of a Waterborne Disease. Report no FoI-R--337--Se December 2011.

While the passage of the Reduction of lead in Drinking Water Act (Public law 111-380) in January 2011 is not recent news, utilities should be aware that the act goes into effect in January 2014.

the act sets up new definitions of “lead free” for solder and wetted fittings in contact with drinking water (pipe, fittings, plumbing fittings and fixtures). According to the legislation, lead free will mean the following starting in January 2014:

• Solder and flux will not contain more than 0.2 percent lead

• Pipes, pipe fittings, plumbing fittings and fixtures will not contain more than a weighted average of 0.25 percent lead

the current definition of lead free is calculated differently and is higher at 8.8 percent lead.

For utilities to be compliant in 2014, efforts should be undertaken now to ensure that inventory on hand in 2014 meets the new criteria. this means trying to incorporate the public law language into procurement requirements and tracking inventory to be able to control what is installed before and after the effective date of the law.

Confounding this effort is the fact that the united States environmental Protection Agency still is in the process of developing regulations to implement the law. the lead content requirements are expected to be incorporated into the long-term lead and Copper Rule, which is scheduled to be finalized in 2015.

the lack of current firm regulatory language is problematic to suppliers as well as to utilities.

Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act By Sarah Clark, P.E.Sarah.Clark@hdrinc.com

[6] SDWA Newsletter | HDR

RegulAtoRy

Nitrosamines in the Regulatory PipelineBy Sarah Clark, P.E.Sarah.Clark@hdrinc.com

Rising on the regulatory schedule is the potential release later this year of a preliminary regulatory determination regarding the need to regulate nitrosamines. this group of disinfection byproducts has been on the united States environmental Protection Agency’s (ePA) radar screen for a while after being identified as one of the target groups of chemicals for regulatory focus under the ePA’s 2010 strategy to group chemicals for regulatory action.

Five of the nitrosamines were listed on the third Contaminant Candidate list (CCl3) in 2009, and utilities monitored for nitrosamines between 2008 and 2010 under the second unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule requirements.

According to the American Water Works Association’s government Affairs office, the likely schedule for regulatory activity on nitrosamines over the next five years includes:

• late 2012 publication of the Preliminary third Regulatory Determination (for constituents on the CCl3)

• Mid-2014 publication of the Final third Regulatory Determination

• early to mid-2016 publication of a proposed Nitrosamine Regulation

• Mid- to late-2017 publication of final Nitrosamines Regulation with compliance requirements three years later (2020)

Depending on the nitrosamine level set in a potential regulation, the number of utilities impacted could range from 40 to 60 percent or higher. estimates of utility impacts are based on the unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule 3 data for levels of occurrence, and that data does not include consecutive systems.

because nitrosamines continue to form slowly over time in the distribution system, consecutive systems should be paying attention to the regulatory progression.

Most interest has been focused on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) because it is the

most commonly occurring nitrosamine, but there are eight other nitrosamines of interest in drinking and recycled water.

Nitrosamines can be formed as byproducts of disinfection with chloramines, but there are a number of other pathways for them to appear in water.

N-nitrosomorpholine (NMor) is more likely to be an industrial contaminant in wastewater plant influent as it is found in rubber industry waste effluent and can be present in some hydraulic fluids. NDMA can enter drinking water sources through runoff from agriculture, as some pesticides are contaminated with NDMA.

NDMA has been identified as a contaminant in water treated with ion exchange resins, even in the absence of a disinfectant. Rubber components such as valves and o-rings that are used in treatment plants and distribution systems have been found to leach significant levels of NDMA into water. Amine-based polymers used in drinking water treatment can contribute to nitrosamine formation.

Studies of the formation mechanisms for NDMA are numerous and some are on-going. the contribution of chloramine disinfection to NDMA formation has been investigated by several researchers.

Monochloramine has been shown to react with dimethylamine (DMA) to form NDMA. Dichloramine has a greater NDMA formation potential than monochloramine, which suggests that NDMA formation can be impacted by the order of chlorine and ammonia addition.

NDMA formation in drinking water appears to increase with pH. Higher formation was noted at pH 8-9 than at pH 7.

For utilities with a concern about levels of nitrosamines, particularly if levels are above 10 ng/l, investigating the cause of the nitrosamine occurrence would be wise. this could include continuing to sample for nitrosamines and reviewing data for clues to the source of precursors or preformed nitrosamines.

Potential treatment options included reduction of nitrosamines in the raw water source and optimizing polymer use. If the system is chloraminating, consider switching to free chlorine or providing more free chlorine contact time.

[7]SDWA Newsletter | HDR

INFRAStRuCtuRe

the American Water Works Association recently published a new report titled “buried No longer: Confronting America’s Water Infrastructure Challenge.” this report presents the projected cost to water utilities through 2050 for replacement and expansion of distribution infrastructure. the analysis is based on an understanding of:

• the timing of original water system development across the country

• Pipe materials used and where they were likely to be installed in various sizes

• Pipe life expectancy in operating environments for various pipe types and sizes

• Replacement costs for pipe in various sizes• the probability distribution of “wearing out” of

each type of pipe

As most of us in the water industry are aware, the projected costs are very high. A basic assumption of the study is that water utilities will make every effort to maintain the current level of service by repairing or replacing pipes that fail.

the study estimated that the investment need for buried infrastructure over the next 25 years is more than $1 trillion nationally. over the next 40 years, the needs exceed $1.7 trillion. of these costs, about 54 percent are attributed to replacement needs and 46 percent to population growth and migration.

Water bills for households are expected to rise, although the differences in rate structures, financing and other local factors impact the increases. For some communities, household water bills could triple.

Regionally, the south and west are likely to be most impacted by steep investment requirements, largely because the population of these areas is rapidly growing. Costs to customers in small systems are likely to be higher than to customers in large systems because there are typically more miles of pipe per customer in small systems.

Costs for infrastructure replacement will keep coming. the study looked at replacing pipe laid between 1890

and 1960. by the time all these pipes are replaced, systems will need to be looking at replacing pipes laid after 1960, creating an ongoing need for infrastructure renewal investments.

Postponing the investment only makes the problem worse because the slope of the investment curve steepens. In addition, it increases the likelihood of incurring costs associated with main breaks and other infrastructure failures.

If the investment in infrastructure is not made, we can expect more frequent breaks and failures that can impact public health by altering water quality or limiting fire flows. buried infrastructure failures can cause significant damage through flooding and often are expensive to repair, disruptive to businesses and customers, and waste water resources.

the report argues that the most pressing responsibility for utility managers is to develop processes that improve their understanding of the “replacement dynamics” of their water system. Asset management plans should reflect this understanding and be incorporated into the long-term capital investment plan.

the full report can be accessed on the web at www.awwa.org/infrastructure.

Water Infrastructure Replacement CostsBy Sarah Clark, P.E.Sarah.Clark@hdrinc.com

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SDWA EditorSarah Clark, P.e., is the editor of SDWA. Please contact her with any comments or questions regarding this publication at (303) 764-1560. to join, change an address or be removed from the SDWA mailing list, please send requests

to SDWA@hdrinc.com .

Drinking Water Operations Wall Chart Now Availablethe Drinking Water operations wall chart, published in May 2009, is available from HDR’s website, www.hdrinc.com/OpChart . this poster-sized chart is designed to assist

utility personnel with the operation and maintenance of their water systems. It includes a combination of reference tools and guidance information designed to improve system performance and achieve optimal water quality for both water treatment and distribution systems.

13th Edition SDWA Wall Chart Now Availablethe SDWA update wall chart, published in February 2011, is available from HDR’s website, www.hdrinc.com/SDWA . the poster-sized chart provides an easy-to-use reference to

all drinking water regulations, including a detailed listing of contaminants and maximum contaminant levels, health effects and monitoring requirements.

WaterscapesWaterscapes is another technical publication produced and distributed by HDR. It focuses on the latest innovations and technical issues facing the water and wastewater markets. you can view Waterscapes on our

website at: www.hdrinc.com/waterscapes. If you would like to join our Waterscapes mailing list, please send an e-mail to waterscapes@hdrinc.com .

Career OpportunitiesFor information on career opportunities at HDR, please visit www.hdrinc.com/careers .

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Severe to exceptional drought conditions persist over most of the Southwest and Southeast portions of the continental United States, along with severe conditions in parts of Hawaii. Weather predictions indicate that some relief may be in store for the East Coast, but not much improvement is expected in the short term for the Southwest and Southeast.

Fire experts are predicting a very active fire season in areas where there has been prolonged drought and where the snow pack is lower than normal.

Front Cover Photo: A coalition of local government entities teamed to implement an integrated water and wastewater master plan for the Hollister urban Area in northern San benito County, Calif. HDR assisted with the implementation of the recommendations identified in this plan. the coalition is working to expand its current treatment capabilities to make better use of existing supply.