SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION & THE ENLIGHTENMENT

BACKGROUND to the REVOLUTION

• Medieval scientists were known as “natural philosophers”

• Meaning they did not make observations of the natural world

• Aristotle was relied on for scientific knowledge• Due to the Renaissance, philosophers were able to

learn Greek and Latin

NEW INSTRUMENTS

• Telescope• Microscope• Printing Press• Thermostat• Barometer

MATHEMATICS & ASTRONOMY

• Played an important role in the scientific achievements• Great mathematicians believed the secrets of nature were found

in the language of mathematics– Nicholas Copernicus– Johannes Kepler– Galileo Galilei– Isaac Newton

• Their theories became the foundation of the Scientific Revolution

• Discoveries in astronomy changed how Westerners viewed the universe

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM

• From the ideas of second century A.D. philosopher, Ptolemy

• System is called geocentric, which places the Earth as the center of the universe

• The universe is a series of concentric spheres• The Earth is fixed as the center of these spheres

COPERNICUS

• In 1543, he published a book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

• Believed in a heliocentric, sun-centered, model of the universe

• He believed that the Sun, not Earth, was at the center

• The planets revolved around the Sun

JOHANNES KEPLER

• Used detailed astronomical data to create laws of planetary motion

• Observation confirmed that the Sun was at the center of the universe

• Also discovered that the orbits of the planets around the Sun were not circular, but elliptical

GALILEO GALILEI

• First European to make observations of the heavens with a telescope

• Discovered mountains on the Moon, four moons revolving Jupiter and sunspots

• His efforts threatened the Catholic church therefore ordering him to abandon the Copernican system

• However, most astronomers had come to accept the heliocentric model

ISSAC NEWTON

• Greatest genius of the Scientific Revolution• In his work, Principia, he defined three laws of

motion that govern both the planetary bodies and objects on Earth

• Universal law of Gravitation1.2.3.

CHEMISTRY

• The science of chemistry also arose in the 17th and 18th centuries

• Robert Boyle was one of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments

• His work on the properties of gas led to Boyle’s Law• Boyle’s law states that the volume of a gas varies

with the pressure exerted on it• Antoine Lavoisier is considered to actually be the

founder of modern chemistry

WOMEN & SCIENCE

• Margaret Cavendish– One of the most prominent female scientists– Critical of the belief that humans, through science, were

masters of nature• Maria Winklemann– Most famous female astronomer in Germany– Discovered the comet– Denied a job at the Berlin Academy because she was a

woman

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

• The scientific method was created during the Scientific Revolution

• It is a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing

• Francis Bacon developed the scientific method– Believed scientists should use inductive reasoning to

learn about nature– Believed that science could give humans power over

nature

The enlightenment

PATH TO THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• The Enlightenment was an 18th century philosophical movement of intellectuals

• Influenced by John Locke and Isaac Newton• The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known as

philosophes• To these philosophes, the purpose of philosophy was

to change the world• A spirit of rational criticism was to be applied to

everything

PHILOSOPHERS

• Montesquieu– Wrote The Spirit of the Laws in 1748– He identified three basic kinds of governments: republics,

despotism, and monarchies– Identified three branches of government: legislative,

executive, and judicial– Government functioned through the separation of powers– His work was translated into English and influenced the

US Constitution

PHILOSOPHERS

• Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet)– Greatest figure of the Enlightenment– Wrote pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays and

histories– Known for his criticism of Christianity – Believed in deism, based on natural law and reason– In the Deists’ view, a mechanic God had created the

universe

PHILOSOPHERS

• Denis Diderot– Writer who studied and read in many subjects and

languages– Most famous contribution was his Encyclopedia– Purpose was to “change the general way of thinking”– Articles attacked religious superstition and supported

religious toleration– Helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

ADAM SMITH & FREE ENTERPRISE

• Wrote the book The Wealth of Nations in 1776• Believed the government should not interfere in

economic matters• Believed the government should play three roles:– Protect society from invasion– Defending citizens from injustice– Keeping certain public works, such as roads and canals

The Spread of the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment ideas were spread through the salon

• Common people were unaware of what was taking place

• It had the greatest appeal to aristocrats and the upper class

• Development of daily newspapers and magazines

• The first daily newspaper was printed in London in 1702

Religion

• John Wesley– Spread Methodism– Preached to masses in open fields– Sermons caused people to have

conversion experiences– Founded the Methodist Church

European Music

• Johann Sebastian Bach & George Frederick Handel perfected baroque musical style

• Franz Joseph Haydn & Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote classical music

SEVEN YEARS WAR

• Prussian leader, Maria Theresa rebuilt her army and worked to separate Prussia from its chief ally, France

• Two sided war: Britain vs. France & Austria vs. Prussia

• France abandoned Prussia and allied with Austria and Russia joined them

• Three major areas: Europe, India, and North America

European Front

• Two major alliances: The British and the Prussians against the Austrians, Russians and the French

• Frederick the Great of Prussia was able to defeat the Austrian, French, and Russian armies for a time

• Prussian forces ran out of steam and were defeated until Peter III of Russia withdrew his troops

• Caused a stalemate and the European war ended in 1763 with all occupied territories returning to their original owners

North American Front

• French North America (Canada and Louisiana) was run by French government as a vast trading area; fur, leather, fish and timber

• British North America consisted of 13 colonies

• Fought over two areas: Gulf of the St. Lawrence River & the Ohio River Valley

• French gained support from the Indians; French-Indian War

North American Front

• French established ports in the Ohio River Valley• The French had more troops but not enough

naval support• In 1759, British forces defeated the French on

the Plains of Abraham outside Quebec• The British went on to seize Montreal, The Great

Lakes area, and the Ohio River Valley• The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1763 which

officially ended the war• Great Britain had become the world’s greatest

colonial power