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UNIT
p-block~_----,A,-__---..
III IV V VI VII aF9
CI17
Br35
I53
At85
Group VIIThe halogens
Per
iodi
cT
able
of
the
Ele
men
ts
0
lliJ2
III
III
IVV
VI
VII
He
4.0
34
56
78
910
Li
BeB
CN
0p
. Ne
6.9
9.0
10
.81
2.0
14
.01
6.0
19
.02
0.2
1112
131
415
1617
18
Na
Mg
Al
SiP
SCI
Ar
23
.02
4.3
27
.02
8.1
31
.03
2.1
35
.53
9.9
19
20
212
22
32
42
52
62
72
82
93
031
32
33
34
35
36
KC
aSc
TiV
Cr I
Mn
FeC
oN
iC
uZn
Ga
Ge
As
SeBr
Kr
39
.14
0.1
45
.04
7.9
50
.95
2.0
54
.95
5.9
58
.95
8.7
63
.56
5.4
69
.772
.67
4.9
79
.07
9.9
83
.8
37
38
39
40
414
24
34
44
54
64
74
84
95
051
52
53
54
Rb
SrY
Zr
Nb
Mo
TcR
uR
hPd
Ag
CdIn
SnSb
TeI
Xe8
5.5
87
.68
8.9
91
.29
2.9
95
.99
9.0
10
1.1
10
2.9
10
6.4
10
7.9
11
2.4
114
.81
18
.71
21
.81
27
.61
26
.91
31
.3
55
56
57
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
818
28
38
485
86
IC
sB
aLa
4~H
fTa
WRe
Os
IrPt
Au
Hg
Tl
PbBi
PoA
tRn
13
2.9
13
7.3
13
8.9
17
8.5
181.0
18
3.9
18
6.2
19
0.2
19
2.2
19
5.1
19
7.0
20
0.6
20
4.4
20
7.2
20
9.0
21
0.0
21
0.0
22
2.0
87
88
89
FrR
aA
c2
23
.02
26
.02
27
.0
58
59
60
616
26
36
46
56
66
76
86
97
071
Ce
PrN
dPm
SmEu
Gd
\fbD
yH
oE
rTm
Yb
Lu
14
0.1
14
0.9
14
4.2
(14
7)
15
0.4
15
2.0
15
7.3
15
8.9
16
2.5
16
4.9
16
7.3
16
8.9
17
3.0
17
5.0
90
919
29
39
49
59
69
79
89
91
00
10
11
02
10
3
0..
..-
ThPa
UN
pPu
kt\m
emBk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lw2
32
.02
31
.02
38
.1(2
37
)2
39
.1(2
43
)(2
47
-)(2
47
)(2
51
)(2
54
)(2
53
)(2
56
)(2
54
)(2
57
)
Ava
lue
inb
rack
ets
de
no
tes
the
ma
ssn
um
be
ro
fth
em
ost
sta
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iso
top
e.
I
-1
UNIT
~
The Halogens
IIII~IIIIIIIII~IllfllillN27901
~ Inner London Education Authority 1983
First published 1983by John Murray (Publishers) Ltd50 Albemarle street, London W1X 4BD
All rights reserved.Unauthorised duplicationcontravenes applicable laws
Printed and bound in Great Britain byMartin's of Berwick
British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataILPAC
Unit 12: The halogens1. Science500 Q161.2
ISBN 0 7195 4050 X
"
CONTENTS
PREFACEAcknowledgementsKey to activity symbols and hazard symbols
vvi
vii
INTRODUCTIONPre-knowledgePRE-TEST
23
LEVEL ONEPHYSICAL PROPERTIESElectronic configurationsAtomic and ionic radiiElectron affinityElectronegativityBond dissociation energyMelting points and boiling pointsAppearance of the halogensThe solubility of the halogensExperiment 1 - the solubility of the halogens in organic solventsCHEMICAL PROPERTIESReactions with hydrogenReactions with the noble gasesReactions with selected metals and non-metalsReactions with water and alkalisExperiment 2 - the action of dilute alkali on the halogensGENERAL PROPERTIES RELATED TO ELECTRON TRANSFERExperiment 3 - halogen-halide reactions in aqueous solutionLEVEL ONE CHECKLISTLEVEL ONE TEST
5
55667789
101113141515161820222527
LEVEL TWOTHE HYDROGEN HALIDESMelting points and boiling pointsThermal stabilityReaction of the hydrogen halides with waterMETAL HALIDESExperiment 4 - reactions of solid halidesExperiment 5 - reactions of halides in solutionOXIDES AND DXOACIDS OF THE HALOGENSHalogen oxidesOxoacids and their saltsExperiment 6 - reactions of the halatesBalancing redox equationsExperiment 7 - balancing a redox equationUse of the salts of the halogen oxoacidsIDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN SUBSTANCESA simple guide to the identification of gasesExperiment 8 - observation and deduction exerciseExperiment 9 - observation and deduction exerciseLEVEL TWO CHECKLIST
2929293031333337394042454749515255565860
END-OF-UNIT TEST 61
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 65
iii
PREFACEThis volume is one of twenty Units produced by ILPAC. the Independent learningProject for Advanced Chemistry. written for students preparing for the AdvancedLevel examinations of the G.C.E. The Project has been sponsored by the InnerLondon Education Authority'and the materials have been extensively tested inLondon schools and colleges. In its present revised form. however. it isintended for a wider audience; the syllabuses of all the major ExaminationBoards have been taken into account and questions set by these boards have beenincluded.
Although ILPAC was initially conceived as a way of overcoming some of thedifficulties presented by uneconomically small sixth forms. it has frequentlybeen adopted because its approach to learning has certain advantages over moretraditional teaching methods. Students assume a greater responsibility fortheir own learning and can work. to some extent. at their own pace. whileteachers can devote more time to guiding individual students and to managingresources.
By providing personal guidance. and detailed solutions to the many exercises.supported by the optional use of video-cassettes. the Project allows studentsto study A-level chemistry with less teacher-contact time than a conventionalcourse demands. The extent to which this is possible must be determinedlocally; potentially hazardous practical work must. of course, be supervised.Nevertheless, flexibility in time-tabling makes ILPAC an attractive propo-sition in situations where classes are small or suitably-qualified teachersare scarce.
In addition, ILPAC can provid~ at least a partial solution to other problems.Students with only limited access to laboratories, for example, those studyingat evening classes, can concentrate upon ILPAC practical work in the laboratory,in the confidence that related theory can be systematically studied elsewhere.Teachers of A-level chemistry who are inexperienced, or whose main disciplineis another science, will find ILPAC very supportive. The materials can be usedeffectively where upper and lower sixth form class~s are timetabled together.ILPAC can provide 'remedial' material for students in higher education.Schools operating sixth form consortia can benefit from the cohesion that ILPACcan provide in a fragmented situation. The project can be adapted for use inparts of the world where there is a severe shortage of qualified chemistryteachers. And so on.
A more detailed introduction to ILPAC, with specific advice both to studentsand to teachers, is included in the first volume only. Details of the ProjectTeam and Trial Schools appear inside the back cover.
LONDON 1983
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThanKs are due to the following examination boards for permission to reproducequestions from past A-level papers:
Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations;Teacher-marKed Exercise, p32(1976)
Southern Universities Joint Board;Exercises 26(1960), 31(1960), 32(1979), 34(1977)End~of-Unit Test 7(1960)
The Associated Examining Board;Exercises 29(1960), 30(1979)End-of-Unit Test 5(1979), 6(1979)
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate;End-of-Unit Test 6(1979)
University of London Entrance and Schools Examination Council;Exercises 4(1976), 27(1976), 39(1977)Teacher-marKed Exercise, p25(1961)Experiments 6(1979), 9(1974)Level One Test 4(1976)End-of-Unit Test 1(1979), 1(1(79), 3(1960), 4(1962), 9(N1976), 1o(N196o)
Questions from papers of other examining boards appear in other Units.
Where answers to these questions are included, they are provided by ILPACand not by the examination boards.
Table 12 is reproduced fromIInorganic Reactions at Advanced Levell, (Davies & Kelly) bypermission of the authors and Messrs. Bell & Hyman.
Photographs are included by permission as follows:Photographs of students and those on pages 13, 32, and 52 - Tony Langham
VI
SYMBOLS USED IN ILPAC UNITS
0GJ Reading
~Exercise
~\;'"Test
Revealing exercises
® Discussion
~ Computer programme
'A' Level question ~ Experiment
I[ 11 Video programme00'A' Level part question
~ Film loop
'A' Level questionSpecial paper
Model-making
Worked example
Teacher-marked exercise
INTERNATIONAL HAZARD SYMBOLS
~Harmful
~Toxic Radioactive--~
[j] Flammable II Explosive
~ Corrosive [ru Oxidising1tv J!t--vii
INTRODUCTIONIn this Unit we deal with the elements and compounds of Group VII (thehalogens), whose symbols we include in the outline Periodic Table below(Fig. 1).
s-block~
I II CDp-block
III IV V VI VII 0
F9
d-blockCIJ.
r 'I 17
Br35
I53
r--
f- f- At85I---
I-- I--
'- '-
Group VIIThe halogens
Fig. 1.
In Level One we deal with the physical and chemical properties of theelements. In Level Two we consider the halogen compounds. Throughout, wefocus attention on similarities and trends in selected properties, as we didin Unit 11 (The s-Block Elements).
At the end of the Unit you are asked to carry out 'observation and deduction'exercises, which enable you to identify. by simple chemical analysis. variousinorganic substances which contain halogens.
There are nine experiments in this Unit, but some of them are very short.
There are two ILPAC video-programmes designed to accompany this Unit. Theyare not essential, but you should try to see them at the appropriate timesif they are available.
The halogens Identifying unknown sUbstances
1
PRE-KNOWLEDGEBefore you start work on this Unit, you should be able to:
(1) state the names and symbols of the first four elements in Group VII;(2) describe the usual appearance of the elements chlorine, bromine and
iodine;(3) state simple chemical tests for the following -
(a) chloride ions,(b) chlorine gas,(c) hydrogen chloride gas;
(4) explain why dry hydrogen chloride is neutral to litmus whereas itsaqueous solution is acidic;
(5) state the meaning of the following terms -(a) electron affinity,(b) van der Waals forces,(c) isoelectronic;
(6) with reference to acids, explain the difference between the terms -(a) weak and dilute,(b) strong and concentrated;
(7) describe how chlorine is prepared in the laboratory;(8) in general terms, state the relative solubilities of ionic and covalent
substances in polar and non-polar solvents.
PRE-TESTTo find out whether you are ready to start Level One, try the ~following test which is based on the pre-knowledge items. You shouldnot spend more than 30 minutes on this test. Hand your answers to ~~your teacher for marking.
2
PRE-TEST1. Identify the following substances:
(a) X is a black, shiny solid which produces a violet vapour whenheated. (1)
,(b) Y is a light, green-yellow gas which bleaches moist- litmuspaper. ( 1 )
2. Z is a colourless gas, neutral to litmus when dry, and produces whitefumes with ammonia. When the gas is dissolved in water, the aqueoussolution is acidic to litmus and produces a white precipitate withsilver nitrate solution.(a) Identify Z. (1)(b) What are the white fumes? Give a balanced equation. (2)(c) Give an equation for the formation of the white precipitate. (1)(d) Why is Z neutral to dry litmus as a gas but acidic in aqueous
solution? ( 1 )
3. '2 M ethanoic acid is weaker than 2 M hydrochloric acid'.What does this statement mean? ( 2)
4. Define the term 'electron affinity' and illustrate your answer with anelectronic equation. ~2)
5. Fig. 2 below shows the laboratory preparation of chlorine. Study itand answer the questions which follow.
potassium manganate (VII)(KMn04)
chlorine
Fig. 2.
(a) Name the concentrated acid which should be used. (1)(b) Is it necessary to heat the conical flask for chlorine to be
generated? (1)(c) Why is chlorine collected by the upward displacement of air? (1)(d) Name one other solid which can be used in place of KMn04.
Indicate whether heat is required with this substitute. (1)
(Total 15 marks)
3
LEVEL ONEThe Group VII elements: the halogens, are reactive non-metals. Within thegroup there are well-defined trends in physical and chemical properties.
The first element in the group, fluorine, is anomalous, just as lithium andberyllium are in Groups I and II respectively. Astatine at the bottom, isradioactive, as are francium and radium in the s-block. Not 'much is knownabout this element except that it seems to be typical of its group as far asits chemical properties are concerned.
To obtain a simple overall picture of the halogens, we suggest thatyou read the introduction to them in your text-book(s).
oUJ
We deal with the halogens under similar headings to those we use for thes-block elements. We therefore start this Unit by considering the physicalproperties of these elements.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIESWe again begin with some properties associated with the nature of singleatoms; for convenience, we refer to these as atomic properties.
Objectives. When you have f~nished this section, you should be able to:
(1) state the electronic configurations of the Group VII elements andrecognise the similarities between them;
(2) describe and explain the trends in atomic and ionic radii, electronaffinity and electronegativity as the halogen group is descended;
(3) state and explain the trend in the bond dissociation energies of thehalogen molecules as their relative molecular masses increase.
Electronic configurationWe start with this property for both the atoms and ions of Group VII becauseit influences the physical and chemical properties of the elements and theircompounds.
Exercise 1 (a) Write down the electronic configurations of thefirst four elements in Group VII using the s, p, dnotation.
(b) How does the electronic configuration of fluorinediffer from that of the other members of the group?
(c) Write down the electronic configurations of the fluoride andchloride ions. What is the oxidation state in each ion?
(Answers on page 65
5
We now consider the trends in atomic and ionic radii for Group VII.
Atomic and ionic radiiIn Unit 11 (The s-Block Elements) you learned that atomic and ionic sizesinfluence the chemical properties of the elements and their compounds. Thisapplies to all elements, not just those of the s-block.
Study the table below and answer the questions which follow.
Table 1. Atomic and ionic radii of the halogens
Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Atomic [covalent) radius/nm 0.072 0.099 0.114 0.133Ionic radius of X-/nm 0.136 0.1B1 0.195 0.216
Exercise 2 (a) Explain why the atomic radius increases down thegroup.
(b) Why is the ionic radius so much greater than thecovalent radius in each case?
(Answers on page 65 )
In the next exercise, you compare the atomic and ionic sizes of the halogensand the s-block elements.
Exercise 3 The ions F-, Na+ and Mg2+ are isoelectronic.(a) From your data book, write down the radii of the
above ions.(b) Describe and explain the trend with increasing atomic
number.(Answers on page 65 )
As you know, the s-block elements are good reducing agents because they losetheir outer electrons readily. Evidence for this is obtained from theirionization energies. On the other hand, the halogen atoms, with sevenelectrons in their outer shells, have a tendency to attract an electron,which makes them good oxidizing agents. An indication of the strength ofthis attraction is given by values of electron affinity.
Electron affinityThis term was defined in Unit S3 (Chemical Energetics).
The next exercise deals with the changes in electron affinity as Group VIIis descended. Part (c) is taken from an A-level examination paper.
6
Exercise 4 (a) Using your data book, write down thermochemicalequations to represent the electron affinities ofCl, Br and I.
(b) Describe and explain the trend in (a).(c) The first ionization energy of gaseous fluoride ions
is +350 kJ mol-La What is the electron affinity ofgaseous fluorine atoms? Briefly explain your answer.
(d) Suggest a reason why the electron affinity of fluorine isanomalous. (Hint: consider the small atomic size of theF atom and the repulsions between the electrons in the outershell of the atom.)
(Answers on page 65 )
As you know, electron affinity is directly related to electronegativity whichwe now discuss.
Electronegativity
In Unit S4 (Bonding and Structure) you learned that Group VII contains someof the most electronegative elements in the Periodic Table. The next exerciseexamines the trend in electronegativity for the halogens.
(bJ Describe and explain the group trend.(Answers on page 65 )
Exercise 5 CaJ Using your data book, write down the electro-negativities of the first four halogens.
The reactivity of the halogens is clearly due, in part, to the electronaffinities of the atoms. However, chemical reactions usually involvehalogen molecules and, in the course of these reactions, halogen-halogenbonds must be broken. We now consider the strength of these bonds.
Bond dissociation energy
This term was introduced in Unit S3 (Chemical Energetics). Remember that inthe case of diatomic molecules, bond energy term and bond dissociation energyare identical.
The next exercise is about the bond dissociation energies shown in Fig. 3.
I--I
Bond dissociationenergy/kJ rnol= ' 158 242 193 151
Fig.3.
7
Exercise 6 (a) Describe the trend in bond dissociation energyas the group is descended.
(b) Which halogen molecules are split into atoms mostreadily and which are split least readily?
(c) Explain the trend from chlorine to iodine.(d) Suggest a reason for the low bond dissociation energy of
fluorine. (Hint: consider the small size of the fluorineatoms and repulsions between non-bonding electrons in themolecule.)
(Answers on page 65 )
The high reactivity of fluorine is explained partly in terms of its low bonddissociation energy~ which means that little energy is required to break theF-F bond in the initial stages of a reaction. Another factor is thetendency of fluorine to form strong bonds with other elements. We return tothe reactivity of the halogens later in this Unit.
Clearly~ the atomic properties of the halogens illustrate some well-definedgroup trends~ although fluorine is atypical in some respects. We nowcontinue the survey of physical properties of the elements by looking atbulk properties.
Objectives. When you have finished this section~ you should be able to:
(4) explain the trends in the melting points and boiling points ofGroup VII elements;
(5) state the appearance and physic~l state of fluorine;(6) compare the solubilities of Group VII elements in water and organic
solvents.
Melting pOints and boiling pointsIn the following exercise~ you investigate the trends in melting and boilingpoints for Group VII.
Exercise 7 ( a ) Write down the melting points and boiling points offluorine~ chlorine~ bromine and iodine*.What is the trend in each of these properties?( b )
(c) From your data in (a)~ give the physical state ofeach halogen at room temperature and pressure.
(Answers on page 65 )
*Iodine sublimes if a small amount of it is heated in an open container.However~ its melting point can be obtained if a large quantity is gently
i heated.
8
Melting points and boiling points depend on the strengths of int8rmol8cularforces. In Unit S4 (Bonding and Structur8), you learned that van der Waalsforces op8rate between all molecules. In the next exercise, you explain thetrends in melting points and boiling points by consid8ring van der Waalsforces.
EX8rcis8 B (a) How are the strengths of van der Waals forcesaffected by the number of electrons in a molecule?Explain your anSW8r.
(b) What is th8 group tr8nd in strength of van der Waalsforces between identical halogen molecules?
(c) Explain why iodine is a solid wh8reas chlorin8 is a gas.(Answers on page 65 )
Th8 names of some of the halogens are deriv8d from their appearance, whichwe consid8r in the next section.
Appearance of the halogensCheck that you r8ally know what the el8m8nts look like by doing th8n8xt exercis8. You may find it h8lpful to watch th8 first part ofthe ILPAC video-programme IThe Halogens', if it is availabl8.
Exercise 9 Copy and complete the following table.Table 2
Name of Colour and physical state atelement Formula room temperature and pressure
Fluorin8ChlorineBromin8Iodin8
(Answer on page 66 )
Th8 name 'chlorine' comes from the Greek 'chloros' m8aning light-green;'bromine' comes from the Gr8ek 'bromos' meaning stench; 'iodine' com8S fromth8 Gr88k 'iodos' meaning violet-like.
B8caus8 the halogens ar8 coval8nt substances, they tend to dissolve inorganic non-polar solv8nts. In c8rtain organic solv8nts, bromine and iodineproduce solutions with characteristic colours and this can h8lp in th8iridentification.
9
The solubility of the halogensThe halogens~ like most covalent substances~ are not very soluble in water~as you can see from Table 3.Table 3
Solubility at 0 °cHalogen /g per 100 g of water
Fluorine F2 -
Chlorine C12 1 .46 (about 30% reacts)Bromine Br2 4.17 (very little reacts)Iodine I2 0.016 (very little reacts)
The variation in solubility is such that chlorine and bromine are oftendescribed as moderately soluble in water and iodine as sparingly (slightly)soluble in water.
Exercise 10 Why do you think no value for solubility is assignedto fluorine in Table 3?(Answer on page 66 )
Deciding whether a substance dissolves with or without reaction is not alwaysa very easy matter. We will discuss the reactions of the halogens with waterlater in this Unit.
Aqueou5 solutions of chlorine and bromine are often used in thelaboratory and referred to as chlorine water and bromine water.Iodine is only slightly soluble in water so an indirect method isused to produce iodine solution. Find out from your text-books howiodine solution is made so that you can answer the next exercise.
Exercise 11 How is aqueous iodine solution made in the laboratory?Include any relevant equation(s).(Answer on page 66 )
In the following experiment~ you investigate the solubility of thehalogens in various organic solvents. It is a short qualitativeexperiment and should not take you more than 30 minutes.
10
The solubility of the halogensin organic solvents
EXPERIMENT 1
AimThe purpose of this experiment is to discoverwhether each of the halogens chlorine~ bromineand iodine is:(a) soluble in organic solvents~(b) more soluble in organic solvents than in
water~(c) the same colour in organic solvents as
it is in water.
IntroductionAfter mixing aqueous solutions of the halogens separately with 1~1~1-tri-chloroethane, CH3CC13, ethoxyethane~ CH3CH20CH2CH3 (ether) and hexane~CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3, you decide whether each halogen moves out of the aqueoussolution and into the solvent. If it does~ then you can compare its colourin the aqueous layer with that in the organic layer - these colours areuseful for identifying the halogens.
Requirementssafety spectacles3 test-tubes~ each fitted with a bungtost-tube rack 1:.c:16 dropping pipettes approximately graduated for 1 cm3 1---1,1,1-trichloroethane, CH3CC13-----------------e t ho x y et he ne ( d i et hy I ether), CII3CH20CH2CH3- - ~ - - - - ~ - ~ -I'" 11:.c::hexane, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3------------------- ~chlorine water, C12(aq)-------------------- . ~bromine water, Br2(aq)--------------------~--- -0iodine solution,O.01 M 12 (in KI(aq)) --- ~3 labelled bottles for organic residues
Check that no flames are close to where you are working becauseethoxyethane and hexane are extremely flammable.
Hazard warningThis experiment should be performed in a FUME CUPBOARD since allthe halogen vapours are TOXIC and the organic vapours aredangerous to inhale. If a fume cupboard is not available thenTHE LABORATORY MUST BE WELL VENTILATED.
11
Procedure1. In a copy of Results Table 1 note the colour of each aqueous halogen
solution provided.2. Into each of three test-tubes in turn put about 1 cm3 of a different
aqueous halogen solution.3. To each tube add about 1 cm3 of 1~1~1-trichloroethane and note whether
the organic liquid becomes the upper or lower layer.4. Cork and shake each tube~ allow the layers to separate~ and note the
colour of each layer.5. Repeat steps 2~ 3 and 4 with the other two solvents.6. Pour residues into the labelled bottles provided, not down the sink.
Results Table 1
Iodinesolution
Colour of aqueoussolution
Colour of each layerafter shaking with1,1,1-trichloroethane
Colour of each layerafter shaking withethoxyethane
Colour of each layerafter shaking withhexane
Nature ofeach layer
Upper layer*organic/aqueous
Lower layer*organic/aqueous
Upper layer*organic/aqueous
Lower layer*organic/aqueous
Upper layer*organic/aqueous
Lower layer*organic/aqueous
*delete organic Qr aqueous as appropriate(Specimen results on page 66 )
Chlorinewater
Brominewater
Questions1. Do you think the halogens are more soluble in the organic solvents than
in water? Explain your answer.2. Which of the three halogens has a significantly different colour in the
organic layer from its colour in the aqueous layer? (Specify the organicsolvents in your answer.)
3. How would you distinguish~ other than by smell, between a dilute aqueousiodine solution and a fairly concentrated solution of bromine water?
(Answers on page 66 )
12
You will use aqueous solutions of the halogens as convenient sources of theGroup VII elements in other experiments in this Unit. If a halogen solutionis produced during a chemical reaction, you now know how to use an organicsolvent to help in its identification.
The solubility of the halogens in waterand organic solvents has some usefulapplications, e.g. chlorine is used asa germicide in the treatment of drinkingwater and swimming-pool water. Iodinedissolved in ethanol, commonly called'tincture of iodine/, is used as a mildantiseptic.
We now go on to consider the chemical properties of the halogens, and youapply your knowledge of their electron affinities and bond dissociationenergies to help you explain the reactivity of the elements.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIESElectron affinity values indicate that all the Group VII elements have agreat tendency to attract electrons, but that this tendency decreases as thegroup is descended from chlorine onwards. This suggests that the halogensare reactive elements, but we have already shown that bond dissociationenergies must also be considered in order to account fully for the grouptrend in reactivity. In particular, fluorine is much more reactive thaHchlorine despite its smaller affinity for electrons, and reacts vigorouslywith nearly all other substances.
In the following section, we discuss the reactivity of the halogens towardsother elements.
Objectives. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(7) describe how the halogens react with hydrogen, the noble gases andselected metals and non-metals;
(8) quote experimental evidence to show that the reactivity of the halogensdecreases as the group is descended.
Hydrogen is a reactive element so it is not surprlslng that it will reactwith all the halogens. Although the products of each of these hydrogen/halogen reactions are similar, there are striking differences in the ratesof reaction.
13
Reactions with hydrogenIf the ILPAC video-programme 'The Halogens' is available. you shouldview now any sections you have not already seen.
Read about the reactions between the halogens and hydrogen in yourtext-book(s). paying particular attention to the experimentalconditions used and the vigour of each reaction. so that you can dothe following exercises.
Exercise 12 (a) Write a general equation for the reaction betweena halogen (X) and hydrogen.
(b) What is the trend in reactivity towards hydrogenas the halogen group is descended?
(c) If a polythene bag is filled with a 50:50 mixtureof hydrogen and chlorine and exposed to ultraviolet lightor bright sunlight. an explosion occurs. Explain how thelight-source initiates the reaction.
(d) What conditions are required for hydrogen to react with(L) fluorine.
(ii) bromine.(iii) iodine?
(Answers on page 66
In the next exercise you discover how the great reactivity of fluorine isattributable in part to the low dissociation energy of the F--F bond. andin part to the fact that the bonds formed between F and other elements arevery strong.
Exercise 13 (a) Calculate 6H~ for the following reactions frombond energy terms. Draw energy level diagramsin your answer.(i )
(ii)H2(g) + F2(g)
H2(g) + C12(g)-+ 2HF(g)
-+ 2HCl(g)(b) Which of the two reactions above is energetically more
feasible?(c) What two factors contribute to the high negative value of
6H~ for the H2/F2 reaction?(Answers on page 66 )
Fluorine is so reactive that it is known to react with at least three noblegases. krypton. Kr. xenon. Xe. and radon. Rn.
14
Reactions with the noble gasesFluorine is the only member of the halogens to react with the noble gases.For instance, three fluorides of xenon have been obtained by directsynthesis. These compounds, xenon difluoride, XeF2, .xenon tetrafluoride, XeF4,
xenon hexafluoride, XeF6 are all colourless crystalline compounds.
The following Bxercise is about the noble gas compounds of fluorine.
Exercise 14 (a) XeF4 can be made by heating a mixture of xenonand fluorine in a nickel vessel at 400 o[ for onehour followed by rapid cooling of the mixture.(i) Write down the equation for the reaction.
(ii) What is the oxidation number of xenon in XeF4?(b) What is the oxidation number of the noble gas in each of
the following compounds?(i) XeF 2
(t i ) XeF6(iii) KrF2(iv) KrF 4
(c) Why do you think modern text-books have stopped referringto the noble gases as the inert gases?
(Answers on page 67 )
The last exercise shows that fluorine can bring out high oxidation states ofthe noble gases. In fact, it can produce the highest possible oxidationstates with all elements with which it reacts. This is mainly becausefluorine forms very strong bonds with other elements.
The next section deals with the reactions of the halogens with other elements.
Reactions with selected metals and non-metalsWe have chosen sulphur and phosphorus for our non-metals because they areconvenient solids to study and show variable oxidation states. In our choiceof metals we have taken sodium as an example of an s-block element and ironas an example of a transition element. Similar reactions occur with othermetals and non-metals.
Table 4 gives you some factual information about the reactions of the halogenswith these elements; you complete it in the next exercise.
15
Table 4
Reactant Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodi ne
Sulphur Ignites Reacts if Nopowder spontan- heated to reaction
eously to form S2C12form SF6
Red Ignites Reacts Solidphosphorus spontan- spontan- spontan-
eously to eously to eouslyform form PBr3 forms PI3--
Iron Ignites if Reacts if Reacts iffilings warmed to heated to heated to
form form FeBr3 form FeI2--Sodium Reacts Continues Continues
explosively to burn in to burn into form vapour to vapour to
form form-- --
Exercise 15 (a) Complete a copy of Table 4, including theformulae of the products.
(b) An extremely violent reaction occurs if sodium andsolid iodine are heated together (you must not,under any circumstances, attempt this) whereas amuch slower reaction occurs if burning sodium islowered into iodine vapour. Suggest an explanation.
(c) Comment on the oxidation numbers of the other elements inthe products formed by fluorine and iodine.
(Answers on page 67 )
We now go on to consider the reactions of the halogens with some compounds.
Reactions with water and alkalisObjectives. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(9) describe the reactions between the halogens and water;(10) describe the reactions between· the Group VII elements and alkalis;(11) explain the meaning of the term disproportionation;(12) place the oxo-anions BrO-, CIO- and 10- in order of stability.
We mentioned reactions of halogens with water when we discussed solubility.We now consider these reactions in detail.
16
Read about the reactions of the halogens with water in your text-book[s) to help you with the following exercises.
oQ]
Exercise 16 (a) If wet blue litmus paper is placed in a gas jarof chlorine it first turns red then white.Explain this with the aid of an equation.
(b) A rapid reaction occurs between fluorine and water.Give a balanced equation for this reaction.
(c) If chlorine water is exposed to bright sunlight, itdecomposes slowly to give similar products to the reactionin [b) above. Write down the equation for this decomposi-tion.
(d) How would you expect bromine and iodine to react with water,if at all? Give equation(s) in your answer.
(Answers on page 67 )
Look up disproportionation in your text-book(s) to help you answerthe next exercise.
oQJ
C12 ( g) + H20 [1) -+ HC10[aq l + HC 1 ( aq )[a) Write duwn the oxidation number of chlorine
wherever it appears in the equation.
Exercise 17 Consider the reaction between chlorine and water.
(b) Explain the meaning of the term 'disproportionation'using the above reaction as an example.
(c) Would you class the reactions between fluorine and waterand between bromine and water as disproportionationreactions? Explain your answer.
(Answers on page 67 )
The reactions between the halogens and water are affected by the pH and thetemperature of the water. In the next section we consider the reactionsbetween the halogens and dilute alkalis at different temperatures.
You start wi th a pr-ec t i'ce I investigation of the reactions of bromine [illwater and iodine solution with dilute sodium hydroxide. The 1experiment is very short and can be completed in about 20 minutes.
17
EXPERIMENT 2The action of dilute alkalion the halogens
AimThe purpose of this experiment is to showthat observable reactions occur betweendilute sodium hydroxide and aqueoussolutions of bromine and iodine and,furthermore, that these reactions arereversible.
IntroductionYou add dilute sodium hydroxide dropwise to bromine water and iodine solutionin turn. A significant change in colour in either halogen solution indicatesthat a reaction has occurred. If you suspect that the change in colour isonly due to a dilution effect, you should set up a control experiment, whereyou add the same number of drops of distilled water to the halogen solution.To determine whether the reaction is reversible, you acidify the alkalinehalogen solution and see if the original halogen colour reappears.
Requirementssafety spectacles5 test-tubes1 test-tube rack4 teat pipettes ~bromine water, Brz(aq) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --- Jl.4iodine solution, 0.01 M 12 (in KI(aq))sulphuric acid, 1 M H2S04sodium hydroxide solution, 2 M NaOH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --distilled water
Hazard warningBromine water is poisonous and corrosive. The vapour is extremelyirritant to the eyes, lungs and skin. Therefore you must: ~--~AVOID CONTACT WITH SKIN;AVOID INHALING THE VAPOUR.
Procedure1. Place about 2 cm3 of bromine water in a test-tube and note the colour of
the solution.2. Add dilute sodium hydroxide, drop by drop. and note any change of colour
in the bromine solution.3. Now add dilute sulphuric acid to the solution from (2), and note if the
colour returns when the acid is in excess.4. Repeat the procedure using iodine solution instead of bromine water.5. Record your results in a copy of Results Table 2.
18
Results Table 2
Aqueous Original Colour after Colour afterhalogen colour adding NaOH(aq) adding H2S04(aq)
Brominewater
Iodinesolution
(Specimen results on page 67 )
Questions1. Write equations for the reactions of bromine and iodine with
dilute sodium hydroxide at room temperature. Use yourtext-book(s) as necessary.
2. Which of the above reactions would you class as disproportionationreactions?
3. Are these reactions reversible? Explain your answer.4. How does chlorine differ from bromine and iodine in its reaction
with cold dilute sodium hydroxide? Suggest a reason.(Answers on page 67 )
You have probably already discovered in your reading that the temperaturedetermines which products are formed in the reactions between halogens andalkalis. The facts are summarised in Table 5~ which you should study beforedoing the next exercise.
Table 5 Reactions of halogens with sodium hydroxide
PredominantHalogen Temperature/oC oxo-anion product *
C12 20 CIO-70 CI03-
Br2 0 BrO-20 Br03-
12 0 103-
*Halide ions and water are also formed but are omitted from the table.
19
Exercise 18 ( a ) Name the two oxo-anions of chlorine shown in Table ~5 and write an equation to show how one isconverted to the other in aqueous solution by ~~heating.
(b) Write an equation to show the reaction between chlorineand dilute sodium hydroxide at 70°C.
(c) Place the following ions in order of ease of disproportion-ation at room temperature: BrO-, CIO-, IO-. Explain youranswer.
(d) Draw dot-and~cross diagrams for the oxo-anions CIO~ andCI03 - •
(Answers on page 68 )
In your reading you may have come across references to the reaction ofchlorine with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution at 70°C. The effect ofincreasing the concentration is similar to that of raising the temperature,i.e. to increase the proportion of CI03- in the product.
In Unit I1, you learned that the s-block elements are reducing agents becauseof their tendency to lose electrons. You also learned that metalliccharacter is linked to this tendency to lose electrons. Since the halogenstend to be electron acceptors in their reactions, they can behave asoxidizing agents.
In the next section we discuss the trends in oxidizing ability of the halogensand consider the emergence of slight metallic character in iodine.
GENERAL PROPERTIES RELATED TO ELECTRON TRANSFERObjectives. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(13) state and explain the order of oxidizing ability for the halogens;(14) describe an experiment which illustrates this order;(15) account for the slight metallic character of iodine.
In the next exercise, you investigate some other halogen reactions, includingthe iodine-thiosulphate reaction which you met in Unit S1 (The Mole).
20
Exercise 19' Study the equations below and answer the questionswhich follow.
(i) H2S(aq) + Br2(aq) ~ 2HBr(aq) + S(s)(ii) AI(s) + 1~I2(s) ~ AII3(s)
(iii) CI2(g) + H20(I) ~ HCI(aq) + HCIO(aq)(iv) 2Na2S203(aq) + I2(aq) ~ Na2S406(aq) + 2NaI(aq)
(a) Write down the oxidation number for each atom appearingin the above equations.
(b) For each redox reaction, state .which species is oxidizedand which is reduced.
(Answers on page 68 )
All the halogen reactions which you have considered so far are oxidation andreduction reactions. In most of these reactions, the halogen oxidizes thesubstances with which it reacts. You will not be surprised, therefore, thatthe order of oxidizing ability is the same as the order of reactivity.
In the next exercise, we aSK you to predict whether certain halogen- tIDhalide reactions occur. Following that is an experiment to test yourpredictions. JLExercise 20 Use the order of oxidizing ability of the halogens
(i.e. F2> C12 > Br2 > 12) to predict whether thefollowing reactions occur:(a) C12(aq) + 2KBr(aq) ~ Br2(aq) + 2KC1(aq)(b) I2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) ~ CI2(aq) + 2NaI(aq)(c ) Br2 (aq) + 2KI(aq) ~ I2(aq) + 2KBr(aq)(d) C12(aq) + 2KI(aq) ~ I2,(aq) + 2KC1(aq)(e) Br2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) ~ C12(aq) + 2NaBr(aq)(Answers on page 68 )
21
Halogen-halide reactionsin aqueous solution
EXPERIMENT 3
AimThe purpose of this experiment is to inves-tigate the order of oxidizing ability of thehalogens C12, Br2 and 12 in aqueous solution.
IntroductionYou mix each of the aqueous solutions with halide ion solutions, Cl-(aq),Br-(aq), and I-(aq) in turn, and see whether a reaction takes place. Theaddition of hexane to the halogen-halide mixture enables you to recognisethe halogen molecules present. The halogen which oxidizes most of the otherhalide ions will clearly be the strongest oxidizing agent.
Requirementssafety spectacles6 test-tubes fitted with corkstest-tube rack7 dropping pipettes ~bromine water, Br2(aq) - - -- -- - - --- - - -- -- - -- - ,0chlorine water, C12(aq) ------ - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~iodine solution, 12 (in KI(aq))potassium bromide solution, KBrpotassium chloride solution, KCl~~~:~:~U~6~:~ide ~OlUtion~ ~I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I A I
Hazard warningHalogen and organic vapours must not be inhaled. If a fume-cupboard is notavailable then THE LABORATORY MUST BE WELL VENTILATED AND REAGENT BOTTLES ANDTEST-TUBES STOPPERED AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE. KEEP HEXANE AWAY FROM FLAMES.
Procedure1. Reaction (if any) of iodide with chlorine and bromine.
(al To each of two test-tubes add about 1 cm3 of potassium iodidesolution.
(b) To one of these tubes, add about the same volume of chlorine water,and to the other add the same volume of bromine water.
(c) Cork and shake the tubes and note the colour change - if any.(d) To each tube add about 1 cm3 of hexane, cork and shake, allow to
settle, and note the colour of each layer.(e) Decide which reactions have taken place, and complete a copy of
Results Table 3.
22
2. Reaction (if any) of bromide with chlorine and iodineRepeat the above steps, 1(aJ - (e), using potassium bromide with chlorinewater and iodine solution.
3. Reaction (if any) of chloride with bromine and iodineRepeat steps 1(a) - (e) using potassium chloride with bromine water andiodine solution.
Results Table 3
Initial colour
1. Colour after shaking with KI solution
Colour of each layerafter shaking withhexane
Upper
Lower
Iodinesolution
2. Colour after shaking with KBr solution
Chlorinewater
Brominewater
Conclusion
Colour of each layerafter shaking withhexane
Upper
Lower
Conclusion
3. Colour after shaking with KCl solution
Colour of each layerafter shaking withhexane
Upper
Lower
Conclusion
(Specimen results on page 68 )
Questions1 . (a ) Does I2(aq KI) oxidize Cl-Caq) and Br-Caq)?
(b ) Does Br2(aq) oxidize Cl-[aq) and I-[aq)?(c ) Does C12(aq) oxidize Br-(aq) and I-(aq)?(d J Were your predictions in Exercise 20 correct?
2. Write ionic equations for the reactions taking place.(Answers 0 n page 68 )
In Exercise 13, you discovered that bond energies are very important inreflecting the order of reactivity of the halogens in gaseous reactions.In aqueous reactions we also need to consider the formation of hydr~tedions when explaining the order of oxidizing ability.
23
We need, therefore, to consider the enthalpy ch~nge for the half-reaction:~X2Cstandard state) + e- ~ X-Caq) where X = a halogen
The factors which contribute to this enthalpy change are shown in thefollowing energy-level diagram (not drawn to scale).
HB-
XCg)~ ~MB-diss
~X2 Cg)MB-t(enthalpy of
a atomization) MB-C electron6JF
e affinity)
~X2Cstandard state) vap
X-(g) X-(g)
MB-Centhalpy ofr reaction)
M~ d(hydrationy energy)
X-Caq) X-(aq)
In the next exercise you use this energy level diagram to calculate theenthalpy change for the formation of aqueous ions for each halogen.
Exercise 21 (a) Using your data book, complete the following tableand calculate M~ for each halogen.
Table 6
F C1 Br I
MB- IkJ mol-J.at
MB-/kJ mol-J.e
MB- IkJ mol-J.hyd
MB-/kJ mol-J.r
(b) Explain the order of oxidizing ability in terms of MB-.r
(c) Which energy factor is mainly responsible for this order?(Answers on page 69 )
For the s-block elements you learned that metallic character increased aselectronegativity decreased and reducing ability increased. In the nextexercise you apply these ideas to the halogens.
24
Do you expect any metallic character to appear as ~the group is descended? Explain your answer.
~\\\Do you think the physical appearance of the halogenssupports your answer above? Explain.(Answers on page 69 )
At this stage you should realise that even though iodine is a non-metal, itdoes show signs of metallic character. In fact, it is electropositive enoughto produce 1+ ions in certain reactions. You will consider the formation of1+ ions later in this Unit.
Exercise 22 (a)
( b )
You have now completed Level One of this Unit and, to consolidatewhat you have learned, we suggest you answer the following Teacher-marked Exercise. Before you attempt the question, look back throughyour notes and then make a rough plan of the points you think shouldbe included in your answer. Spend about 40 minutes planning andwri ting your answer.
Teacher-marked Discuss the trends which occur in Group VII of the 0Exercise Periodic Table, the halogens. Illustrate your answer
with suitable example~, paying attention to theabnormal properties of fluorine.
LEVEL ONE CHECKLISTYou have now reached the end of Level One of this Unit. The following is asummary of the objectives in Level One. Read carefully through them andcheck that you have adequate notes. At this stage, you should be able to:
(1) state the electronic configurations of the Group VII elements andrecognise the similarities between them;
(2) describe and explain the trend in atomic and ionic radii, electronaffinity and electro negativity as the halogen group is descended;
(3) state and explain the trend in the bond dissociation energies of thehalogen molecules as their relative molecular masses increase;
(4) explain the trends in the melting points and boiling points of GroupVII elements;
(5) state the appearance and physical state of fluorine;(6) compare the solubilities of Group VII elements in water and organic
solvents;(7) describe how the halogens react with hydrogen, the noble gases and
selected metals and non-metals;(8) quote experimental evidence to show that the reactivity of the halogens
decreases with increasing atomic number;(9) & (10) describe the reactions of the halogens with water and with
alkalis;(11) explain the meaning of the term disproportionation;(12) place the oxo-anions BrO-, CIO- and 10- in order of stability;
12-8 25
(13) & (14) state and explain the order of oxidizing ability for thehalogens and describe an experiment which illustrates thisorder;
(15) account for the slight metallic character of iodine.
LEVEL ONE TESTTo find out how well you have learned the material in Level One,try the test which follows. Read the notes below before starting.1. You should spend about 1 hour on this test.2. Hand your answers to your teacher for marking.
26
LEVEL ONE TEST1. Explain eac~ of the following facts.
(a) Iodine is far more soluble in potassium iodide solution than itis in water. (3)
(b) Chlorine is more electronegative than iodine. (3)(c) The boiling points of the halogens increase as the group is
descended. (3)(d) The bond dissociation energy of fluorine is less than that of
chlorine. (3)
2. How and under what conditions, do the halogens (F2, C12, Br2 and 12)react with:(a) hydrogen,(b) sulphur?
( 4)
( 4 )
3. (a) Briefly describe an experiment which shows that the order ofoxidizing ability of the halogens, in aqueous solution, is
C12(aq) > Br2(aq) > I2(aq)(b) Explain the trend in (a).
(4 )
( 3)
Continued overleaf.
27
4. This question concerns the elements chlorine, bromine and iodine.(a) Give the electronic configurations of the chlorine atom and
bromide ion.
18 28 2p 38 3p 3d 48 4p
Cl( 2 J
(bJ On (copies of) the axes below, indicate approximately thevariation of:(i) bond dissociation energy with atomic number,
co'~
'(3 >Sl ~C/) Q)
:.0 ~'0Co.c
CI Br I
(ii) ionic radius with atomic numbe~
CI Br I ( 2 J
(c) Compare the reactions, if any, of chlorine and of iodine withwater. (2)
(d) The following reaction takes place on warming:3Br2(lJ + 60H-(aq) ~ 5Br-(aqJ + Br03-(aq) + 3H20(1)
(i) Give the oxidation number of bromine in Br03- and explainyour reasoning.
(ii) What is the name given to this type of reaction?(iii) Suggest the shape of Br03- and explain your reasoning. (4)
(e) Use the following data to determine the enthalpy change for thereaction:
~12(s) ~ 1-(aq)All steps in your calculation must be clearly shown.
12(s) ~ 12(g) 6H 30 kJ mol-J.
~12(g) ~ 1(g) 6H 76 kJ mol-J.
I(g) ~ 1-(g) 6H -297 kJ mol-J.1-(g) -+ 1-(aq) 6B -305 kJ mol-J. (3 )
(Total 40 marks)
28
LEVEL TWOLevel Two is concerned mainly with halogen compounds. A large variety ofhalogen compounds exist because most of the halogens can have severaloxidation states. We begin by considering binary compounds, where one ofthe two elements is a halogen in the -I oxidation state; such compounds arecalled halides.
We deal with two categories of halides: the hydrogen halides and the metalhalides.
THE HYDROGEN HALIDESObjectives. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(16) state and explain the trends in the following properties of thehydrogen halides -(a) melting point,(b) boiling point,(c) bond dissociation energy,(d) enthalpy of formation;
(17) explain the trend in thermal stability of the hydrogen halides byreference to bond dissociation energies and enthalpies of formation;
(18) describe the solubility/reactivity of the hydrogen halides in water.
Scan those sections of your text-book(s) which deal with the hydrogen GJC=>,halides so that you know where to look for information to help youwith the exercises.
Earlier in this Unit, you learned that the hydrogen halides can be made byreacting the halogens directly with hydrogen under certain conditions. Younow go on to study some of their important physical and chemical properties.
Melting points and boiling pOintsIn the next exercise, you relate these properties to the strength of inter-molecular forces, as you have done before for other compounds.
29
Exercise 23 (a) Complete a copy of Table 7 below~ using your databook.
(b) What is the trend in boiling point with increasingmolar mass?
(c) Do the melting points follow a similar trend?(d) Explain the trend in boiling points from hydrogen chloride
to hydrogen iodide in terms of the strengths of van derWaals forces.
(Answers on page 69 )
Table 7
Molar Physicalmass Melting Boiling state at
Formula /g mol-1 point/K point/K s.t.p.
Hydrogen fluoride
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen bromide
Hydrogen iodide
It is clear from the last exercise that the properties of hydrogen fluorideare anomalous. The reason for the high boiling point of hydrogen fluoridewas discussed in Unit S4 (Bonding and Structure). Refer back to that Unit~if you need to~ before going on to the next exercise# which is concernedwith the anomalous properties of hydrogen fluoride.
Exercise 24 With the aid of a labelled diagram# explain why HF is aliquid at s.t.p. whereas all the other hydrogen halidesare gases.(Answer on page 69 )
The next section concerns the thermal stability of the hydrogen halides.
Thermal stabilityIn the next exercise# you predict the trend in thermal stability of thehydrogen halides by considering their bond dissociation energies andenthalpies of formation.
30
Exercise 25 Study the following data and answer the questions below. ~~H-F H-Cl H-Br H-I
Enthalpy of formation/kJ mol-~ -269 -92.3 -36.2 +25.9
Bond dissociationenergy/kJ mol-~ +562 +431 +366 +299
(a) Identify and explain the trend in bond dissociation energy.(b) If a hot wire is placed in a test-tube full of colourless
gaseous hydrogen iodide~ violet fumes appear. Nothinghappens if this is repeated with the gases hydrogen bromideand hydrogen chloride.(i) Write an equation for the decomposition of hydrogen
iodide.(ii) Interpret the observations in (b) in terms of the
data given above.(Answers on page 69 )
In the absence of water~ the hydrogen halides have no effect on dry bluelitmus paper~ whereas they turn wet blue litmus paper red. In the followingsection~ we discuss the reactions between the hydrogen halides and water.
Reaction of the hydrogen halides with waterIn your pre-A-Ievel work~ you have probably encountered the 'fountainexperiment' which shows the high solubility of hydrogen chloride in water.If you have never seen this done~ you should ask your teacher for a demon-stration.
All the hydrogen halides are extremely soluble in water to the extent thatapproximately 500 dm3 of hydrogen halide will 'dissolve' in 1 dm3 of ice-cold water. The resulting solutions are strongly acidic (apart from HF(aq))because of the reaction with water to form hydrogen ions,i.e. HX(g) + aq ~ H+(aq) + X-(aq)or~ more precisely~
HX(g) + H2o(l) ~ H30+(aq) + X-(aq)hydronium
ion
where X = a halogen
Read about the acidic properties of the hydrogen halide solutionspaying particular attention to the anomalous properties of hydrogenfluoride in water. Then you should be able to do the followingexercises.
31
Exercise 26 (a) What names are given to the acids formed bydissolving the hydrogen halides in water?
(b) Why is HF(aq) a weaK acid in dilute solutionwhereas the others are strong?
(c) Amongst the three strong acids, HCI(aq), HBr(aq) and HI(aq),there are small differences in acid strength. State andexplain the trend which exists.
(Answers on page 69 )
Concentrated hydrofluoric acid attaCKS glassand is sometimes used to etch patterns orletters on pieces of glassware.
You may have some reagent bottles in yourlaboratory like those in the photograph.The name-labels were made by etching, withhydrofluoric acid, the glass surroundingthe letters, which were protected by alayer of wax or plastic.
The next exercise is taKen from an A-level question.
Exercise 27 Comment on the following statement.The hydrides of chlorine, bromine and iodine dissolvedin water are strong acids and each forms only onepotassium salt; hydrogen fluoride forms a weaKer acid,and forms both potassium fluoride and potassium hydrogendifluoride CKHF2).
(Answer on page 70 )
To consolidate your Knowledge so far in Level Two, attempt thefollowing Teacher-marKed Exercise which is taKen from an A-levelpaper. In examination conditions, you might spend about 40 minutesplanning and writing your answer.
Illustrate the 'trends in the chemical properties I A Iof the halogens F, CI, Br and I by consideringhow these elements react with (i) metals,(ii) hydrogen, (iii) aqueous sodium hydroxide.
(b) Discuss the bonding in hydrogen fluoride and explain howthis accounts for one physical property and one chemicalproperty of this hydride which may be described as'abnormal' .
Teacher-marKed (a)Exercise
Having considered the hydrogen halides, we now move on to the metal halides.
32
METAL HALIDESIn this section, we deal mainly with the s-blocK halides, because they showtypical halide reactions. The properties of these halides (with the exceptionof fluorides) can be easily demonstrated in the laboratory.
Objectives. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(19) state and explain the effects of oxidizing and non-OXidizing acids onsolid metal halides;
(20) describe the reactions between aqueous halide compounds and thefollowing reagents -(a) silver nitrate solution,(b) lead(II) nitrate solution,
(c) acidified hydrogen peroxidesolution.
We start with an experiment to show the effects of two acids on thes-blocK halides.
EXPERIMENT 4Reactions of solid halides
AimThe purpose of this experiment is to studythe effect of an oxidizing acid (concentratedsulphuric acid) and a non-oxidizing acid(phosphoric(V) acid) on three solid potassiumhalides; potassium chloride, potassium bromideand potassium iodide.
IntroductionIn this experiment, you mix separate samples of crystalline potassium chloride,potassium bromide and potassium iodide with the following reagents in turn:
Possible products include the halogens, the hydrogen halides, sulphurdioxide (S02) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). You already know how torecognise the halogens. Tests to recognise the other products are asfollows:Hydrogen halides. Hold a moist stopper from a bottle of ammonia solutionnear the source of the gas. Dense white fumes indicate the presence of ahydrogen halide (or other strongly-acidic gas).Sulphur dioxide. Hold a strip of filter paper soaKed in acidified potassiumdichromate(VI) solution near the source of the gas. A colour change fromorange to green indicates the presence of sulphur dioxide (or other strongly-reducing gas).Hydrogen sulphide. The 'bad egg' smell is very characteristic, but taKe care- the gas is very toxic. Hold a strip of filter paper soaKed in leadethanoate (acetate) solution near the source of the gas. A silver blackcolour indicates the presence of hydrogen SUlphide.
33
R8quir8m8ntssaf8ty sp8ctac18sacc8ss to fum8 cupboard12 t8st-tub8s in rackspatulapotassium bromid8, solid, KBrpotassium chlorid8, solid, KClpotassium iodide, solid, KImangan8s8(IV) oxide, Mn021 glass stirring rod r-sulphuric acid. concentrated, H2S04 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - J rphosphoric(V) acid, 100%, H3P04 - ------- ----- - --~
t8st-tub8 hold8r ,-Bunsen burn8r and b8nch matdistilled water I I~I3 dropping pi pe t t es I r - •••
ammonia solution, 0.880 NH3-------------------- ILeadf II) et hanoe t e solution, (CH3COO)2Pb - - - - - - - - - - - - - - J ~potassium df.chr-ome t sf VI) solution, K2Cr207 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1t~ Jll--strips of filt8r pap8r~~:~~~,s~~~~~o~- - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - -- - - -[iJ
Hexan8 is very flammable. KEEP HEXANE STOPPERED AND AWAY FROM FLAMES.
Hazard warningConcentrated sulphuric acid is very corrosive and reacts violentlywith wat8r. Phosphoric(V) acid and potassium dichromat8 ar8 alsov8ry corrosiv8. Th8r8for8, you MUST:AVOID CONTACT WITH SKIN; if contact d08soccur, wash imm8diat81y und8r acold tap with plenty of wat8r.DISPOSE OF COLD RESIDUES CONTAINING CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID BY POURINGSLOWLY INTO PLENTY OF WATER.The halogens, hydrogen halid8s and hydrog8n sulphide ar8 toxic.Therefore you must CARRY OUT THESE EXPERIMENTS IN A FUME CUPBOARD.
Proc8dur81. Reaction with H2S04 and Mn02
(a) Into thre8 s8parat8 t8st-tub8s, plac8 8nough potassium chlorid8,potassium bromide and potassium iodide to half-fill the round8dpart at the bottom.
(b) To th8 cont8nts of 8ach t8st-tub8, add a roughly 8qual quantity ofmangan8s8(IV) oxid8, and mix th8 solids tog8th8r with a stirringrod.
(c) Hold the tube in a fume cupboard, with its mouth pointed away fromyou, and cautiously add t8n drops of concentrat8d sulphuric acid,shaking th8 tub8 g8ntly after th8 addition of 8ach drop.
(d) Not8 wh8th8r any r8action occurs, and confirm any susp8cted productsby appropriat8 t8StS. Comp18t8 a larg8r copy of R8sults Tab18 4.
(e) If no reaction seems to occur, warm the test-tube carefully.2. R8action with H2S04
Repeat the above procedure without using manganese(IV) oxid8.
34
3. Reaction with H3P04Repeat the above procedure, using phosphoric(V) acid alone in place ofsulphuric acid, i.e. without using manganese(IV) oxide.
Results Table 4
Test Chloride Bromide Iodide
1 • Action of conca H2S04 and Mn02ObservationsSuspected product(s)Confirmatory tests
2. Action of conca H2SO4ObservationsSuspected product(s)Confirmatory tests
3. Action of H3P04ObservationsSuspected product(s)Confirmatory tests
(Specimen results on page 70 )
Questions1. In many of the reactions you may have detected mixtures of the halogens
and the hydrogen halides. In such cases, you should assume that atleast two reactions are occurring. With this in mind and \~ith the aidof text-booKs, complete and balance the following equations:(a ) KCI(s) + H2S04(1) -+
(b) KCI(s) + H3P04 (I ) -+
(c ) KBr(s) + H2S04(1) -+
HBr(g) + H2S04(1) -+
(d ) KBr( s) + H3P04 (I ) -+
( e ) KI (s J + H2S04(lJ -e-
HI(gJ + H2S04(1) -+
(f) KI(s) + H3P04(IJ -+
(We have used theformula H3P04 ( I)rather than H3P04(S)because the solidmelts before reactionoccurs.)
2. Manganese(IVJ oxide is a strong oxidizing agent capable of oxidizing allthe hydrogen halides (except HF) to the halogens. In the light of thisstatement, explain the reactions between potassium chloride and concen-trated sulphuric acid, with and without manganese(IVJ oxide.
3. Why does the addition of manganese(IVJ oxide appear to have little effecton the reaction between potassium iodide and concentrated sulphuric acid?
(Answers on page 70 )
35
Now attempt the next two exercises which are taken from A-level papers.
Exercise 28 List the hydrogen halides in order of decreasing ease of 0oxidation by concentrated sulphuric acid. Explain the ~sequence using bond energy terms. part
(Answers on page 70
Exercise 29 A sodium halide reacts with cold concentrated sulphuricacid to give colourless fumes. On warming the mixture,brown fumes are obtained.
(i) Name the halide ion in the salt.(ii) Write the equation for the reaction which gives colour-
less fumes.(iii) Write the equation for the reaction which gives brown
fumes, and state why the brown fumes are formed.(Answers on page 70 )
Use your results from Experiment 4 to help you with the next exercise.may also need guidance from your text-book(s).
Exercise 30 Outline the laboratory preparation of each of the fourhydrogen halides, HF, HC1, HBr and HI.(Answer on page 71 )
In the next experiment, you study some reactions of the halide ionsin aqueous solution.
36
You
EXPERIMENT 5Reaction of halides in solution
AimThe purpose of this experiment is to find outwhether the ions, Cl-, Br- and 1-, react insolution with certain reagents and, where theydo react, what products are formed.
Introductio nIn this experiment, you add various reagents to separate samples of solutionscontaining the Cl-, Br- and 1- ions. In many of the reactions, precipitatesare formed. Where you are asked to add another reagent to excess, you shouldlook carefully to see if any of the precipitate dissolves.
Requirementssafety spectacles16 test-tubes, 9 with corks3 test-tube racks8 dropping pipettespotassium bromide solution, KBr I-~ Ipotassium chloride solution, KCl - ~potassium iodide solution, KI Isilver nitrate solution, AgN03 1 ~
nitric acid, dil ut e, HN03 1- )(
ammonia solution, 15 M NH:s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- L--_--l
lead(II) nitrate solution, Pb(N03)2
hydrogen peroxide solution, H202 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
starch solutionsulphuric acid, dilute, H2S04hexane, C6H14
Hazard warningKEEP HEXANE WELL STOPPERED AND AWAY FROM FLAMES.
ProcedureAdd the following reagents to 1 cm3 of the chloride, bromide and iodidesolutions in turn, and record your observations in a copy of Results Table 5.1. Add approximately 1 cm3 of silver nitrate solution and shake gently.
Note what happens. Move the three tubes to a dark cupboard, leave themthere till the end of the lesson and note their appearance again.
2. Add silver nitrate solution as in (1). Leave these tubes in their racksuntil the end of the lesson, noting their appearance every 10-15 minutes.
3. Add approximately 1 cm3 of silver nitrate solution followed by excess(e.g. 5 cm3) dilute nitric acid. Cork the test-tube and sha~e vigorously.
4. Add approximately 1 cm3 silver nitrate solution followed by excess(e.g. 5 cm3) ammonia solution. Cork the test-tube and shake.
5. Add approximately 1 cm3 lead(II) nitrate solution.
37
6. Add approximately 1 cm3 hydrogen peroxide solution followed by approxi-mately 1 cm3 dilute sulphuric acid. Cork these tubes and allow them tostand. Add any further reagent(s) which you think will help you todecide what has happened.
Results Table 5
Test Chloride Bromide Iodide
Action ofAgN03(aq)
Effect ofstanding in(a ) dark(b) light
Action ofAgN03(aq)followed bydilute HN03
Action ofAgN03(aq)followed byNH3(aq)
Action ofPb(N03)2 (aq)
Action ofH202(aq) anddilute H2SO4 (aq)
(Specime n resu 1tson page 71 )
Questions1. Write ionic equations for the reactions between each of the three halide
solutions andCa) silver nitrate solution.(b) lead(II) nitrate solution.
2. What chemical tests would you perform in order to distinguish between(a) Cl-(aq) and Br-(aqJ,(b) Br-(aq) and I-(aq)?
3. (a) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between an aqueous iodideand acidified hydrogen peroxide.
(b) Why do you think no reaction occurs between acidified hydrogenperoxide and the other halide ions?
4. Suggest a reason for the darkening effect of light on the silver chlorideand silver bromide precipitates.
(AnSWers on page 71 )
38
By consulting your text-book(s) and using the knowledge you havealready gained about the halogens~ you should be able to answer thefollowing A-level questions.
Exercise 31 Describe the observations which can be noted in each of~he following experiments, and write equations:(a) potassium manganate(VII) (permanganate) crystals
are mixed with concentrated hydrochloric acid;(b) aqueous potassium chloride and aqueous silver nitrate are
mixed and concentrated aqueous ammonia is then added;(c) aqueous bromine (i.e. a dilute solution) is mixed with an
excess of potassium iodide solution~ and aqueous sodiumthiosulphate~ Na2S203~ is then added.
(Answers on page 71 )
During your study of Unit S1 (The Mole)~ you carried out a titrationinvolving the oxidation of the thiosulphate ion~ S2032-~ by iodine solution.You may need to refer back to that experiment ~hen you do the next exercise.
Exercise 32 ( a ) Describe, with full practical instructions~ how youwould determine the concentration (g dm-3) of asolution of hydrogen peroxide using the quantitativereactions:
H202 + 2H+ + 21- ~ 12 + 2H2012 + 2S2032- ~ 21- + S4062-
The usual titrimetric (volumetric) apparatus is availabletogether with aqueous solutions of potassium iodide,sulphuric acid, starch and 0.10 M sodium thiosulphate,(Na2S203)'
(b) Show how you would calculate the result from the experi-mental data in (a). (H = 1, 0 = 16)
(Answers on page 72 )
In Unit 11, you learned that the s-block elements show only one oxidationstate in all their compounds. By contrast, the halogens (with the exceptionof fluorine) show several oxidation states~ which we illustrate by consideringsome oxides and oxoacids (oxyacids).
OXIDES AND OXOACIDS OF THE HALOGENSObjectives. When you have finished this section~ you should be able to:
(21) list the range of oxidation numbers displayed by the halogens in theircompounds;
(22) compare the oxidizing powers of the halogen oxoacid salts (sometimescalled the halates);
39
(23) compare the acid strengths of the oxoacids of chlorine;(24) state the effect of heat on the halates.
We begin this section with the various oxides formed by the halogens.
Halogen oxidesNone of the halogens reacts directly with oxygen but all form oxides byindirect methods. Various halogen oxides are known, but most of them arevery unstable, and some explosive. In appearance, they range from colouredgases to crystalline solids.
The following table gives some information about three of these oxides.
Table 8
AppearanceHalogen oxide Formula at room temp. Thermal stability
chlorine(I) oxide C120 yellow gas explosive even at(dichlorine oxide) room temperature
chlorine(VII) oxide C1207 yellow oil explosive if heated(dichlorine heptoxide) or subjected to shock
iodine(V) oxide 1205 white crys- thermally stable up(diiodine pentoxide) talline solid 300 °c
The wide range of oxidation states of the halogens is illustrated in Table 9below which shows the formulae of most of the known oxides of the halogens.All of them except iodine(V) oxide are thermally unstable. You refer toTable 9 in the next exercise.Table 9
Fluorides Oxides of Oxides of Oxides ofof oxygen chlorine bromine iodine
02F2OF2 C120 Br20
CI02 Br02 12041205
C1206 Br03C1207 1207
40
Exercise 33 (a) Complete a copy of the oxidation number chart
~
[Table 10) to show the oxidation state of thehalogen in each of the oxides shown in Table 9.
Table 10
F Cl Br I
+VII
+VI Br03
+V
+IV Br02
+111
+11
+1 Br20
°-I
[b) Use a table of electronegativity values to deduce thenature of the bonds in the above com~ounds.
[c) Why is the maximum oxidation state +VII?(d) In which of the above compounds does oxygen not have an
oxidation state of -II?[e) Why do you thinK that 02F2 and OF2 are referred to as
fluorides of oxygen rather than oxides of fluorine?(Answers on page 72 )
The next exercise is taKen from an A-level question. You should be able toanswer it by recalling what you learned in Unit S4 about shapes of molecules.
Exercise 34 Suggest a structure for F20, giving a bond diagram andpredicting the shape of the molecule.[Answer on page 73 J
The halogen oxides are relatively unimportant since they are too unstable tobe useful (but CI02 is used to bleach flour and sterilise water). Theoxoacids of the halogens and their salts, however, are much more stable andcommercially useful. Some of the oxoacids can be made by reacting theappropriate halogen oxide with water.
In the next section, we consider some of the oxoacids and their salts.
12-C 41
Oxoacids and their saltsWe shall deal mainly with the oxoacids of chlorine. You have already metchloric(I) acid (hypochlorous acid), HCIo, as a product of the reactionbetween chlorine and water.
The next exercise is concerned with the names, formulae and acid 0strengths of the oxoacids. Some of the information you require is ~given in Table 11, but you may also need to refer to your text-book(S).~
Table 11 oxoacids of chlorine
Oxidation Name andAcid state of formula
Formula IUPAC name Old name strength halogen of anion
chloric(I) hypochlorous +1 CIo-acid acid chlorate( r)
HCI02 chlorous weak CI02-acid chlorate(II)
chloric(V) chloricacid acid
HCI04 perchloric veryacid* strong
*Perchloric acid is explosive when it comes into contact with organic matter.It is also one of the strongest acids known.
Exercise 35 ( a )
( b)
Complete a copy of Table 11.Draw dot-and-cross diagrams for each anion shown inTable 11. (Hint: dative covalent bonds areinvolved in three of the anions.)
(c) Write down the name and formula of the sodium salt of eachof the acids listed in the table.
(d) Chlorine(I) oxide, C120, reacts with water to producechloric(I) acid, HCIo. State the name and formula of theacid produced when chlorine(VII) oxide reacts with water.
(Answers on page 73 )
In the last exercise you learned that the acid strength of the oxoacidsincreases as the oxidation number of the halogen increases. Now you considerreasons for this variation.
A strong acid is one which is largely ionized in aqueous solution, whereas aweak acid remains mostly in molecular form. If we represent an acid by thegeneral formula HA, we can represent the ionization by the equation
HA(aq) ~ H+(aq) + A-(aq)
42
The concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution depends on the strength ofthe parent acid. For example~ HCI04 is a strong acid and exists in solutionmainly as ions~ H+(aq) and CI04-(aq); but HCIo is a weak acid and exists insolution mainly as HCIo molecules~ with very few hydrogen ions.
In the following Revealing Exercise, you explore the -reasons for therelative strengths of the oxoacids of chlorine. A fuller treatmentwill be found in Unit P3 (Equilibrium II: Acids and Bases).
01. Draw dot-and-cross diagrams to represent (a) HCIo, (b) HCI02,
(c) HCI03 and (d) HCl04• (Hint: there are some dative bonds.)
A1 . (a) •• xx (b) xx •• xx• Cl • 0 x H x 0 • Cl • 0 x H• x • x • x •
•• xx xx .. xx
(c) xx (d) xxx 0 x x 0 xx x x x
•• xx xx •• xx• Cl • 0 x H x 0 • Cl • 0 x H• x • x • x •
•• xx xx •• xxx 0 x x 0 xx x x x
xx xx
02. Which of the atoms~ 0 and Cl, is the more electronegative?
A2. Oxygen. (0 = 3.5, Cl = 3.0. You are not expected to memorise theelectronegativity values but you should be aware of this relative order. )
03. Are the electrons in the dative covalent bonds drawn more towards theoxygen atoms or the chlorine atoms? (Indicate the polarity of the bond.)
A3. The bonding pairs are closer to the oxygen atoms. As a result, eachchlorine atom has slightly positive charge.
04. How does the slight positive charge on the chlorine vary as the number ofoxygen atoms increases?
A4. The slight positive charge on the chlorine increases as the number ofoxygen atoms attached to it increases.
05. What effect does this positive charge have on the electrons in theCI-oH bond?
A5. Electrons are pulled towards the chlorine to reduce its positive charge.
06. Consider the dot-and-cross diagrams you drew for HClo and HCI02• Howdoes the shift of electrons in the CI--oH bond affect the distributionof electrons in the o--H bond in each molecule?
43
A6. In both cases, the electrons in the D--H bond are drawn nearer to theoxygen atoms, but this effect will be more marked in HCI02•
07. Considering the same argument for all the acids, which of the four islikely to release hydrogen ions most readily?
A7. HCID4 has three polar D--Cl bonds, each drawing electrons away from thechlorine atom. This effect is transmitted to the D--H bond and makesthe release of H+ ions easiest for this acid.
Fluorine does not form stable oxoacids because its electronegativity is toohigh to allow its non-bonding electrons to form dative covalent bonds withoxygen atoms. Bromine and iodine do form stable aqueous oxoacids in the+1 and +V oxidation states.
In the next exercise you compare some of the oxoacids of chlorine, bromineand iodine.
Exercise 36 Place the following weak acids in order of increasingacid strength.(a) HBrD, HelD, HID.(b) HID, HID3•
Explain your answers.(Answers on page 73 )
Iodic(I) acid (hypoiodous acid) is such a weak acid that it can behave as anamphoteric substance. The next exercise is concerned with this point.
Exercise 37 Iodic(I) acid can ionize in aqueous solutions to formhydrogen ions or hydroxide ions.(a) Write equations to represent the two possible
ionizations.(b) How does this illustrate a degree of metallic character
in iodine?(Answers on page 74)
In the next experiment, you investigate the salts of the oxoacids.You should allow about an hour of laboratory time to complete it.
44
Reactions of the halatesEXPERIMENT 6
AimThe purpose of this experiment is toshow the effect of heat on salts of thehalogen oxoacids and to compare theiroxidizing properties.
IntroductionIn this experiment you carry out some simple test-tube experiments on sodiumchlorate(I)~ sodium chlorate(V) and sodium iodate(V). Sodium chlorate(I)exists only in solution whereas the others can be found as crystalline solids.From the properties of these three salts you can make predictions about thesalts of the other oxoacids.
Requirementssafety spectacles7 test-tubes in rack
:~~;~~aChlorat8(v)' solid, NaC103- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -,A/sodium iodate(V)~ solid~ NaI03 ~
test-tube holderBunsen burner and bench matwood splintssodium chlorate(I) solution~ NaCIOdistilled wateruniversal indicator solutionpotassium iodide solution, KIsulphuric acid, dilute~ H2S04
cobalt chloride solution, CoC12blue and red litmus papers
Hazard warningSodium chlorate(V) is a powerful oxidant.AVOID CONTACT WITH SKINAVOID CONTACT WITH CARBON FROM GLOWING SPLINTS
45
Procedure1. Place about 0.1 g of sodium chlorate(V) in one test-tube and an
equal quantity of sodium iodate(V) in another test-tube.2. Heat each test-tube strongly and test the gas given off with a
glowing splint.Record your observations in a larger copy of Results Table 6.
3. To 1 cm~ of an aqueous solution of each of the oxoacid salts add a fewdrops of the following reagents, and record your observations in a copyof Results Table 6.(a) Univ8rsal indicator solution.(b) Potassium iodide solution.(c) Potassium iodide solution acidified with dilute sulphuric acid.(d) Cobalt chloride solution. Warm and test any gas given off with a
glowing splint.(e) Dilute sulphuric acid. Test any gas with damp blue litmus paper.
Results Table 6
Effect of heat on solid
pH of solution
Addition of neutral KI(aq)
Addition of acidified KI(aq)
Addition of C02+(aq)
Addition of dilute H2S04(aq)
(Specimen results on page 73 )
Questions1. IJse your text-book(s) to write balanced eyuations for the effect of heat
on the two solid salts.2. Name the common product formed when the salts react with acidified
potassium iodide solution.3. Which of the salts is the strongest oxidizing agent? Explain your
answer.4. How would you expect potassium bromate(V) to react with acidified
potassium iodide solution?5. Would you expect sodium chlorate(VII), NaCl04, to be a powerful
oxidizing agent?6. In reaction 3(d), C02+ ions act as a catalyst. Write an ionic equation
for the decomposition of aqueous sodium chlorate(I).7. Write an equation showing the effect of a dilute acid on sodium
chlorate(I). (Hint: Cl- ions are always present in solutions of sodiumchlorate(I) and they appear in the equation.)
(Answers on page 74 )
46
The equations for the reactions between the oxoacid(V) salts and acidifiediodide ions are not easy to balance by trial and error. In the next section,we show you how a knowledge of oxidation numbers can be used to balanceequations.
Balancing redox equationsObjectives. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(25) write balanced equations for redox reactions;(26) describe how the equation for the iodate(V)/iodide reaction can be
confirmed by experiment.
The following Worked Example shows you how to balance a fairlycumbersome redox equation by two different methods.
Worked Example Balance the following redox equation:
Solution1 . Identify which species is oxidized and which is reduced. This can be
done by looking at oxidation numbers.+5 -~ 0 -1.
CI03(aq) + I-(aq) + H+(aq) -+ 12(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(1).. the species oxidized is I- , [Ox(I) -1 -+ OJand the species reduced is CI03- [Ox(Cl) +5 -+ -1J
2. Construct two balanced half-equations, one representing oxidation andone representing reduction.(a) Balance the elements in each half-equation: if necessary, include
H+, OH- and H20, as appropriate.Oxidation 2I-(aq) -+ 12(aq)
Cl03-(aq) -+ Cl-(aq)ReductionThe three oxygen atoms become incorporated in water molecules, i.e.
CI03-(aq) -+ Cl-(aq) + 3H20(1)Since the reaction occurs in an acid medium, include H+ ions tobalance the hydrogen in the water molecules, i.e.
CI03-(aq) + 6H+(aq) -+ Cl-(aq) + 3H20(1)(b) Balance the charge in each half-equation. This can be done either
by looking at the change in oxidation number or by balancing thecharge on each ion.
47
Oxidation number method2I-(aq) ~ I2(aq)
Ox(I) changes from -1 to 0,i.e. each I atom loses oneelectron. Since there are twoiodide ions, two electrons mustbe released in forming each iodinemolecule
Balancing charge method2I-(aq) ~ I2(aq)
Count the charges on each side ofthe half equations:2 negative charges ~ zero chargeTherefore, two electrons must bereleased from two iodide ions inorder to form an iodine molecule.
Similarly, forCI03-(aq) + 6H+(aq)
~ Cl-(aq) + 3H20(1)Ox(Cl) changes from +5 to -1, i.e.6 units. Therefore, for eachCI03- ion reduced, 6 electronsare required.
~ CI03-(aql + 6W(aql + 68-
Similarly, forCI03-(aq) + 6H+(aq)
~ Cl-(aq) + 3H20(1)5 positive charges ~ 1 negative
(6 - 1)Therefore, 6 electrons are neededfor each CI03- ion reduced.
+ Cl-(aql + 3H20(ll ~
3. Scale the half-equations up or down, so that the number of electronsrequired by one half-equation is the same as the number provided bythe other.
CI03-(aq) + 6H+(aq) + 6e- ~ Cl-(aq) + 3H20(1)2I-(aq) ~ I2(aq) + 2e- (multiply this equation by 3)6I-(aq) ~ 3I2(aq) + 6e-
4. Combine the two half-equations by adding the left sides together and theright sides together.
Decide which of the two methods you prefer and attempt the next exercise.We use the balancing charge method in the answers, but you should beaware of both methods.
Exercise 38 Balance the following equations.(a) I03-(aq) + I-(aq) + H+(aq) ~ I2(aq) + H20(1)(b) S2032-(aq) + I2(aq) ~ I-(aq) + S4062-(aq)(Answers on page 74 )
You can now checK the equation for the iodate(V)/iodide reactionby an experimental method.
48
EXPERIMENT 7Balancing a redox reaction
AimThe purpose of this experiment is tocalculate the amount of iodide ions whichreact with each mole of iodate(V) ions inaqueous solution.
Requirementssafety spectacles2 measuring cylinders, 10 cm3potassium iodide solution, - 1 M KI2 conical flasks, 250 cm3hydrochloric acid, - 1 M Hel2 burettes, stands and filter funnels1 white tilepotassium iodate solution, 0.10 M KI03sodium thiosulphate solution, 0.10 M Na2S203starch solution, 0.2%
Procedure1 • Use a measuring cylinder to pour about 10 cm3 of potassium iodide
solution into a 250 cm3 conical flask.To the solution in the conical flask add about 10 cm3 of dilutehydrochloric acid.From a burette, add precisely 5.0 cm3 of 0.10 M potassium iodate solutionto the ~cidified iodide solUtion.
2.
3.
4. Titrate the iodine formed against 0.10 M sodium thiosulphate solution.When the colour of the iodine has nearly gone, add 1-2 C~3 of starchsolution and continue the addition of thiosulphate solution drop bydrdpuntil the blue colour disappears.
5. Record your bur~tte readings in a copy of Results Table 7.Repeat steps 1 to 5 as a check on your accuracy.6.
12-0 49
Results Table 7
Solution in flask mol dm-3 cm3
Solution in burette mol dm-3
Indicator
Trial 1 2 3 4
IFinal
Burette readingsInitial
Volume used/cm3
Mean titre/cm3
Calculations1. Calculate the amount of sodium thiosulphate present in the volume of
solution run out from the burette.2. Calculate the amount of iodine atoms which must have reacted with the
amount of S2032-Caq) calculated~step 1. Use the equation:S2032-Caq) + I2Caq) ~ 2I-Caq) + S4062-Caq)
3. Calculate the amount of iodine atoms present in S.O cm3 of 0.10 M KI03.4. Subtract the value obtained in step 3 from the value obtained in step 2
to obtain the amount of iodine atoms which originated from thepotassium iodide.
S. State the amount of iodide ions which reacts with each mole of iodateions, and check your result with the equation you wrote for Exercise3BCa).
CSpecimen results and calculations on page 74 )
You should now be able to attempt the next exercise.
50
Exercise 39 (a) What mass of potassium iodate(V) (K103) would berequired to make 250 cm3 of a solution containingone-sixtieth of a mole per dm3•
(b) When 25 cm3 of the solution of potassium iodate(V)of the concentration in (a) was added to excess ofacidified potassium iodide solutibn, the iodineliberated reacted with 20 cm3 of a solution of sodiumthiosulphate. Calculate the concentration of the thio-sulphate solution in moles per dm3
•
103- + 51- + 6H+ ~ 312 + 3H2012 + 2S2032- ~ 21- + S4062-
(c) State how you would use the iodate(V)/iodide reaction anda standard solution of sodium thiosulphate to find theconcentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid.
(d) 50 cm3 of a solution containing 0.10 mol dm-3 of bromine(Br2) was added to 10 cm3 of a 0.10 mol dm-3 sodiumthiosulphate solution. Excess potassium iodide was thenadded to the solution; the bromine which was left overfrom the first reaction liberated enough iodine to reactwith exactly 20 cm3 of the same thiosulphate solution.
(i) What is the apparent oxidation number of S in thethiosulphate ion (S2032-)?
(ii) From the figures given, calculate the number ofmoles of bromine which reacted directly with onemole of thiosulphate.
(iii) To what oxidation number of the S did the bromineoxidize the thiosulphate?
(iv) Derive the equation for the reaction between brominemolecules and thiosulphate ions.
(Answers on page 75 )
We complete this section on the oxoacid salts by briefly considering someof their uses.
Uses of the salts of the halogen oxoacidsObjective. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(27) state some important uses of the salts of halogen oxoacids.
Read about the uses of the salts of the halogen oxoacids so that you ~can answer the questions in the following exercise. ~,
51
Exercise 40 (a) Name a salt of a halogen oxoacid which is used foreach of the following:
(i) a.bleach,(ii) a weed-killer (shown in use in the photograph below),
(iii) a disinfectant,(iv) a primary standard in volumetric analysis,(v) ~an ingredient in explosives,
(vi) an improving agent in flour.(b) Explain the first of the hazard warnings on the bleach
label shown below.(Answers on page 75 )
I SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE I
IRRITANT
CONTACT WITH ACID LIBERATES A TOXIC GASIRRITATING TO EYES AND SKINKEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDRENAVOID CONTACT WITH EYESNOT TO BE TAKENBEWARE OF GASESSTORE UPRIGHT IN A COOL PLACEDO NOT USE WITH ANY OTHER TOILET CLEANERDO NOT USE FOR WOOLLENS, RAYONS, WAFFLE,EVERGLAZE, SEERSUCKER, PIQUE, SILK ORDRIP-DRY MATERIALSDO NOT POUR DIRECTLY ONTO CLOTHING
Fig.4.
We complete Level Two by asking you to identify, by experiment, some inorganicsubstances which you have studied in this Unit. You will find the next twoexperiments particularly important if you are taking a practical examination.at the end of your A-level course; both experiments are taken from pastpractical examination papers.
IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN SUBSTANCESObjectives. When you have finished this section, you should be able to:
(28) test and identify common gases;(29) identify, as fClras possible, some unknown inorganic substances.
Some examining boards set observation and deduction exercises in the practicalexamination. In these exercises you are usually told which tests to carry outon.the unknown substances. You may be allowed to use any books to help youmake your deductions (inferences) during the examination, but check thereqUirements of your particular syllabus with your teacher.
52
In any casel practical books are useful in your preparation forpractical examinations. Look for a book which indicates the reac-tion(s) which may occur if a certain reagent is added to the substancebeing tested.
The table which follows illustrates the type of information you are likely tofind in such a book. It shows the observations and inferences which can bemade if silver nitrate solution is added to a test solution. You can matchthe observations you make with one of those in the book and make yourinferences accordingly.
Table 12REACTIONS WITH SILVER NITRATE SOLUTION
Add the reagent dropwise to the test solution, observe, then add excess and warm.
INFERENCE
OBSERVA TlON Ionls)probably Probable reactionpresent
1. PRECIPITATE FORMED
(a) White, curdy, turning buff on heating C032-, HC03 Hg2C03 pptd
White, curdy, turninq purplish grey on CI- AgCI pptdstanding in bright light; insoluble in dil.HN03
(b) Cream (pale, sometimes almost white) Br- AgBr pptd
Cream (deep, sometimes almost yellow) pol~ ,- Ag3P04, Agi pptd respectively(N.B. Ag3P04 is soluble in both NH3(aq)soln. and in dil. HN03; Agl is insoluble inthese reagents)
(c) Redfrom yellow soln. CrOl-
} Ag,CrO, pptdfrom orange soln. Cr20l-
(d) Greyish-brown (N.B. If NH3 (aq) soln. OH- Ag20 pptd (AgOH unstable)is used the initial ppt is transient - dissolv-ing in the excess NH3 (aq) forming complexion Ag(NH3)/)
(e) Black (N.B. If Ag is pptd this is some- S2- Ag2S pptdtimes brownish and sometimes in the form Fe2+ Ag pptd in redox reactionsofa mirror) Sn022- Fe2+ + Ag+ ~ Ag + FeH
Sn022- + 20H- + 2Ag+ ~
Sn032- + 2Ag + H2O
2. CRYSTALLINE GROWTH OF SILVER Redox reaction of displacement type by metalSLOWLY FORMED above Ag in E.C.S.,e.g.
Cu + 2Ag+ ~ Cu2+ + 2Ag
3. NO APPARENT REACTION No anion present which can give insolublesilver salt by double decomposition. Reducingagents such as Fe2+, Sn02 2-, S032- absent
53
We now present a specimen question with answers to show you how to recordyour observations and inferences.
Specimen question You are provided with an s-block metal compound X. Carryout the following tests and record your observations andinferences in the table provlded. Identify the anionand cation present.
Table 13
TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE
1. Transfer about0.5 g of X to ahard-glass test-tube and heatstrongly for a fewminutes. Test anygas evolved.
2. Add dilute HC1(aqJto about 0.5 g ofthe solid X in atest-tube.
3. Add 2 drops ofMgS04(aqJ to 1 cm3
of an aqueoussolution of X.
4. Carry out a flametest on X.
An odourless, colour-less gas is given off,which turns limewatermilky. A white residueremains.
An odourless, colour-less gas is given offwhich turns limewatermilky. A clear solu-tion remains at theend.
A white precipitateis produced. No gasis evolved.
An intense red colouris obtained.
CO2 is given off.This suggests thepresence of a carbo-nate (probably notNa or K) or a hydrogencarbonate (Na or K).
Again CO2 is given off.This confirms the pre-sence of a carbonate(not Na or K) or ahydrogencarbonate(Na or KJ.
Ppt. must be MgC03
(Mg(HC03)2 is soluble).X must be a solublecarbonate, perhapsLi2C03?
Li+ present. (Not Sr2+- carbonate insolUble.)
Conclusion. AnionCation
carbonate, C032-
lithium, Li+
Some further points to consider1. You may not be expected to make a complete identification of the given
substance(sJ. READ THE QUESTION carefully so that you know preciselywhat is required.
2. Many marks are awarded for clear and accurate recording of observations.Make sure you do this properly even if you cannot make many inferencesfrom them - many students pass practical examinations without getting'the right answerl.
3. You may be asked to record your method of carrying out the tests, andperhaps to draw conclusions about the nature of the reactions you observe.Again, READ THE QUESTION carefully so that you know precisely what isrequired.
4. Testing for gases evolved during reactions is an important part of theexamination of unknown substances. In the next section we present asimple guide to help you to identify common gases.
54
A simple guide to the identification of gases
This guide includes only those gases which you are most likely to meet whencarrying out tests on unknown substances.
Before you perform any specific tests on a gas~ you should smell itcautiously and look carefully for any trace of colour. While you are doingthis, test the gas with moist litmus paper or pH paper. (Don't forget thatif you heat an unknown with dilute hydrochloric acid you are Gound to get anacidic vapour!) These three tests are sufficient to identify some gasesand~ in any case~ serve to narrow the field~ as shown in the chart below.
RED LITMUS TURNS BLUE __ colourless __ characteristicsmell
1 characteristic-{
pa e green --BLUE LITMUS TURNS RED smellAND IS THEN BLEACHED
b characteristicrown --- smell
b characteristicrown --- smell
BLUE LITMUS TURNS RED
no smell
violet characteristicsmell
characteristicsmell - bad egg
characteristicsmell
characteristicsmell
NO EFFECT ON BLUE ORRED LITMUS
no smellcolourless
characteristicsmell
may sublime to darksolid or turn aqueous
condensate brown
turns lead ethanoatepaper black
turns acidified di-chromate paper green
gives white fumeswith ammonia stopper
turns limewatermilky (mayor may not
affect litmus)
relights glowingsplint
pops with lightedsplint - may burnwith blue flame
burns with blue flameif ignited - gives CO2
burns with yellowflame if ignited
condenses to colour-less liquid at top
of test-tube
negative results inall tests
burns with yellowflame if ignited
If it is available~ view the first part of the ILPAC video-programme 'Identifying unknown substances'; it will help you tocarry out the two 'observation and deduction' experiments which nowfollow.
Both of the following experiments are taken from practicalexamination papers. Allow about 20 minutes of laboratory timefor Experiment B and about 90 minutes for Experiment 9.
55
NH3
Cl2
Br2
N02
I2
H2S
S02
HCI. HBr. HI
CO2
02
H2
CO
CH_
H2O
N2
organic vapoure.g. CH3COCH3
C
Observation and deduction exerciseEXPERIMENT 8
AimThe purpose of this experiment is to giveyou some practice in the investigation ofunknown substances.
IntroductionThe procedure below is taken from an A-level practical examinationpaper; read it carefully and report fully.
Requirementssafety spectacles5 test-tubes in racktest-tube holderalkali metal salt, FspatulaBunsen burner and bench matred and blue litmus paperswood splints liJwash-bottle of distilled water rl .0silver nitrate solution, 0.1 M AgN03-------------- ~
nitric acid, dilute, 2 M HNO liJchlorine water, C12 - - - - ~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .Qlead( II) ethanoate solution, (CH3C02 )2Pb - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - ~other chemicals, for testing gases, are available from· your teacher I 1.0 I
I_~ProcedureYou are provided with an alkali metal salt, F. Carry out the following testsand record your observations and inferences in (larger copies of) the tablesproVided. Then answer the question which follows the tables.
56
Results Table 8
Test Observations Inferences
(a) Heat approximately 0.1 g of F in apyrex tube, at first gently andthen more strongly, until the changeis complete. Cool and keep theresidue. Test any gases evolved.
(b) Make an aqueous solution of theresidue from (a) and carry out thefollowing tests on portions:
(i) Add aqueous silver nitratefollowed by dilute nitricacid.
(ii) Add aqueous chlorine.(iii) Add aqueous lead(II)
ethanoate (lead acetate)
Now answer the following question:For a non-metal in F, give two substances or ions involved in the reactionsin (a) and (b) which contain the non-metal and in which the non-metal hasdifferent oxidation numbers. Write your answer in the following table.Results Table 9
Substance Name and formula of Oxidationprovided Name of non-metal substance -ion number
F
(Specimen results on page 76 )
57
Req uirement ssafety spectacles5 test-tubes in racKtest-tube holderpotassium salts, D and EspatulaBunsen burner and bench matred and blue litmus paperswood splints ~sulphuric acid, concentrated, H2S04 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - F-- if,~-potassium manganate(VII) (permanganate) solution, 0.01 M KMn04sulphuric acid, dilute, 1 M H2S04other chemicals, for testing gases, are available from your teacher
EXPERIMENT 9Observation and deduction exercise
AimThe purpose of this experiment is to giveyou some practice in the investigation ofunKnown substances.
IntroductionThe procedure below is taKen from an A-level practical examinationpaper; read it carefully and report fully.
Hazard warningConcentrated sulphuric acid is very corrosive and reacts violentlywith water. Ther~fore, you MUST:AVOID CONTACT WITH SKIN; if contact o~es occur, wash immediatelyunder a cold tap with plenty of water.DISPOSE OF COLO RESIDUES BY POURING SLOWLY INTO PLENTY OF WATER.
ProcedureYou are provided with potassium salts, D and E. Test each salt in turn,as follows.(a) Heat a portion until any reaction ceases. Test any gases evolved.
(b) Allow the residue from (a) to cool; then cautiously add a fewdrops of concentrated sulphuric acid.
(c) Add a fresh portion of each salt to a few drops of aqueous potassiumpermanganate previously acidified with twice its volume of dilutesulphuric acid, and warm.
(d) Now maKe aqueous solutions of D and E and mix the two solutions.
(e) Acidify the mixture from (d) with dilute sulphuric acid.
58
Carefully observe what happens and report fully.What tentative inferences do you draw from these experiments?
Carry out and report on TWO further experiments which test you~ inferences.These experiments can be on D, E or on the products qf the above reactions.
Full credit will not be given unless your answer discloses the method(including the scale of your experiments), careful observations, and somecomment on the types of chemical reactions involved.The record of your worK must be made in the form of three tables.
Results Table 10 Tests with unKnown substance D
Test Method Observations Inferences(a) Heat.
(b ) Concentrated sulphuricacid on cold residuefrom (a) .
(c) Acidified potassiummanganate(VII)(permanganate) and warm.
Results Table 11 Tests with unKnown SUbstance E
Test Method Observations Inferences(a) Heat.
(b ) Concentrated sulphuricacid on cold residuefrom (a) .
(c) Acidified potassiummanganate(VII)(permanganate) and warm.
(d) Mix aqueous solutionsof D and E.
(e) Dilute sulphuric acidwith mixture from (d) .
Results Table 12 Experiments to test inferences
Inference tested ConclusionTest and observations
(Specimen results on page 76 )
59
LEVEL TWO CHECKLISTYou have now reached the end of this Unit. Look again at the checklist atthe end of Level One. In addition, you should now be able to:
(16) state and explain the trends in the following properties of thehydrogen halides -(a) melting point,(b) boiling point,(c) bond dissociation energy,(d) enthalpy of formation;
(17) explain the trend in thermal stability of the hydrogen halides usingbond dissociation energies and enthalpies of formation;
(18) describe the solubility/rea~tivity of the hydrogen halides in water;(19) state and explain the effects of oxidizing and non-oxidizing acids on
solid metal halides;(20) describe the reactions between aqueous halides and the following
reagents:(a) silver nitrate solution,(b) lead nitrate solution,(c) acidified hydrogen peroxide solution;
(21) list the range of oxidation numbers displayed by the halogens in theircompounds;
(22) compare the oxidizing powers of the halogen oxoacid salts (sometimescalled the halates);
(23) compare the acid strengths of the oxoacids of chlorine;(24) describe the effect of heat on the halates;(25) write balanced equations for redox reactions;(26) describe how the equation for the iodate(V)/iodide reaction can be
confirmed by experiment;(27) state some important uses of the salts 6f halogen oxoacids;(28) test and identify common gases;(29) identify, as far as possible, some unknown inorganic compounds.
END-OF-UNIT TESTTo find out how well you have learned the material in this Unit,try the test which follows. Read the notes below before starting~
1. You should spend about 1 hour on this test.2. Hand your answers to your teacher for marking.
60
END-OF-UNIT TESTIn Questions 1~ 2 and 3~ one or more than one of the suggested responses maybe correct. Answer as follows.A
B
C
o
E
if only 1~ 2 and 3 are correctif only 1 and 3 are correctif only 2 and 4 are correctif only 4 is correctif some other response~ or corob.inet Lon , is correct
1. Astatine is the element below iodine in Group VII of thePeriodic Table. Astatine would be expected to1 form diatomic molecules which would dissociate more readily
than chlorine molecules2 react explosively with hydrogen3 have oxidation states which would include ~1 and +54 be a good reducing agent
2. Which of the following properties of the halogens fluorine toiodine increase(s) with increasing atomic number?1 Electronegativity2 Atomic radius3 First ionization energy4 Melting point
3. In the series HCl -+ HBr -+ HI, the
( 1 )
1 enthalpy of formation becomes less negative2 ionic character of the hydrogen-halogen bond increases3 reducing strength of the hydrogen halide increases4 thermal stability of the hydrogen halide increases ( 1 )
61
4. (aJ Complete (a copy of) the table relating to the halogen groupof elements.
Physical Electronic structureappearance at 25°C of the atom
Fluorine (F)
Chlorine (Cl)
Bromine (Br)
Iodine (I )(Atomic number = 53)
(4 )
(b) Compare the acidic behaviour of hydrogen fluoride with that ofthe other hydrogen halides. (4)
(c) Hydrogen chloride may be prepared by the action of concentratedsulphuric acid on potassium chloride but a corresponding methodmay not be used for hydrogen bromide.(i) How do you account for this difference?
(ii) Give ONE method, with an equation, for the laboratorypreparation of hydrogen bromide. (3)
(d) Groups of elements in the Periodic Table are said to show anincrease in metallic behaviour with increase of atomic number.Give TWO properties of the halogens or their compounds whichillustrate this trend. (2)
5. (a) Give the name and formula of the oxide of chlorine in whichchlorine exists in its highest oxidation state (oxidationnumber) .
(b) Give the name and formula of the oxyacid obtained when theoxide in (a) reacts with water. ( 4)
Hydrogen halide Boiling point/K
HF 293HCl 1BBHBr 206HI 23B
6. (a) The boiling points, in Kelvins, of thehydrogen halides are given below.
Account for this variation in boiling point.(b) Compare and contrast the thermal stabilities of the four
hydrogen halides in (a).
( 4 )
( 3)
62
7. (aJ Chlorine is regarded as an oxidizing agent. Briefly explainthis statement in terms of electron transfer.
(bJ Illustrate the answer (a) by discussing the reaction ofchlorine with Br-(aqJ.
8. Describe and explain what happens in each of the followingexperiments. Write balanced equations for the reactions thatoccur.
( 5 )
(i) A mixture of the solids sodium chloride and manganese(IV) oxideis heated with concentrated sulphuric acid.
(ii) Aqueous sodium bromide and aqueous silver nitrate are mixed andconcentrated aqueous ammonia is then added.
(iii) Solid iodine is shaken with aqueous potassium iodide and aqueoussodium thiosulphate(VI) is then added.(thiosulphate(VI) = thiosulphate)
9. This question is about sodium chloride and the series of saltssodium chlorate(I), sodium chlorate(III), sodium chlorate(V) andsodium chlorate(VII). Common names of these salts are sodiumhypochlorite, sodium chlorite, sodium chlorate and sodiumperchlorate respectively.The salts containing chlorine of oxidation number (I), (III) and (V)disproportionate on heating, (I) and (III) below 100°C but (V) onlyat the melting point of the salt.
( 15 )
(a) Draw diagrams to show the electronic structures 'dot-and-cross')of the chlorate(I) ion, CIO-, and the chlorate(V) ion, CI03-. (4)(b) Draw diagrams to show the molecular shapes of the chlorate(III)
ion, CI02-, and the chlorate(VII) ion, CI04-. Mark on thediagrams your estimate of any bond angles. (4)
(c) When chlorine reacts with cold aqueous sodium hydroxide solution,what are the products? (2)
(d) When chlorine reacts with hot aqueous sodium hydroxide solution,what are the products? ( 2)
(e) What are the likely products of heating sodium chlorate(V) at itsmelting point? (2)
(f) What are the likely products of heating sodium chlorate(III) at100 °C1 (2)
10. Iodine dissolves in hot concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxideaccording to the equation
In one experiment 3.81 g of iodine was dissolved in 4 M sodium hydroxidesolution. (Relative atomic masses: H 1, 0 = 16, Na = 23, I = 127).(a) How many moles of iodine were used?(b) What volume of 4 M sodium hydroxide solution would be just
sufficient to react with the iodine? ( 3 )
(Total 66 marks)
63
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CONTRIBUTORS
Project Director
Colin Robertson, Inspector for Science, ILEA
Writing team
The materials were written and revised by practising teachers seconded to theProject for limited periods:
Lambros AtteshlisLesley BulmanMike FoleyAnn FriendLawrence HalsteadTerence Kelly
Prod uction Team
Tony LanghamVanda ChanJohn SangwinPeter FaldonDawn DevereuxConstance Godfrey:Stella Jefferies
Frank McManusLeonard RoselaarFran RoweAlec ThompsonSteve Waxman
i/c production and cover designGraphicsAVA TechnicianAVA TechnicianOffice and typingTypingTyping and layout
Videotapes
Brian Babb, Producer, Educational Television Centre, ILEA
Reader
John Stephens, Department of Natural Sciences, South London College
Evaluator
John Gilbert, Institute for Educational Technology, University of Surrey
ILPAC trial schools
The following schools and colleges took part in the trials of the IndependentLearning Project for Advanced Chemistry. The Inner London Education Authoritywishes to thank the teachers in these schools and their students for their help.
Abbey Wood SchoolAcland Burghley SchoolBacon's C.E. SchoolBrooke House SchoolDunraven SchoolElliott SchoolEltham Hill SchoolEnsham SchoolForest Hill SchoolHighbury Grove SchoolHull College of Further EducationHydeburn School.
John Roan SchoolLadbroke SchoolLondon Nautical SchoolMorpeth SchoolNorth Westminster Community SchoolQuintin Kynaston SchoolSt. Mark's C.E. SchoolSydenham SchoolThomas Calton SchoolWalsingham SchoolWoodberry Down SchoolWoolverstone Hall
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© ILEA ISBN o 7195 4050 X
John Murray
