SCIENCE EDUCATION FORCONTEMPORARY SOCIETY:

PROBLEMS, ISSUESAND DILEMMAS

FINAL REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON THE REFORM IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

AT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY LEVEL IN ASIA:COMPARATIVE REFERENCES TO EUROPE

Beijing, 27–31 March 2000

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATIONTHE CHINESE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNESCO

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FINAL REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON EPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON HE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON ATIONAL WORKSHOP ON WORKSHOP ON HOP ON

THE REFORM IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYREFORM IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYCHING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYAND TECHNOLOGYCHNOLOGYGY

AT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY LEVEL IN ASIA: IMARY AND SECONDARY LEVEL IN ASIA: ND SECONDARY LEVEL IN ASIA: ARY LEVEL IN ASIA: VEL IN ASIA: SIA:

COMPARATIVE REFERENCES TO EUROPEPARATIVE REFERENCES TO EUROPEE REFERENCES TO EUROPETO EUROPE

Beijing, 27–31 March 200031 March 2000000

Edited by Muriel PoissonMuriel Poisson

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATIONCATION

THE CHINESE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNESCOR UNESCO

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Foreword, by Jacques Hallak, page 3

Introduction, page 5

PART I: Science education for contemporary society: problems, issues and dilemmas� Keynote speech, by Jonathan Osborne, page 8

PART II: Current trends and main concerns as regards science curriculum development and implementation ingards science curriculum development and implementation inselected States in Asia� China, page 16� India, page 21� Indonesia, page 26� Japan, page 31� Malaysia, page 399� New Zealand, page 46� Philippines, page 51� Republic of Korea, page 57� Sri Lanka, page 62� Thailand, page 69

PART III: Current trends and main concerns as regards science curriculum development and implementationin selected States in Europe� France, page 74� Hungary, page 83� Israel, page 90� Netherlands, page 93� United Kingdom (England), page 99

PART IV: New approaches in science and technology educationNew approaches in science and technology education� The concept of ‘basic scientific knowledge’: trends in the reform in the teaching of science and technology iny in

Europe, by Albert Pilot, page 104� Designing an interdisciplinary curriculum in science and technology, by Moshe Ilan, page 111he Ilan, page 111� CERN as a non-school resource for science education, by John Ellis, page 119� Promoting science and technology education for all: a challenge for the Asia Pacific countries, Asia Pacific countries, by Lucille Gregorio,

page 124

PART V: The challenges to be faced in order to progress towards a greater coherence and relevance of sciencevance of scienceand technology education� A summary of the discussions, by Jacques Hallak and Muriel Poisson, page 128Hallak and Muriel Poisson, page 128

ANNEX: List of contributors, page 135

© 2001. International Bureau of Education, P.O. Box 199, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. www.ibe.unesco.org99, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. www.ibe.unesco.org

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The development and reform of school curricula is an on-going preoccupation for educational authorities in allcountries. The approach of the new millennium has givennew urgency to efforts by governments to provide all cit-izens with access to quality education, at least for the basiclevel, while improving and widening access to secondaryeducation. More than ever before, governments are beingcalled upon to equip children and young people througheducation with the capacity to lead meaningful and pro-ductive lives in a world of bewilderingly rapid and com-plex change. Existing curriculum content and pedagogicalExisting curriculum content and pedagogicalmethods are increasingly being called into account, aspupils leave schools ill prepared for the world of work andadulthood, unready and unmotivated to carry on learningthroughout their lives. The meaning and role of education,of teaching and learning, are constantly being redefined inan effort to meet the real needs and demands of individu-als and society.

The implication of globalization for societies aroundthe world is at the heart of present concerns to improveand upgrade education systems. While globalization is of-ten defined primarily in terms of its economic dimensions,the Report to UNESCO of the International CommissionReport to UNESCO of the International Commissionon Education for the Twenty-first Century—the Delorswenty-first Century—the Delorsreport—sees the most important consequence of this com-plex phenomenon to be its socio-cultural and ethical di-mensions. It draws attention to the growinginterdependence and interrelationships between peoplesand cultures the world over: ‘the far-reaching changes inthe traditional patterns of life require of us a better under-standing of other people and the world at large today; theydemand mutual understanding, peaceful interchange andindeed harmony’.1 However, the report stresses that‘learning to live together’—one of the pillars of educa-tion—will only occur through the possession of self-knowledge and understanding, and appreciation of one’sown origins and culture.

It is now widely recognized that designing a curricu-lum is mainly a national concern, normally shared be-tween educational protagonists at the central, local andschool level. The principle of subsidiarity suggests thatcurriculum issues should not be addressed at the supra-national level. Indeed, experience shows that, until quiterecently, international exchanges and co-operation in

curriculum development were limited, being restrictedto professional associations of curriculum specialists.However, two recent trends have contributed to bring-ing international attention to bear on curriculum mat-ters: � The globalization of economies and societies raises a

new challenge, requiring the adaptation of educationalcontent to meet both national demand and internation-al concerns;

� The diversification of actors—both national and inter-national—involved in the delivery of education (in(inparticular with the growing use of information andcommunication technologies—ICTs), as illustrated bythe significant share of non-formal education, have re-sulted in the emergence of new concepts and norms foreducational content. This is indicated by such terms asthe ‘common core’, ‘universal values’, ‘basic lifeskills’, etc. Once again, this means sharing responsi-Once again, this means sharing responsi-bility for educational content, as well as presenting uswith new opportunities for international co-operation

It is against this background and in an effort to respond tothe numerous contemporary concerns about the content ofeducation, that the International Bureau of Education—designated as the UNESCO institute responsible forNESCO institute responsible forstrengthening the capacity of Member States in curricu-lum development—is focusing its new programme activi-w programme activi-ty on the adaptation of the content of education to thechallenges of the twenty-first century. The IBE’s pro-gramme is divided into two components: (i) integratingthe concern of living together into the content of educa-tion; and (ii) adapting the content of education in order tocope with some of the challenges raised by a globalizedworld.

The IBE programme of co-operation in ‘research andstudies’, ‘training and capacity building’, and ‘the ex-x-change of information and expertise’ is based upon twomajor assumptions:� Although different Member States of UNESCO haveESCO have

very uneven and heterogeneous experiences in the de-sign and adaptation of their educational content, thereis room for beneficial exchanges between countries;

� Although there are some common views on how to ad-dress the demand that content should be modified, agreat deal remains to be done to improve the processof adaptation.

The approach to implementing the programme followedby the IBE is based on the assumption that the programme

1Delors, J., et al. Learning: the treasure within. Paris, UNESCO, 1996, p. 22. (Report to UNESCO of the International Commission onEducation for the Twenty-first Century.

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proposes to include: (a) an international platform of infor-(a) an international platform of infor-mation on educational content; and (b) a number of re-gional and sub-regional co-operation projects. Thepreparation of such programmes is carried out through re-gional workshops.

After a first pilot intensive sub-regional trainingcourse held in 1998 for the Member States of the Mediter-8 for the Member States of the Mediter-ranean Region and a sub-regional course organized in1999 in New Delhi to cater to the concerns of South andSouth-East Asia, an international workshop took place inEast Asia, an international workshop took place inBeijing, in March 2000, on The reform in the teaching ofscience and technology at primary and secondary level inAsia: comparative references to Europe. The purpose ofthis third meeting was:meeting was:� To reveal the common difficulties faced by countries

in reforming scientific and technical curriculum atschool level and to jointly explore the ways of over-coming them;

� With the help of international experts, to study ingreater depth a few topics of particular interest for cur-riculum development specialists in the field of scienceteaching;

� To discuss the possibility of launching a network deal-ing with the management of curriculum change inChina.

Specific attention was paid during the debates to the prob-lems, issues and dilemmas affecting science education incontemporary societies, and to the relevance of new ap-proaches currently developed in the field of science andtechnology teaching, such as those aiming at definingwhat ‘basic scientific knowledge’ consists of, implement-ing the STS (science, technology, society) strategy, as-sessing experimental abilities, making use of non-school

resources, etc. The discussions were lively, while lucidity,questioning and doubts were evident.

This publication is a compilation of the various pres-entations made during the workshop. Both through the di-versity of topics covered and the list of issues raised, itoffers a rich review of the challenges facing both Asianand European countries seeking to adapt their scientificand technological teaching so as to better respond to thesocial demand of the new century.

The IBE would like to thank all of the experts and cur-IBE would like to thank all of the experts and cur-riculum specialists, coming from fifteen different coun-tries located either in Europe or in Asia, who haveaccepted to share their knowledge and experience with agreat deal of openness, and who showed that they wereeager to learn from what is happening in other countriesand regions of the world, in their own field of expertise.

On behalf of the International Bureau of Education, Ibehalf of the International Bureau of Education, Iwould also like to express my deep gratitude to the Gov-ernment of the People’s Republic of China—and in partic-Republic of China—and in partic-ular to its Ministry of Education—for its generous supportof the workshop. China both financially supported andhosted the meeting and contributed very significantly tothe debates and to enriching the information sharedamong the participants. Finally, I wish to express my sin-Finally, I wish to express my sin-cere thanks to Mr. Du Yue, Director at the National Com-mission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCOf the People’s Republic of China for UNESCOand all his staff, for their untiring help, throughout thepreparation and the holding of the meeting.meeting.

Jacques HallakAssistant Director-GeneralDirector of the IBEJune 2000000

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This report is divided into five parts. In Part One, entitled‘Science education for contemporary society: problems,issues and dilemmas’, Osborne explores the contempo-rary relationship between science and society. He showsHe showshow current practices in science teaching are based on anumber of myths or assumptions that are not always justi-fied. He examines the existing obstacles to change andends by suggesting some elements of remediation ‘for be-yond 2000’.

Parts Two and Three deal with ‘Current trends andmain concerns as regards science curriculum developmentvelopmentand implementation in selected States in Asia’ and ‘in Eu-rope’. Each case study focuses: first, on the status of teach-ing science and technology in the country under discussionby describing the major aims established for the teachingof science, the ‘basic knowledge’ being taught in that fieldand the number of hours devoted to science teaching ateach educational level; second, on the main problems thatthe country is confronted with as regards teaching scienceand technology, such as up-dating curricula, producing rel-evant materials, training teachers, setting-up adequatequatemethods of assessment, etc.; third, the most recent reformimplemented in the country, either in the field of scienceor technology, and the main conclusions to be drawn fromthis experience as regards the management of change incontent; fourth, innovative uses of non-school resources inthe teaching of science and technology to primary and sec-ondary pupils, involving museums, private firms, etc.

Part Four, New approaches in science and technologyeducation’, includes four contributions, focusing on key is-sues for science teaching today. Pilot presents the conceptof ‘basic scientific knowledge’ through some of the re-forms recently undertaken in science and technologyteaching in European States. Ilan discusses the design andEuropean States. Ilan discusses the design andimplementation of an interdisciplinary curriculum in sci-ence and technology, referring to the experience of Israel.Ellis stresses the importance of non-school resources forscience education, describing some of the educational ac-tivities developed by the European Centre for Nuclear Re-search (CERN). Gregorio summarizes some of the main(CERN). Gregorio summarizes some of the mainchallenges that countries in Asia and the Pacific have tove toface in science education.

The publication concludes in Part Five with an over-view of ‘The challenges to be faced in order to progresstowards a greater coherence and relevance of science andtechnology teaching’. Hallak and Poisson start by identi-fying the various concepts used throughout the discus-sions. They then specify the various options, policies andstrategies regarding science teaching that arose fromcountry presentations. They emphasize the importance ofsome particularly innovative experiments undertaken inxperiments undertaken inthe field of science and technology teaching, such ashands-on learning projects and recapitulate briefly variousalternatives in the organization, management and assess-ment of scientific teaching. By way of conclusion, theyprovide a list of outstanding and undocumented questions.

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I. SCIENCE TEACHINGIN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Science education in the United Kingdom is compul-nce education in the United Kingdom is compul-sory from age 5 to 16. Post-16 pupils now have to studya minimum of three subjects and are encouraged tojects and are encouraged tostudy at least four before selecting three for their finalyear. None of these need be science. The curriculumexists from age 4 to 16 and is specified in a governmentdocument entitled the ‘Science National Curriculum’,Curriculum’,which describes both the content and the processes ofscience to be taught through a programme of studydivided into four strands:� Scientific enquiry;� Life and living processes;� Materials; and� Physical processes.This curriculum is outlined for four Key Stages. KeyStage 1 (ages 5–7) and Key Stage 2 (ages 7–11) areboth delivered in the primary school and currently occu-vered in the primary school and currently occu-py one hour a week of curriculum time on average ac-cording to recent research at King’s College (Dillon etal., 2000). More time than this may be given under the). More time than this may be given under thecompulsory hour a day for the teaching of literacywhere science books may be used for the reading ofnon-fiction material. Key Stage 3 (ages 11–14) and Key(ages 11–14) and KeyStage 4 (ages 14–16) are taught in secondary school,where approximately 12–15% of the time is given over% of the time is given overto science at Key Stage 3 and 18–20% of the time atKey Stage 4. The curriculum is dominated by the basicurriculum is dominated by the basicconcepts of science rather than technology as technolo-gy is taught as a separate subject.

The broad aims of science education are to stimulateand excite pupils’ curiosity about phenomena and eventsin the world around them. It also satisfies this curiositywith knowledge. Because science links direct practicalexperience with ideas, it can engage learners at many lev-els. Scientific method is about developing and evaluatingexplanations through experimental evidence and model-ling. This is a spur to critical and creative thought.Through science, pupils understand how major scientificideas contribute to technological change—impacting onindustry, business and medicine and improving quality ofquality oflife. Pupils recognise the cultural significance of scienceand trace its worldwide development. They learn to ques-tion and discuss science-based issues that may affect theirown lives, the direction of society and the future of theworld.

II. MAIN PROBLEMS WITH SCIENCE CURRICULA N PROBLEMS WITH SCIENCE CURRICULA

As currently practised, science education rests on a set ofently practised, science education rests on a set ofarcane cultural norms. These are ‘values that emanatefrom practice and become sanctified with time. The morethey recede into the background, the more taken forgranted they become’ (Willard, 1985). A closer examina-85). A closer examina-tion and the insights of contemporary scholarship exposethese norms to be nowhere near the self-evident truths thatwe may think—what I might choose to call the eight‘deadly sins’ of science education. For in contemporaryFor in contemporarysociety, research would indicate that trust in science is de-pendent on developing a knowledge not only of its basicconcepts and ideas of science, but also how it relates toother events, why it is important, and how this particularview of the world came to be. Any science education,therefore, that focuses predominantly on the intellectualproducts of our scientific labour—the ‘facts’ of science—simply misses the point. Science education should rest ona triumvirate of a knowledge and understanding of: thescientific content; the scientific approach to enquiry; andscience as a social enterprise—that is the social practicesof the community.

Evidence would suggest that in many countries, nor-mative practice regards school science education as a se-lection mechanism for the few who will become the futurescientists of contemporary society. The predominant em-phasis is on the content of science. However, society canill afford the consequent alienation and disengagementwith science that such courses generate. Moreover, where-as the modernist vision proffered scientific knowledge asknowledge asa source of solutions, science is now perceived too as asource of risk.

Public distrust or ambivalence with science threatensscience in two ways. Firstly, throughout Western nationsthere has been a flight from science, with diminishingnumbers pursuing its study at the point of choice. Second,public distrust of scientific expertise is in danger of plac-ing unwarranted restrictions on future research and tech-nological development. Fear of the worst is leading thepublic to demand a naïve application of the precautionaryïve application of the precautionaryprinciple to research—potentially limiting the advance-ments that science offers for solving the plethora of prob-lems faced by contemporary society. In the UnitedKingdom, for instance, significant pressure groups haveargued (using highly questionable ethical arguments) thatall research on genetically modified food should behalted.

Jonathan Osborne

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Why then is the current science education failing todevelop an appropriate understanding of science, a morepositive engagement with the fruits of scientific labour,and a critical but constructive understanding of itsstrengths and limitations? The argument here is that thisfailure is caused by a set of eight unquestioned norms ofpractice.

1. The myth of miscellaneous information

All too many science courses have attempted to makestudents memorize a series of dry facts that no practisingscientist knows, such as the boiling point of water, thedensity of various substances, the atomic weight of dif--ferent chemical elements, conversion factors from onesystem of units to another, the distance in light yearsfrom the Earth to various stars (and so on). However, anincreasing body of work now shows that knowledge isonly one component of the many competencies requiredof adults in their professional life and, unless it is con-stantly used, is rapidly forgotten (Coles, 1998; Eraut,1998; Eraut,1994).

2. The foundational myth

This is the myth that because scientific knowledge itselfis difficult and hard won, learning and understanding sci-ence requires a similar process where the student’sprocess where the student’sknowledge and understanding are assembled brick bybrick or fact by fact. As a consequence only those thatreach the end ever get to comprehend the wonder andbeauty of the edifice that has been constructed. Currentpractice, therefore, is rather like introducing a youngchild to jigsaws by giving them bits of a 1,000-piece puz-z-zle and hoping that they have enough to get the wholepicture, rather than providing the simplified 100-pieceversion. In effect, although the pupils can see the micro-scopic detail, the sense of the whole, its relevance and itsvalue—the things that matter to the pupil—are lost(Rowe, 1983). ).

3. The myth of coverage

I think we are suffering from a delusion that the sciencewe offer must be both broad and balanced. The result isan attempt to offer a smattering of all sciences and tocram more and more into an oft-diminishing pot. Quiteclearly, as the bounds of scientific knowledge expandfrom evolutionary biology to modern cosmology, moreand more knowledge vies for a place in the curriculum.Moreover, within the disciplines themselves there is anever-increasing fractionation. For instance, few nowemerge with a degree in biology. The days of zoology andbotany are long gone, replaced by the likes of moleculargenetics, immunology and other specialisms. However,just as those teaching literature would never dream of at-tempting to cover the whole body of extant literature,choosing rather a range of examples to illustrate the dif-ferent ways in which good literature can be produced, hasthe time not come to recognize that it is our responsibilityto select a few of the major ‘explanatory stories’ that thesciences offer? And surely it is the quality of the experi-ence, rather than the quantity, which is the determiningmeasure of a good science education?

4. The myth of a detached science

Science education persists with presenting an idealizedview of science as objective, detached and value-free.This is wrong on three counts. First, the public and partic-ularly young people do not distinguish between scienceand technology. Second, science is a socially situatedproduct and the language and metaphors it draws on arerooted in the culture and lives of the scientists who pro-duce new knowledge. Thirdly, those that engage in sci-knowledge. Thirdly, those that engage in sci-ence are not the dispassionate, sceptical and disinterestedcommunity that Merton (1973) portrays. Science is a so-cial practice, engaged in by individuals who share aby individuals who share a‘matrix of disciplinary commitments, values and researchexemplars’ (Delia, 1977). Within the contemporary con-Within the contemporary con-text, where scientists are employed by industrial compa-nies with vested interests, it is hard to advance a case thatscience is simply the ‘pursuit of truth’ untainted by profes-sional aspirations or ideological commitments. Thesedays scientists are judged as much by the company theykeep as the data they may gather (Durant & Bauer, 1997). Durant & Bauer, 1997).

Finally, the separation of science from technologyeliminates all consideration of societal implications. For,as Ziman (1994) argues, if science education fails to make4) argues, if science education fails to makethe small step from science to its technological applica-tions, how can it take the much larger step to the implica-tions for the society in which it is embedded? Thus anapproach to science education based on the considerationof Science and Technology in Society (STS) issues andmaterials, a student-orientated approach whose rootsspread rapidly in the 1980s (Solomon & Aikenhead,980s (Solomon & Aikenhead,1994), is one for which there is considerable evidence ofa positive affective outcome (Aikenhead, 1994). Yet it ispositive affective outcome (Aikenhead, 1994). Yet it isan approach that has effectively withered on the vine inthe hostile environment of curricula, such as the EnglishEnglishand Welsh national curriculum, which show an obsessionwith science and science alone.

5. The myth of critical thinking

This is an assumption that the study of science teaches stu-dents reflective, critical thinking or logical analysis whichmay then be applied by them to other subjects of study. AAsimple examination of the conduct of the lives of scientistsoutside the laboratory or the study of science—whichshows that scientists are no more or less rational than oth-er mortals—calls this argument into question. It is basedon the fallacious assumption that mere contact with sci-ence will imbue a sense of critical rationality by some un-seen process of osmosis. It is also an assumptionquestioned by the Wason four-card problem and theWason 2, 4, 6 problem (Wason & Johnson-Laird, 1972)6 problem (Wason & Johnson-Laird, 1972)both of which require a standard scientific strategy of fal-f which require a standard scientific strategy of fal-sification to determine the correct answer and which veryfew, including scientists, use. In this problem, the investi-gator presents to the subject the following sequence ofnumbers: 2, 4, 6. He or she then tells the subject that thereis a rule written on the other side of the card (all the num-bers must be positive integers). He/she then asks the sub-). He/she then asks the sub-ject to work out the rule by producing further sets of threenumbers. For each set of numbers that the subject produc-es, the investigator will tell the subject whether the num-bers that they have selected do, or do not, agree with therule. The subject is then asked to repeat this process until

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he or she thinks they know what the rule is, whereuponthey can suggest their hypothesis to the investigator whowill tell them whether they are correct.

Secondly, the notion that science develops transfera-ble skills is also an assumption questioned by a body of re-search which suggests that people’s use of knowledge andreasoning is situated within a context (Carraher, Carraher& Schliemann, 1985; Lave, 1988; Seely Brown, Collins &Duiguid, 1989) and that detached knowledge is of little) and that detached knowledge is of littleuse to individuals until it has been reworked into a formunderstood by the user.

6. The myth of the scientific method

This is the myth that there exists a singular scientificmethod. The record of those who have made the importantdiscoveries of the past shows not only that scientists rarelyattempt any such logical procedure, but that the methodsvary considerably between the sciences. The methods de-ployed by the palaeontologist working out in the field areabout as similar to those used by the theoretical physicistas chalk and cheese. As Norris (1997) has pointed out,(1997) has pointed out,‘merely considering the mathematical tools that are avail-able for data analysis immediately puts the study ofmethod beyond what is learnable in a lifetime’. In short,the procedural knowledge of science is as vast as its bodyof content.

Yet the science that increasingly confronts the individ-ual in the media, with its focus on environmental or bio-logical issues, is predominantly based on correlationalevidence and uses methodological devices such as clinicaltrials with blind and double-blind controls. Yet where andwhen is there any treatment of the strengths and limita-tions of such evidence (Bencze, 1996)? Is it not time toBencze, 1996)? Is it not time togive up any notion that there is such a singular entity andturn instead to presenting a range of ideas about scienceand its working?

7. The myth of utility

This is the myth that scientific knowledge has personalutility—that it is essential to the mastery of technology; toremedy its defects; and to live at ease in the culture oftechnology that surrounds us. As machines become more‘intelligent’, they require less care and thought for theireffective use. Defunct technical artefacts are simply con-signed to the garbage heap as the cost of repair is prohib-itive. And those that are worthy of repair, such as the car,the washing machine or the photocopier now have a levelof technological complexity which, whilst simplifyingxity which, whilst simplifyingtheir use, renders them opaque to all but the expert.

Even its economic utility is questionable as currentemployment trends, at least in the United Kingdom andthe United States, suggest that—although we will need tosustain the present supply of scientists—there is no needto significantly improve the number going into science,which remains a small minority of the school cohort ofaround 10–15% (Coles, 1998; Shamos, 1995). 10–15% (Coles, 1998; Shamos, 1995). 8. The homogeneous myth

Increasingly, in many countries, science education laboursunder the myth that its clientele are an entity who, whilstwho, whilstthey might differ in aptitude and ability, nevertheless are

best served by one homogeneous curriculum. Such curric-ula are normally defined by sets of national standards that,although they may ostensibly be voluntary, enshrine a nor-mative expectation difficult to transcend. With their devo-tion to pure science, a foundationalist approach, and a‘high-stakes’ assessment system, the result is a pedagogybased on transmission (Hacker & Rowe, 1997). Such cur-& Rowe, 1997). Such cur-ricula have their ideological roots firmly planted in a setof values that favour knowledge over praxis, educationxis, educationover training, and content over process. By the onset of ad-olescence, the imperative of relevance increasingly chal-lenges the delayed gratification that such a curriculumoffers leading to a lack of motivation and interest (Osborne,Driver & Simon, 1996). & Simon, 1996).

Such a curriculum also sits ill at ease with the increas-ing demand for a curriculum that would develop the pub-lic understanding of science. Research suggests that theprincipal point of contact of the public with science is themedia. Other research shows that understanding and inter-Other research shows that understanding and inter-preting science in the media requires a view that recogniz-es that science is a social practice and scientificknowledge the product of a community (Norris & Phillips,1994; Zimmerman, Bizanz & Bisanz, 1999). For instance,new knowledge does not become public knowledge in sci-ence until it has been checked through the various institu-has been checked through the various institu-tions of science and that papers are reviewed by peersbefore being published in journals. Re-establishing ormaintaining trust in science requires that the regulatorymechanisms that ensure the validity of scientific judge-ment and expertise are open to all, and understood by asmany as possible.

What then are the methods, practices and componentsof a new vision of science education that might meet theseconcerns? The broad framework of such a vision has beenThe broad framework of such a vision has beendeveloped in the report Beyond 2000: science educationfor the future (Millar & Osborne, 1998). In this report, we998). In this report, weargued for ten recommendations that we saw would ad-dress many of the aforementioned criticisms. These were:� science education for ‘scientific literacy’;� an element of choice should be allowed at age 14;� the curriculum needs aims;� scientific knowledge can best be presented as a set ofknowledge can best be presented as a set of

‘explanatory stories’;� technology can no longer be separated from science;� the science curriculum must give more emphasis to

key ‘ideas about science’;� science should be taught using a wide variety of teach-

ing methods and approaches;� assessment needs to measure pupils’ ability to under-

stand and interpret scientific information;� change in the short term should be limited; and� a formal procedure needs to be established for the test-

ing of innovative approaches.No such curriculum has been developed for those belowage 16. A one-year course entitled ‘The Public Under-The Public Under-standing of Science’ will be offered to 17-year-old stu-dents for the first time. In addition, discussions arebeginning with an examination board about developing aping asimilar course pre-16.

However, reforming the science curriculum to meetthe challenges of contemporary society faces a number ofobstacles that must be addressed and met. These are the

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limitations of the qualifications and abilities of the scienceteaching force; the problems with developing appropriatemodes of assessment; the resistance of well-establishedstakeholders; and the culture of science teaching.

III. THREE PROBLEM AREAS

1. Curriculum reform

Any new curriculum that gave more emphasis to develop-hat gave more emphasis to develop-ing an understanding of the nature and processes of sci-ence would require teachers themselves to have someunderstanding of these dimension of science. Yet scienceteachers are the products of an education which has paidscant regard to history, or any examination of its socialpractices. And for good reason—the dominant ideologywithin science is one of dogmatism and authority, wherethe tentative nature of the roots of scientific knowledge isexcised to present science as a body of unequivocal, un-questioned and uncontested knowledge which has beenthe successful, linear progression of the work of isolatedgreat men, devoid of any cultural context. The outcome ofsuch an education is a body of science teachers who havenaïve views of the nature of science—seeing it as an em-ïve views of the nature of science—seeing it as an em-pirical process where scientific theories are inductivelyproven (Koulaidis & Ogborn, 1995; Lakin & Wellington,995; Lakin & Wellington,1994).

Similarly, Donnelly (1999) has shown how sciencecienceteachers see their work as one that is dominated by contentrather than process, as opposed to the contemporarytreatment of history where the history teachers seek to de-velop an understanding of what it is to do history. Thesignificance of empirical work to science, and in theteacher’s practice, is such that they are endowed with dis-tinctive status by the provision of specialized laboratories.Laboratories in their turn become rhetorical artefacts wherethe scientific world-view can be used to illustrate the pre-dictability of nature and inspire confidence in its portrayalof nature (Donnelly, 1998). So this is my first problem—998). So this is my first problem—is it reasonable to ask science teachers to teach science withan emphasis of which they have only a limited under-standing themselves?

The history of educational innovation within the sci-ence curriculum shows that change, when supported withnew textbooks and extensive training, has only had limit-ed success. The modernizing influence of the Nuffieldzing influence of the NuffieldFoundation and their development of new materials, appa-ratus and syllabi in the 1960s led to a market penetration0s led to a market penetrationof approximately 30%. Teachers then had more profes-sional independence to select what materials and coursesthey felt were appropriate for their students.

However, attempts to introduce change under the um-brella of the National Curriculum—particularly whenthose changes were later shown to be based on fallaciousmodels of science—have met with substantive resistanceand modification such that the implemented curriculum isat best a pale shadow of its intended version. The 1991version of the English and Welsh science curriculum in-Welsh science curriculum in-troduced a model of practical-based investigatory workthat was unfamiliar and resented by teachers who failed toshare or understand its intentions. The result was a longperiod of adaptation whilst teachers reworked the curricu-lum to put into practice work that was a distorted repre-

sentation of the intentions of the national curriculumdocument. Many teachers were alienated or disaffected bythe process (Donnelly et al., 1996).Donnelly et al., 1996).

The lesson of these problems is one that was clear fromprevious research on educational change (Fullan, 1991;Fullan, 1991;Joyce, 1990) but ignored. First, teachers must be dissat-isfied with the existing curriculum if the arguments forchange are to be heard. Second, if change is to occur,teachers must be supported in developing new practices,new bodies of knowledge and new pedagogic methods. Atknowledge and new pedagogic methods. Atthe very least, that requires the rewriting of curriculumsupport materials, which should seek to provide exemplaryillustrations of the ideas to be taught and suggestions forhow it can be taught. More substantive support wouldrequire a programme of professional developmentdelivered by individuals who are themselves competentand effective teachers, as well as have a good grasp of anynew initiative. At the very best, there would be in-situtraining provided for all teachers who required it.

2. Assessment

My second problem lies with the role of assessment withinexisting national and international frameworks. Over thepast twenty years, political imperatives have led to the ne-cessity to measure the performance of the education sys-tem. The consequence has been the rise of nationalThe consequence has been the rise of nationalsystems of assessment based on testing at certain keyages—in the United Kingdom these are age 7, 11 and 14.A different terminal examination is also held at age 16 andthe new systems being introduced will ensure that thereare examinations at age 17 and 18 as well. Internationally,we have also seen the rise of comparative assessment be-tween countries used as a measure of the overall quality ofeducation (Beaton et al., 1996). As a consequence, assess-(Beaton et al., 1996). As a consequence, assess-ment has acquired an importance beyond merely provid-ing some kind of reliable and valid measure of a child’sf reliable and valid measure of a child’sknowledge and understanding.

Rather the emphasis has shifted to it becoming a meas-ure of the individual teacher’s capabilities; then, whensummed across the school, a measure of the quality of theeducation provided by the school; and then when summedacross the country, a measure of the effectiveness of thequality of the education system as a whole. Whether itever achieves the latter has been the subject of a recent cri-tique by Gibbs & Fox (1999) who argue that the spread ofGibbs & Fox (1999) who argue that the spread ofscores is minimal and within normal variation of eachother. Thus rather than assessment serving as a tool toThus rather than assessment serving as a tool tobenefit the child, providing either a formative or summa-tive judgement of his or her capabilities, it has become aservant of a bureaucratic mentality that seeks to monitorthe performance of the system. Whilst it could be arguedthat these two aims are not incommensurable, the realityis different.

For example, most science teachers agree that practi-cal skills are an important part of the content of a sciencecurriculum. An assessment of ‘science’, therefore, oughtAn assessment of ‘science’, therefore, oughtto assess practical skills as well as more traditional formsof scientific knowledge and capability. However, testingpractical skills is expensive, and those concerned with theefficiency of the assessments point out that the results ofthe practical and written tests correlate very highly, sothere is no need to carry on with expensive practical test-

12

ing. The same sorts of arguments have dominated the de-bate in the United States between multiple-choice andUnited States between multiple-choice andconstructed-response tests. What then happens is the prac-tical aspects of science are dropped from the assessment.

The consequence of this, for the domain of school sci-ence, is to send the message that practical science is not asimportant as its written aspects. The social consequence isthat teachers, understandably anxious to get their studentsthe best possible results in the assessment because of itsinfluence over the students’ future career prospects, placever the students’ future career prospects, placeless emphasis on the practical aspects of science. Becauseteachers are no longer teaching practical science hand-in-hand with other aspects of science, the correlation be-tween students’ performance in practical aspects of sci-ence and the written aspects weakens, so that it is nolonger possible to tell anything about a student’s practicalcompetence from the score on the science assessment.

Similar problems have beset attempts to provide per-formance indicators in the Health Service, in the priva-tized railway companies and a host of other publicservices. A variety of indicators is selected for their abilityto represent the quality of the service, but when used asquality of the service, but when used asthe sole index of quality, the manipulability of these indi-cators destroys the relationship between the indicator andthe indicated. By directing attention more and more ontoparticular indicators of performance they had managed toincrease the scores on the indicator, but the score on theindicated was relatively unaffected.

The lesson of history then is that in seeking to makethe important measurable, only the measurable has be-come important. The second problem is that within schoolscience, assessment items are commonly devised by thosethat have been, or still are, practising science teachers.Just as it is often said that you teach only that that you canteach, so assessment is often based on the normative val-ues of what it is considered possible to assess. Hence theassessment of students’ understanding of the processes ofscience, or its social practices, are not considered becausethere is not an established body of knowledge of how toassess such items. At worst, assessment experts will sim-At worst, assessment experts will sim-ply assert that it is too difficult, time-consuming or expen-sive to assess such understandings and at best, that they donot know how to do so. Thus within such a context gener-ated by the importance of measuring performance of stu-dents, teachers and schools, the clear message to teachersis that the lack of any assessment of a given topic impliesthat it is an extraneous item of the intended curriculumand of no significance.

Two messages emerge for science curriculum and pol-icy-makers from these experiences. First, if a topic is suf-ficiently important to include in the curriculum, then it issufficiently important to assess. And if there is currently alack of experience about how to undertake such assess-ment, then it is important to develop items that assess stu-dents’ comprehension of the full range of knowledge andperformance required by the intended curriculum.

3. Challenging existing stakeholderskeholders

Those with the largest stake in the existing practice are theuniversities who see the school system as a provider ofraw, novitiate students for training as future scientists.From their perspective, school science education should

be an intensive education in the foundational concepts andideas of science. Any attempt to weaken this aim has his-torically led to strong resistance with, in some cases, uni-versities refusing to admit students who had alternativequalifications or to define which qualifications would beacceptable to them. Such a strong message severely cur-Such a strong message severely cur-tails the boundaries of change that are possible and so farhas been a major obstacle. Change in the school sciencecurriculum will only happen when either school science isdecoupled from academic science in universities, or at thevery least when the interdependence of the two is weak-ened. The argument for change is twofold, having both amoral dimension and an argument based in science’s ownself-interest.

First, for the overwhelming majority of students,school science is an end in itself. Yet to base the curricu-Yet to base the curricu-lum solely on the needs of those who will continue with afurther education in science has no justification unless onebelieves that the education of a Platonic elite will serve thegreater good. Secondly, there is a considerable body ofevidence that a school science education which gives pre-eminence to the foundational concept of science—the‘facts’ of science—leaves many pupils disinterested ifnot alienated from science (Osborne & Collins, 2000;& Collins, 2000;Osborne, Driver & Simon, 1996). In an age when we areall dependent on expertise, the public’s relationship withdependent on expertise, the public’s relationship withany professional body is dependent on a relationshipbased on trust.

Undermining that relationship by offering such an ed-ucation means that the practice of science, and its futurefunding, may not be secure. Developing a relationship oftrust is thus dependent not on developing a knowledge ofits content (which is rapidly forgotten on leaving school)but on opening the black box that is science so that the stu-dents can understand what it is to do science, how it regu-lates itself and why it is to be trusted—that is on alteringthe balance of the curriculum away from its content to-wards a more significant emphasis on its practice. Such aneducation would benefit not only the future member of thelay public, but also the future scientist. For those whoFor those whohave the traditional academic interest in science, moreacademic options should be available as well. Such achange would inevitably mean that universities wouldhave to respond by undertaking more of the education inthe foundational concepts.

IV. ATTEMPTS AT INNOVATIONATTEMPTS AT INNOVATION

Current attempts at innovation are rooted in a gradualistgradualistapproach. The fourth version of the national curriculumhas just been published for implementation from Septem-ber 2000. This gives greater emphasis to teaching some ofthe ‘ideas about science’ discussed in Beyond 2000. TheUnited Kingdom has benefited from the rise of the ‘Sci-ence Centre movement’ with innovative children’s galler-with innovative children’s galler-ies at the Science Museum, the Natural History Museumand several other museums during the past fifteen years.Millennium funding has led to the development of manymore of these science centres that are enjoyed by mostchildren who visit. However, their use is predominantlywith children of age 11 and under; their aim is to provide11 and under; their aim is to providean affective experience rather than a cognitive one; criti-

13

cisms have been voiced that they provide ‘info-tainment’;and evidence would suggest that they are not yet effective-ly used by science teachers to develop children’s under-standing of science.

Private firms sponsor the production of many materi-als for use by science teachers. However, research sug-gests that these are only used ‘occasionally’ and that thereis poor market research by the companies as to what isneeded by the schools. Many of these materials languishMany of these materials languishon shelves.

The major development in United Kingdom scienceteaching has been the Cognitive Acceleration in ScienceAcceleration in ScienceEducation project (CASE), which aims to develop chil-dren’s thinking skills in science over a two-year periodfrom age 11 to 13. Results from this work have shown thatsignificant gains in children’s performance can beachieved, in comparison to control groups, by children intheir terminal examinations at age 16 in science, Englishand maths. The central government is now conductingThe central government is now conductingpilot trials with these and other materials in 150 schools.

V. CONCLUSIONSUSIONS

Some may well resist such change but the question mustbe asked whether the status quo is acceptable for the edu-cation of the future citizen in science in the twenty-firstzen in science in the twenty-firstcentury? In an era where scientific issues such as geneticmodification of foods, global warming and others contin-ually surface as the political and moral dilemmas con-fronting society, the disengagement or disenchantment ofour youth with science may increase the separation thatcurrently exists between science and society. Such a con-sequence is one that an advanced industrial society can illafford to pay, both at the individual level where it mightlead to the rejection of sound scientific advice, or at thesocietal level where limitations may be imposed on scien-tific research that could have potentially beneficial out-comes for humanity. Perhaps, more tragic, will be thesimple rejection of a body of knowledge that must, on anyknowledge that must, on anyaccount, represent one of the greatest cultural achieve-ments of modern societies. As a society we must ask, isthis a price we can afford?

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Beaton, A., et al. 1996. Science achievement in the middleschool years: IEA’s Third International MathematicsA’s Third International Mathematicsand Science Study. Chestnut Hill, MA, Boston Col-lege.

Bencze, J.L. 1996. Correlational studies in school science:breaking the science-experiment-certainty connection.School science review (Hatfield, UK), vol. 78,no. 282, p. 95–101.282, p. 95–101.

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Donnelly, J., et al. 1996. Investigations by order: policy,curriculum and science teachers’ work under the Ed-ucation Reform ActReform Act. Nafferton, Studies in Science Ed-ucation.

Durant, J.; Bauer. 1997. Public understanding of science:The 1996 survey. (Paper presented at a seminar at theminar at theRoyal Society, 8 December 1997.)

Durant, J.R.; Evans, G.A.; Thomas, G.P. 1989. The publicA.; Thomas, G.P. 1989. The publicunderstanding of science. Nature (London), vol. 340,London), vol. 340,p. 11–14.

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Fullan, M. 1991. The new meaning of educational change.2nd ed. London, Cassell.

Gibbs, W.W.; Fox, D. 1999. The false crisis in science ed-ucation. Scientific American (New York), OctoberYork), October,p. 87–93.

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I. BACKGROUND

Following the upheavals unleashed by the Maoist revolu-g the upheavals unleashed by the Maoist revolu-tion, China sought to bring about radical changes in its ed-ucation system in tune with the new realities. In the early1950s, China adopted the secondary science curriculumfrom the former USSR, its ideological fellow traveller.USSR, its ideological fellow traveller.Down the years, the curriculum was continually adaptedin accordance with local needs and priorities, graduallyconsolidating its roots in the Chinese soil as the first na-tional science curriculum. A developing country in socio-political ferment, China’s educational and economic con-ditions at that time, was poor. In such a situation, the uni-In such a situation, the uni-fied national curriculum played a crucial role indeveloping teaching materials, improving the quality ofboth teaching and teachers’ training. Consequently, sci-ence education took rapid strides through the fifties. Dueto historical reasons, the pace slowed considerably overthe next thirty years. Barring minor changes in its philos-ophy and framework, the unified national curriculum for-mulated in the fifties continues its reign largelyunchanged.

The rapid development of science and technology cou-pled with substantial socio-economic growth now posesunprecedented challenges to China’s basic education sys-tem. Such development ordains that basic education de-fine its contents more sharply with regard to environment,information and peace education. Tradition bound ap-proaches seem to be inadequate to communicate the neweducation content to the students. Efforts are underway toenhance both content as well as the delivery system to fa-cilitate modern concerns to find their rightful place amongsubjects still defined by tradition. Also, the establishmentAlso, the establishmentof the concept of ‘lifelong learning’ has had a dramaticimpact on the aims and objectives of school education.Given the circumstances, there is a felt need to reform thesystem and design of the curriculum, and it’s instructionalmethods. The choices ahead are aplenty:

� Should we stick to the traditional models of subject di-k to the traditional models of subject di-vision? Or should we abstract new information andcontent based on what is needed for the progress ofscience, society, and the holistic development of stu-dents? The new educational content should reflect theprinciples of balance, comprehensiveness and selec-tivity.

� Should schools continue to wield total control overlearning content and learning styles, disregarding thestrong influence of both educational content and per-

Estimated population (1996)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1996)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

1,232,083,000083,000(1)

2.3

9(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1997)Teachers (1997)Pupil/teacher ratio (1997)

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—MaleMale—Female

Estimated percentage of repeat-ers (1995)School-age population out of school

139,954,0000005,794,00024:1

123122123

1

—

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1997)

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—Female

71,883,000883,000

707466

Third-level enrolment ratio (1997)

6

Estimated adult literacy rate (2000)—Total—Male—Female

859277

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionwith the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations and (2) World data on education, Paris,UNESCO, 2000.

1

17

sonalised learning styles outside school, or should wehool, or should weadvocate the integration of formal and non-formal ed-ucation?

� Should we continue to use academic prowess as thesole indicator in student assessment? Disregarding anyother latent ability or potential that a student may pos-sess adversely affects his or her academic perform-ance, eroding self-esteem and self-confidence. Shouldwe perhaps learn to recognise the existence of multipleintelligence, and take steps to motivate students to re-alise their true potential?

The National Education Conference in 1999 decided to in-Education Conference in 1999 decided to in-tensify educational reform and vigorously promote quali-ty-oriented education. The concept of ‘quality-orientededucation’ aims to optimize the potential of the students,individually and collectively, by providing comprehen-sive education for societal development.

II. THE MAIN PROBLEMSHE MAIN PROBLEMSIN THE CHINESE SCIENCE CURRICULUM

Some of the problems presently plaguing the Chinese sci-he problems presently plaguing the Chinese sci-ence curriculum are:� The curriculum is subject-centred and knowledge-

centred;� The emphasis is on science, rather than technology;� There is undue stress on acquiring knowledge, while

the development of student ability to apply scientificskills and knowledge to problem solving remains ne-glected;

� The separation of science into major disciplines im-pedes comprehension of the inter-connectednessamong physics, biology, chemistry and the earth sci-ences;

� Recitation of science prevails over ‘science as in-quiry’;

� Teachers fail to inculcate scientific attitudes, values,processing skills and higher-order thinking skills intheir students.

III. OBJECTIVES OF THE CURRICULUM REFORMCURRENTLY UNDERWAYWAY

The reform is based on the twin convictions that every stu-dent should be scientifically literate and that each can dojustice to the study of science. Considering the problemsproblemsoutlined in Sec.II, the specific objectives of the curricu-lum reform that is presently underway have been formu-lated as follows:1. To reform the tendency to set curriculum objectives

that overemphasize knowledge transmission. Thestress should be on character building and the produc-tion of physically and emotionally healthy citizens.The desire, appetite and ability for ‘lifelong learning’among the student community also needs to be culti-vated;

2. To reform the tendency to structure curricula that arecrammed with many subjects having little or no inte-gration; or that overly emphasise the independence ofindividual disciplines. Efforts are being made to en-Efforts are being made to en-force qualities of comprehensiveness, balance and se-lectivity while structuring curricula;

3. To reform the tendency of curriculum content thatoveremphasizes the rigidity of individual disciplinesand classical knowledge. The reform focuses on im-proving the relevance of curriculum content to modernsociety and to promote the development of science andtechnology.

4. To reform the tendency to neglect non-formal educa-tion, by integrating formal education with non-formaleducation in form and content;

5. To reform the tendency to overemphasize receptivelearning, mechanical memory and passive imitation inthe teaching process. A variety of other learning activ-ities such as active participation, exchange and co-op-eration, exploration and discovery, will be advocatedto enable the students to become independent learners;

6. To reform the tendency to formulate textbooks thatappear unrelated to the students’ lives and that fail tomeet the specific needs of schools and students indifferent areas. Students should understand the inter-Students should understand the inter-relatedness between science, technology and society.The variety and number of textbooks will be improvedand schools will gradually be allowed to select theirown textbooks;

7. To reform the tendency that overemphasizes knowl-edge/memory in curriculum assessment. Learning sci-Learning sci-ence should be a hands-on experience, where thestudent actively deploys his scientific knowledge. Anew assessment system characterised by multiple as-sessment indicators and multiple ways of assessment,which takes both outcome and process into account, isbeing established;

8. To reform the centralised system of curriculum man-agement by establishing national, local and school lev-el curriculum management policies that will ensure theoverall quality of basic education, and improve itsquality of basic education, and improve itsadaptability.

IV. REFORM OF CURRICULUM STRUCTUREM OF CURRICULUM STRUCTURE

1. Principles

� The new curriculum structure of basic educationf basic educationshould contain a comprehensive, balanced, and selec-tive curriculum;

� The organization of curriculum content should reflectcomprehensiveness, progressively achieving the shiftfrom subjects to areas of study, and from subject divi-sion to subject integration;

� The curriculum structure should be so designed as tofollow the general laws of physical and mental devel-opment; and reflect the current growth of society, sci-ence and technology. Curriculum structure should alsobe balanced in terms of the range of subjects offeredand the time allocated for each;

� Curriculum structure should be sensitive to regionaldifferences, the characteristics of the various schools,and especially, the individuality of each student.

2. Structure

The significant aspects of the new structure are briefly de-scribed below:� To take the nine years as a whole while formulating

the curriculum for the compulsory education stage,

18

and to build a curriculum structure that integrates indi-vidual disciplines and comprehensive subjects;

� To update educational content on the basis of the over-all advances of science and technology and accordingto our conceptions of nature and society;

� To reduce the number of subjects and give more timeand space for self-study and practice;

� To reform and restructure the disciplines; to enforcethe comprehensiveness of educational content; toweaken the demarcation of subject boundaries and tostrengthen their interrelatedness and their relevance todaily life;

� To strengthen the relevance of the curriculum to soci-ety, science, technology, and students’ development inorder to encourage creativity and practical ability.‘Comprehensive practice activities’ will be estab-lished as compulsory courses from primary to uppersecondary school. The content of such courses will in-clude research study, community service, labour skillseducation and other socially relevant activities. This isintended to develop the student’ ability to solve prac-tical problems.

The primary school curricula will chiefly consist ofcomprehensive courses. The first two grades will impartideological and moral education and comprehensivepractice activity, together with Chinese, mathematics,sports, health and art. From grade III to grade VI, thereFrom grade III to grade VI, therewill be moral education, comprehensive practice activity,Chinese, mathematics, society, science, sports and health,and art.

Based on the competence of the teachers available,lower secondary schools can mostly choose traditionalcourses, including ideological and political sciences,Chinese, mathematics, foreign languages, history, geogra-phy, chemistry, biology, sports and health, arts, and com-prehensive practice activity. They can also choose mostlycomprehensive courses, including ideological and politi-cal sciences, Chinese, mathematics, foreign languages,comprehensive humanities, comprehensive science,sports and health, arts, and comprehensive practice activ-ity. Or they can integrate disciplined and comprehensiveOr they can integrate disciplined and comprehensivecourses.

Higher secondary schools will mostly offer traditionalcourses. The general higher secondary schools should of-fer multiple courses. There should be different levels ofcourse content and course requirement. Efforts will bemade to create conditions for setting up courses that offerskills training. In addition to offering compulsory courses,kills training. In addition to offering compulsory courses,higher secondary schools should set up various kinds ofoptional courses in accordance with the individual needsof the students and the development needs of the localcommunity.

V. PRIORITY AREASTY AREAS

During basic education:� Moral education, environmental and ecological ethics

education should be strengthened; efforts should befforts should bemade to promote and develop information education,science and technology education should receivegreater attention, comprehensive practice activityshould be established;

� The development of moral behaviour and valuesshould be reinforced, and a sense of responsibility forthe nation, society and family should be strongly nur-tured.

� Environmental and ecological education should be in-fused into every course and into other non-formalmethods of education, and it should become a logicaland integral part of the new educational content;

� Information courses should be established to developstudent interest in information technology. Studentsshould understand and master the fundamental knowl-edge and skills of information technology. Their abil-ity to use this information in their own educationshould be improved. Information technology coursewill be offered at lower secondary schools by 2005;5;

� Science and technology education should receive dueimportance and student competence in these subjectsshould be enhanced in all primary and secondaryschools. Special attention should be paid to teachingstudents scientific methods, the scientific approachand scientific values, as well enabling them to acquiregeneral skills, vocational awareness and a pioneeringspirit. The aim is to make science and technology apowerful instrument for improving the quality of life,overcoming superstition and enable citizens to active-ly participate in decision-making pertaining to socialand scientific affairs;

� Comprehensive practice activities such as researchstudy, community service and social practice activi-ties, will aim to improve learning styles, enrich thelearning experience and strengthen the close links be-tween schools and community life.

VI. SIX DOMAINS IN SCIENCE LEARNINGDOMAINS IN SCIENCE LEARNING

The new curriculum will encourage students to learn sci-m will encourage students to learn sci-ence in six domains:� Knowledge domain: mastering important facts, major

concepts and principles of science;� Science laboratories and operational skills domain:

operational skills, the skills of working with apparatusand instruments;

� Scientific process skills domain: observation, meas-urement, grouping, questioning, hypothesis formula-tion, experimenting, and so on;

� Application domain: ability to use concepts and skillsin new situations;

� Creative domain: quality and quantity of questions,explanations and new ideas;

� Attitude domain: positive feelings towards science andits study.

VII. REFORM OF THE TEACHING PROCESS ANDASSESSMENT

1. The teaching process should thoroughly reflect theng process should thoroughly reflect thecontinuous development of teachers and students. Thethrust of achieving curriculum objectives and strengthen-ing curriculum reform is to optimise the teaching processbased on the concept of quality-oriented education.� Teachers are the organizers and guides of the teaching

process. Teachers should cater to all students, get to

19

know their individual needs and their potential for de-velopment, and conduct their instruction accordingly,in as creative a way as possible. In designing teachingobjectives, selecting curriculum resources, and organ-izing teaching activities, teachers should always aim atquality-oriented education. Teachers should learn, ex-x-plore and utilise various kinds of instruction organiza-tion and teaching methods: inquiry learning, co-operative learning, problem-solving in daily life, roleplaying, simulation, collecting information, conceptmapping, constructivist and STS;

� Student development is both the starting point and theend of teaching activity. Learning should be the basicway to develop student intelligence and build charac-ter. In a complete learning process, while studentsIn a complete learning process, while studentsshould attain the necessary fundamental knowledgeand basic abilities, they should also develop emotionalstrength, healthy attitudes, and sound values. Studentsshould become skilled at using different ways of learn-ing for different learning content, and make learningbecome an active and personalised process;

� Teaching materials are important media of the teach-ing content. Textbooks should expand both teacherand student development and inquiry-based teachingmaterials should be prepared with this goal in mind.They should help guide exploration and discovery,broaden students’ perspectives, and enrich their learn-ing experience. In the teaching process, teachersshould use the textbooks in a flexible and creative wayand fully utilise various curriculum resources fromboth within and outside school;

� Improving communication and information exchangebetween teachers and students is a key element in theteaching process. Teachers should advocate democra-cy in teaching, establish an equal and co-operativeteacher/student relationship, create a desirable climatefor learning and student co-operation, and thus createfavourable conditions for the all-round developmentand healthy growth of the education community.

2. Curriculum assessment acts as a quality control meas-ure in the curriculum system. Through curriculum reform,we should try to establish an assessment system that pro-motes the all-round development of the students, encour-ages teacher enterprise and continuously perfects thecurriculum:� A special assessment system has been designed to pro-

mote student development. Assessment should notonly concern itself with student progress in languageand mathematics logic, it should also find and develophidden talents in the students by establishing new as-sessment indicators and reforming assessment meth-ods. Assessment should fully understand students’developmental needs, be sensitive to their individualneeds, help them establish self-confidence, and pro-mote individual student development. A variety of as-sessment methods should be used in consequence: thepaper test, acquiring of information, laboratory work,essay writing, teacher interviews, systematic observa-tion of student performance, and student projects;

� The teacher assessment system emphasises self-analysis and improvement of teaching behaviour. Anassessment system will be established, in which all

principals, teachers, students, and parents will partic-ipate, which will be mainly dependent on teachers’ self-assessment. In this way, teachers can get informationIn this way, teachers can get informationfor improving their teaching behaviour from varioussources, and continuously improve their teaching;

� A curriculum development assessment system willregularly analyse and evaluate the performance ofschool curriculum programs and the problems in cur-riculum implementation; revise the curriculum con-tent, improve teaching management, and establish amechanism for continued curriculum innovation.

VIII. REFORM OF THE CURRICULUMFORM OF THE CURRICULUMMANAGEMENT SYSTEM

In order to measure and promote curriculum adaptabilityorder to measure and promote curriculum adaptabilityfor different regions, schools and students, we will reformthe current management model, which is heavily central-ized, and establish a three-level curriculum managementsystem at national, local and school levels. The responsi-bility at each level will be clearly defined:� Responsibilities of the Ministry of EducationMinistry of Education: To de-

fine the nature of basic education and its basic tasks,and stipulate types of curriculum and ratio; to formu-late and issue national curriculum standards; to studyand formulate the assessment system of basic educa-tion curriculum; to formulate policies of curriculummanagement and development;

� Responsibilities of the provincial authorities: to for-mulate plans to implement the national curriculum atdifferent educational stages for their respective prov-inces (autonomous regions and municipalities) in ac-cordance with the requirement of national curriculumprograms and the practical local needs. On the basis ofnational curriculum implementation and relevant reg-ulations issued by the Ministry of Education; to plan,Ministry of Education; to plan,to establish and to develop local curricula according tothe time allocated for the same, to formulate guide-lines for schools to implement local curricula;

� Responsibilities at the school level: based on the im-plementation of national and local curricula, schoolsshould be involved in the planning of specific pro-grams to implement the school curriculum in the localcommunity; meanwhile, on the basis of their traditionand strength, and student interest and needs, schoolscan develop and select courses suitable to their needs.Schools have the right and the responsibility to report

on problems in implementing the national and local cur-ricula, and establish the internal school curriculum assess-ment system to ensure that curriculum implementation atschools is consistent with the objectives of national andlocal curricula.

This policy of multi-level curriculum management isdesigned to improve the suitability of curricula for differ-ent regions, schools and students.

Curriculum reform is a systematic but complicatedprogramme. Gone forever are the times when curriculumreform was limited to a single aspect, mainly the over-hauling of textbooks. People are increasingly aware of theimportant relationship in which various elements relevantwith curriculum reform interact with and restrict each oth-er. Teacher training is one of the cornerstones of success-

20

ful curriculum reform. China is implementing the‘Continuous Education Project’, which plans to systemat-ically train its entire teacher population. This will have aprofound effect upon their thinking, impart new teachingskills, and re-identify their roles.

Basic education curriculum reform should stress thatbasic education is intended to lay the foundation for life-long development. Sustainable and effective self-studyshould be a lifelong process, and students should be ableto adopt appropriate ways to solve any problems they en-counter in their lives and be able to demonstrate their

unique wisdom in various ways. Curriculum reform,therefore, must surmount the shortsighted goal of achiev-ing mastery over specific subjects and must instead seekthe goal of achieving the holistic development of the stu-dents.

Note

1. This document is the result of the amalgamation by the IBE Secretariatof two contributions made in Beijing: the first one by Zhu Muju,Deputy Director-General, Department of Basic Education, Ministry ofEducation, and the second one by Liu Enshan, Beijing Normal Uni-versity.

21

I. INTRODUCTION

1. General framework

Indian schools follow an education system that has itsgenesis in the recommendations of an Education Commis-sion appointed by the government in the year 1964. Thefirst ten years of schooling are devoted to eight years of el-ementary education comprising five years of primary andthree years of upper primary education, followed by twoyears of secondary education. The students then undergotwo years of higher secondary education to completeschool. This format is popularly referred to as the ‘10+2‘10+2pattern’ of education.

The Indian Parliament adopted the recommendationsof the Education Commission as its National Policy onEducation (NPE) in the year 1968. The highlight of the968. The highlight of therecommendations was that science and mathematics were,for the first time, made subjects for compulsory study forall pupils as part of general education during the first tenyears of schooling. In this context, the Commission wenton to recommend that:� In the lower primary classes, science teaching should

be related to the child’s environment. The Roman al-vironment. The Roman al-phabet should be taught in Class IV to facilitate under-standing of internationally accepted symbols ofscientific measurement and the use of maps, charts andstatistical tables.

� At the higher primary stage, emphasis should be on theacquisition of knowledge and the ability to think logi-quisition of knowledge and the ability to think logi-cally to draw conclusions and to make decisions at ahigher level. A disciplinary approach to the teaching ofscience will be more effective than the general scienceapproach.

� A science corner in lower primary schools and a labo-ratory-cum-lecture room in higher primary schools areminimum essential requirements.

� At the lower secondary stage, science, taught in termsof disciplines like chemistry and biology, would helpstudents to grasp the distinct pursuits possible withinthe broader spectrum comprising ‘science’. Such anapproach would pay long-term dividends in this age ofsuper-specialities. Experimental approach to the learn-ing of science should, moreover, be stressed.

� Science courses at an advanced level may be providedfor talented students in selected lower secondary schoolsalong with the necessary facilities of staff and laboratory.

� Science teaching should be linked to agriculture in ru-ral areas and to technology in urban areas. But the lev-But the lev-els of attainment and avenues to higher educationshould be the same in both types of schools.

Estimated population (1996)

Public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product (1996)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

944,580,000(1)

3.2

8(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1996)Teachers (1996) Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters d percentage of repeaters (1994)School-age population out of school (1995)

110,390,4061,789,73347:1(3)

10010990

4

28,564,000(4)

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1996)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

68,872,393

495939

Third-level enrolment ratio (1996)

7

Estimated adult literacy rate (2000)d adult literacy rate (2000)—Total—Male—Female

566942

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year available.gure given is the last year available.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theInformation and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations; (2) World data on education, Paris,UNESCO, 2000; (3) CO, 2000; (3) World education report 2000port 2000,Paris, UNESCO, 2000; and (4) International Consulta-tive Forum on Education for All, Paris, January 1996.Forum on Education for All, Paris, January 1996.

J.S. Rajput and V. P. Srivastava

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A national curriculum framework was designed in 1975 to5 totranslate the avowed policy into action. It was suggestedthat, at the secondary stage, the science syllabus could bebifurcated under the titles Physical science, coveringphysics and chemistry, and the Life sciences, coveringbotany, zoology and human physiology. An alternativewas to offer science as a single integrated subject whereconcepts are developed as units without violating the pa-rameters of the various disciplines. At the senior second-ary stage, however, science could be offered as‘discipline-wise’ courses in the academic stream.

The new curriculum elicited the criticism that the con-tent of the science and mathematics courses prescribed forClasses IX and X were inordinately taxing on the students.X and X were inordinately taxing on the students.In June 1977, a Review Committee under the chairman-ship of Ishwarbhai J. Patel was appointed to examine thebhai J. Patel was appointed to examine thesyllabus and textbooks recommended by the NationalCouncil of Educational Research and Training (NCERT).Training (NCERT).The Committee suggested the restructuring of the scientif-ic concepts taught in Classes IX and X. The members alsoproposed that students be given the option of choosingven the option of choosingfrom two equivalent courses in the secondary stage. Thefirst alternative was to offer the study of science as a sin-gle subject encompassing its various disciplines, while thesecond alternative was to offer a discipline-wise sciencecourse consisting of biology, chemistry, and physics, etc.

Schools affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Ed-Ed-ucation (CBSE) gave their students an opportunity to picka course of their choice from these alternatives. The au-thorities, however, soon realized that the two courses werewever, soon realized that the two courses werenot being perceived as constituting a choice between equallyrewarding options. It was observed that students who hadopted to take the ‘discipline-wise’ science course receivedpreferential treatment while securing admission to the high-er secondary stage. Thus the spirit underlying the ReviewCommittee’s recommendations was practically under-mined. The CBSE schools therefore abandoned these ini-BSE schools therefore abandoned these ini-tiatives and returned to ‘discipline-wise’ study of scienceat the secondary stage, as was the practice in all otherschools.

2. National Policy on Education, 198686

A new educational policy was developed in 1986, nearlyeighteen years after the NPE was formulated and imple-NPE was formulated and imple-mented. Fresh assessment was necessitated by widespreadbelief that the system in prevalence neither met the needsnor fulfilled the aspirations of the people. The 1986 policy6 policyreposed faith in the conviction of its predecessors that sci-ence and mathematics should continue as compulsorysubjects in the first ten years of school education. Indeed,the teaching of science needed to be further perfected asvirtually all aspects of growth and development in themodern era had their basis in scientific knowledge and assuch, societies needed citizens literate in science and tech-nology at various levels to ensure overall progress.

Towards this end, the policy further enunciates:� Science and mathematics will remain as core subjects

in the first ten years of school education.� In order to develop scientific temper and to attain other

goals, it is necessary to define the objectives to be ful-filled through science education.

� Involvement of community, non-government and vol-untary agencies are required to pool resources by es-tablishing networks among different institutions.Efforts should be made to generate manpower at thegrassroots level to spearhead the implementation ofthe ideas stated in NPE.

� Programmes with exclusive focus need to be evolvedfor the educationally backward schools and states inthe country. They need to be designed to eliminate dis-parities and attain equal status for women. Educationqual status for women. Educationof scheduled castes, tribes and other educationallychallenged sections of society, besides rural, remoteand neglected regions of the country require innova-tive and culture specific approaches. The challengesare manifold and need to be addressed with a certaindegree of sensitivity and with the sense of immediacythey merit.

� To attain universal enrolment and to pre-empt drop-outs, improvement in both the environment as well asthe quality of education imparted are to be treated as aquintessential ongoing process. The learning process,being neither uniform nor mechanical, allowancesneed be made for individual students who may differfrom the majority. Teaching and learning of scienceshould be so designed as to respect the basic rights ofeach and every student. Science education at the ele-mentary level should not overwhelm children withloads of information but should instead aim to opentheir hearts and minds to the joy of learning.

� Science education will be extended to the vast num-bers who have remained outside the reach of formaleducation. This is to be borne in mind while planningfor non-formal systems.

� Science and mathematics curricula for the secondarylevel should help inspire conscious internalization of ahealthy work ethos. This will provide valuable man-power fuelling economic growth even while mouldingideal citizens who can adapt effortlessly to a societybased on science and technology.

� Science curriculum for general education will be im-plemented in pace-setting schools with sufficientscope for innovation and experimentation.

� Science up to Class X should be treated as a combinedClass X should be treated as a combinedsubject. The laws and principles of science, operatingin the environment, should be used for creating desiredteaching/learning situations. The learning and teach-ing of science should be so prioritized as to lay greateremphasis on an activity-oriented methodology.

II. AIMS OF TEACHING SCIENCE

The general aim of science education is to help developscience education is to help developwell-defined abilities in cognitive and affective domains,besides enhancing psychomotor skills. It helps to foster anuninhibited spirit of inquiry, characterized by creative, in-novative and objective approaches. Educational pro-grammes are designed to help unravel the mysteries of theinter-relationship between science and day-to-day life,health, agriculture, industry, and indeed, the individualand the universe. Scientific wisdom, knowledge and skillsare ammunitions that instil confidence and inspire the in-dividuals to challenge existing beliefs, prejudices andpractices. They work as a liberating force and serve as aThey work as a liberating force and serve as a

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reliable tool in one’s search for truth, harmony and orderin different aspects of life.

In Classes I and II Environmental studies is wholly de-voted to the fundamentals of science. In Classes III to VVhowever, Environmental studies branches into two sec-tions: one dealing with science and the other with historyand geography that are taught together under the title So-cial studies. The objectives of teaching science at the pri-mary stage are:� To learn about flora and fauna, natural resources, the

sources of energy and so on, through interaction withthe immediate environment;

� To sharpen observation, inculcate the spirit of explora-tion; and

� To develop concern, sensitivity and the ability neces-sary for the preservation and protection of physicaland natural resources.

At the upper primary stage, namely Classes VI to VIII, theClasses VI to VIII, thestudent is expected to consolidate and strengthen the abil-ities acquired during the primary stage. The objective is todevelop an understanding of the nature of scientificknowledge; certain physical, chemical and biologicalwledge; certain physical, chemical and biologicalfacts and their relationship to their manifestation in natureand in daily life.

The student should be enabled to develop the capacityto use science to help solve problems and arrive at theright decisions. Pupils are also expected to develop theskills required to operate ordinary laboratory/scienceequipment, and to design simple experiments to seek andfind explanations for natural phenomena. At this stage,science education should help the pupil develop an under-standing and appreciation of the joint enterprise of sciencejoint enterprise of scienceand technology and the inter-relationship of these withother aspects of society.

School education comes to a close with the secondarystage comprising Classes IX and X. The aim of teachingscience at this stage is primarily directed towards thelearning of key concepts that span all disciplines of sci-ence. At the secondary stage, the pupil should be enabledAt the secondary stage, the pupil should be enabledto develop a more profound understanding of the basic na-ture, structure, principles, processes and methodology ofscience, with special reference to its relationship with ag-riculture, industry and contemporary technology. Theteaching of science at this stage should help pupils devel-op insights in health and environment. Greater emphasisneeds to be placed on precision and accuracy while han-dling laboratory equipment and while engaged in proce-dures such as quantitative measurement, collection,presentation, analysis of data, and drawing inferences.

III. CONTENT OUTLINE ONTENT OUTLINE

At the primary stage science is taught under the umbrellaof f Environmental studies. The contents are thematicallyorganized into chapters titled: Things around plants; Ani-Ani-mals and us; Our body and Food, health and weather. Thesyllabus concludes with a chapter titled: Man, science andenvironment.

Science education imparted to the students at the upperprimary stage ought to form part of a smooth and seamlesstransition from the ‘environmental studies approach’ to amore formal study of science. With this as the guiding

principle, efforts have made to formulate content and ap-proach.

Accordingly, the organization of concepts in Class VIClass VIis somewhat similar to those of the lower primary. In ClassVII and VIII, subject matter is dealt with at greater length.Themes like Science in everyday life; Things around us;gs around us;Changes around us; Measurement; Separation of sub-stances; The living world; The living body; Air, water andAir, water andenergy; Balance of nature and The universe, make up thecourse material that engage the students at Class VI. Thisis followed in Class VII and VIII by more subject orientedthemes such as Mechanics; Heat; Electricity; Magnetism;Carbon and its compounds; Metals and non-metals; Lifeprocesses; Evolution, etc., Interdisciplinary topics likeHealth, Nutrition and AgricultureAgriculture also constitute integralpart of the subjects taught at this stage.

Science, at the secondary stage, is introduced aroundten themes, such as: Matter, nature and behaviour; Mo-tion; Force and energy; Ways of living; Human beings;World of work; Energy; Food and health; Environment;work; Energy; Food and health; Environment;Natural resources and the universe. The time allotted forteaching science at primary, upper primary and secondarystage is 15%, 12% and 13% respectively of the total in-5%, 12% and 13% respectively of the total in-structional time.

IV. MAIN PROBLEMSAIN PROBLEMS

Some of the pressing problems facing India with regard tog problems facing India with regard toscience education can be summarized as follows:� Curriculum load: There is substantial pressure ema-

nating from parents and the general public alike whofeel that the school curriculum is excessive and need-lessly taxing. It is widely believed the students arestressed out and this has in turn affected their normalall round development. The problem of curriculumload is a complex one and has its roots in many relatedissues. NCERT is presently revising the national cur-ERT is presently revising the national cur-riculum framework in an effort to resolve this conten-tious issue.

� Preparation of teachers: f teachers: Pre-services preparationand in-service training of teachers are major problemsexperienced during implementation of the curriculum.Given the huge number of teachers and geographicalcharacter of the country, management of in-serviceprogrammers is an intimidating prospect. Efforts arebeing made to address the problem through direct in-tervention at the institutional level as well as throughdistant mode l (and through tele-conferencing). A col-laborative mechanism is being evolved by agencieslike the National Council of Educational Research andNational Council of Educational Research andTraining (NCERT), National Council for Teacher Ed-ucation (NCTE), Indira Gandhi National Open Uni-Uni-versity (IGNOU), along with State Councils ofEducational Research (SCERT) and District Institutesducational Research (SCERT) and District Institutesof Education and Training (DIET).

� Methods of assessment: The attitude, approach, crite-ria and yardsticks adopted to assess and evaluate per-formances in the field of science are woefullymances in the field of science are woefullyinadequate. It in fact is emerging as a major stumblingblock in efforts to improve the quality of the educationsystem in India. Unfortunately, queries considered un-likely to rise at examinations are considered irrelevantand ignored by both staff and students. MethodologiesMethodologies

24

adopted to assess performances are hardly conduciveto the development of problem-solving skills amongthe pupils. To make matters worse, instruction is main-ly assessment-driven in the country. Little or no signif-icance is attached to the assessment of practical work,resulting in utter neglect of practical work in schooleducation.

V. RECENT REFORMS

The latest reforms implemented in India are listed below:below:� Improvement of science education in schools: To

improve the quality of science education and to pro-mote scientific temper, a centrally sponsored scheme:‘Improvement of Science Education in Schools’ hasbeen operational since 1987-88. Under the scheme7-88. Under the scheme100% assistance is provided to the states/union territo-ries (UTs) for provision of science kits to upper prima-ry schools, up gradation of science laboratories andgradation of science laboratories andlibrary facilities in senior/secondary schools and train-ing of science teachers. The scheme also provides forassistance to voluntary organizations for undertakinginnovative projects in the field of science education.

� Environmental Orientation to School Education: Acentrally sponsored scheme by this name was initiatedin 1988-89. The scheme envisages grants to states and88-89. The scheme envisages grants to states andunion territories for various activities including reviewand development of curricula of several disciplines atprimary, upper primary and secondary levels. The ob-jective is increase awareness about environmental is-sues. Review of textbooks on ‘environmental studies’’at primary and upper primary levels are undertakenwith a view to update and enhance their quality. Strat-egies for imparting environmental education at upperprimary level are worked out. Teaching and learningmaterials are being developed. Efforts are underway toorganize innovative activities with a view to enrich thework experience so the teaching staff. To achievethese objectives, the scheme also has plans to seek outjectives, the scheme also has plans to seek outvoluntary agencies for help and assistance.

� Computer literacy and studies in schools: The De-partment of Electronics, in collaboration with the Min-Min-istry of Human Resource Development, initiated apilot project, ‘Computer literacy and studies inschools’ (CLASS) from the school year 1984-85. TheLASS) from the school year 1984-85. Theproject was modified and converted into a centrallynd converted into a centrallysponsored scheme from 1993-94. The aims of theprojects are:

� To provide pupils with an understanding of computersand their use;

� To provide hands-on experiences;� To ‘demystify’ computers to young school goers;� To familiarize pupils with a range of computer appli-

cations and with the computer’s potential as a control-ling and information processing tool. Meanwhile, theMeanwhile, theInformation Technology Action Plan (1988), whichmakes significant provisions for integrating computersprovisions for integrating computersinto the schooling process, has been adopted by theGovernment. As a consequence, the Ministry of Hu-man Resource Development has launched a newResource Development has launched a newschool-computing programme CLASS 2000 fromfromMarch this year. CLASS 2000 has the following threecomponents:

– Computer literacy in 10,000 schools; – Computer-aided learning in 1,000 schools;ded learning in 1,000 schools;– Computer-based education in 100 Smart Schools

will become model centres for others.NCERT developed the Blue Print for Smart Schools uponveloped the Blue Print for Smart Schools uponwhich the concept of computer-based education woulddevelop. NCERT is committed to providing all possibleT is committed to providing all possibleon-line and off-line support to the above venture.

VI. INNOVATIVE USESUSESOF NON-SCHOOL RESOURCES

In order to promote and popularize science education, sev-cience education, sev-eral out-of-school activities (using non-school resources)like science exhibitions, science clubs, debates, essaywriting and quiz competitions are being organized by theNCERT, the Department of Science & TechnologyCERT, the Department of Science & Technology(DST), the National Council of Science Museums (NC-uncil of Science Museums (NC-SM), the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources(MNCES) and many voluntary organizations, such as:Vikram Sarabhai Science Centre, Ahmedabad; Homikram Sarabhai Science Centre, Ahmedabad; HomiBhabha Centre of Science Education, Mumbai, etc.

NCERT has been pioneering exhibitions in India. ItRT has been pioneering exhibitions in India. Ithas been organizing national level science exhibitionsevery year since 1971. The national level science exhibi-tion is the culmination of a series of exhibitions organizedat school, district, regional and state level every year. Atthe beginning of the school session every year, NCERTNCERTcirculates to all states/UTs the main themes and sub-themes of the state-level science exhibitions for a particu-lar year. In keeping with the central and state govern-In keeping with the central and state govern-ment’s emphasis on improvement of educational facilitiesin rural areas and for economically weaker sections of thesociety, the main theme of national and state-level scienceexhibitions are infused with a distinct bias towards the feltneeds of rural India. The social aspect of science and rel-evance of science and technology for development aresome other criteria, which are given due consideration indetermining the themes. The NCERT also provides de-RT also provides de-tailed guidelines to the states for organization of exhibi-tions and outlines the criteria for evaluation of exhibitsand the selection of judges.

The financial and academic support for the organiza-tion of science exhibitions are mainly provided by theNCERT and the state governments concerned. A list ofERT and the state governments concerned. A list ofexhibits selected for display at the National level withbrief synopsis about each exhibit, a book titled ‘Structurek titled ‘Structureand Working of Science Models’ containing details aboutsome selected exhibits and publicity folders about the sci-ence exhibition are published every year by the NCERT.CERT.

The National Council of Science Museums (NCSM)organizes a number of activities like demonstration lec-vities like demonstration lec-tures, mobile science exhibitions for rural schools, sciencequiz, science seminars, science fairs, Nature Study andEnvironment Awareness Programs. NCSM operates andPrograms. NCSM operates andcontributes to science education of children at a mass levelthrough its four museums located at Calcutta, Bangalore,Mumbai and Delhi, besides utilizing a number of regionalDelhi, besides utilizing a number of regionalcentres situated in different parts of the country. NCSMhas set up 301 school science centres in the states of West01 school science centres in the states of WestBengal, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh, Kar-Kar-nataka, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.

25

The centre develops kits and teaching aids, conducts hob-its and teaching aids, conducts hob-by camps, popular lectures, exhibitions, etc.

Vigyan Prasar (an autonomous organization under theDepartment of Science & Technology) has established aTechnology) has established anetwork of Science Clubs (VIPNET) throughout the coun-NET) throughout the coun-try to strengthen the science club movement and to co-or-dinate with other existing clubs and agencies. Vigyan Prasaralso contributes to learning of science through its HomepageHomepagestarted in September 1996. It offers daily science news per-taining exclusively to Indian science and technology (S&T)&T)along with archived news, links to other related sites, anonline popular science magazine, Com.Com, which fea-tures interviews with eminent scientists, S&T developmentstories and articles on topical S&T themes.

Vikram Sarabhai Community Science Centre, Ahmeda-y Science Centre, Ahmeda-bad, conducts a mobile exhibition known as ‘Science Cir-cus’. In this project, all materials required for demonstration,participatory events as well as slides, a special bus takesvents as well as slides, a special bus takesaround films, etc. At any chosen venue, these are displayedfor the benefit of the public. Most of these activities are re-lated to the prescribed curriculum while some others dem-onstrate the application of science in daily life.

The National Council is organizing national Chil-ganizing national Chil-dren’s Science Congress every year for Science and Tech-nology Communication (NCSTC). In this programme,children in the age group of 10-17 years, take up scientific7 years, take up scientificprojects related to local issues. They work under the su-pervision of the teachers/science activists and report theirfindings at school/block or district level Congresses. Se-lect projects are presented at the state and national levels.

The National Bal Bhavan has been contributing to-National Bal Bhavan has been contributing to-wards enhancing the creativity among children in the agegroup of 5-16 years especially from the weaker section. Itwas established in 1956 and now operates throughout thecountry through its fifty-three affiliated state Bal Bha-vans. There is a library as well as National Children’s Mu-There is a library as well as National Children’s Mu-seum. It regularly organizes programmes whereinchildren can pursue activities of their choice such as in en-f their choice such as in en-vironment, astronomy, photography, science-related ac-tivities, etc. These experiences are enjoyable andmemorable for the children, especially as they are pre-dominantly from disadvantaged backgrounds. Thematicand general workshops are also organized regularly forteachers, trainers and adults in science activities.

VII. NCERT’S EFFORT TOWARDA NEW CURRICULUM

We have had the opportunity to observe and analyse thed the opportunity to observe and analyse thestrengths and weaknesses of the National Policy on Edu-cation that is in prevalence since 1986. With the benefit ofWith the benefit ofhindsight we can safely conclude that we need to criticallyscrutinize and revamp the content, process, and approachto education, in general, and science education, in partic-ular. Greater dynamism needs to be infused into the schoolcurriculum in order to enable it to respond to the fast chang-ing priorities and long-term developmental goals of the na-tion. A number of important developments have takenplace since the last revision of school science curriculumand these are bound to decisively influence the formula-tion, design and development of science curricula.

� Firstly, our understanding of ‘how students learn sci-ence’ has changed significantly. From process ap-proach to science education, we have moved toconstructivist approach.

� Secondly, last two decades have seen emergence of anew taxonomy of practical skills, which is now inter-nationally accepted and widely used. These aspectshave to be taken care of in design of learning materialsfor children as well as in the technology of teachingand assessment.

� Thirdly, and probably the most significantly, develop-ment has taken place in the area of information tech-nology. This is not only likely to considerablyinfluence the end product, but also hugely impact thecontent and process of science education.

The National Council of Educational Research and Train-Council of Educational Research and Train-ing has already started the process of revising the nationalcurriculum framework. In the first phase, a document en-titled ‘National Curriculum Framework for School Educa-National Curriculum Framework for School Educa-tion–A Discussion Document’ has been brought out inJanuary 2000. This document provides a curricular frame-work for all stages of school education. It has beenevolved through a variety of strategies—by looking intotheoretical and research materials, consulting and discuss-ing various issues with faculty members, eminent educa-tionists and experts.

In the second phase, workshops/meetings at national//meetings at national/regional levels are being organized for extensive and in-tensive discussion in order to evolve consensus on variousissues raised in the document. The document has beenmade available to all the stakeholders in education, i.e. oth-er national and state-level institutions, school boards of ed-ucation, state councils of educational research and training,directorates of education, parent/teacher associations, pro-fessional associations of teachers and teacher educators,and eminent educationists and educators. Their sugges-tions and responses will help enrich the final document. Inthe third phase, based on the guidelines provided in the newCurriculum Framework, syllabi, textbooks and other in-yllabi, textbooks and other in-structional materials for all stages of school science edu-cation will be designed and developed.

The progress and development of science and technol-ogy in India and the enormous potential it holds for the fu-ture have been comprehensively summarized by Prof.R.A. Mashelkar, Director-General of Council of Scientif-A. Mashelkar, Director-General of Council of Scientif-ic and Industrial Research in his Presidential address de-livered at eighty-seventh Indian Science Congress, Pune,y-seventh Indian Science Congress, Pune,on 3 January 2000 as follows:

Let me sum up by recalling the new Panchsheel of thep by recalling the new Panchsheel of thenew millennium, that we should launch in the year 2000.It is simply:� Child-centred education;� Woman-centred family;� Human-centred development;� Knowledge-centred society;� Innovation-centred India.These principles, if put into practice, will help India to ac-quire a scientific temper, edge towards a ‘learning com-munity’, realise national dreams of being a ‘knowledgesociety’ and leave behind memories of underdevelopment.

26

I. INTRODUCTION

Science today is the most potent tool in the hands of menf mento unveil the many secrets shrouding our universe. It is thedoorway traversed by both the teacher and the taught. Be-ginning with small steps comprising basic knowledge,they travel towards the most profound insights into ourlives and times. Indonesia too, like most other countries,pays its tribute to science by enshrining it as one of thecore subjects in its national curriculum. Technology, theprodigy child of mother science, although lagging behind,claimed its rightful place in the national science curricu-lum in 1994. Technology is generally classified as prod-ucts and processes. The products are seen as technology inaction, for instance when computers, projectors andaudio-visual aids are utilized in classrooms. zed in classrooms.

Technology has assumed enormous significance in thepresent millennium and its implementation in the class-rooms is no longer a luxury. The present era is often ‘char-acterized by media culture and information technologies,global economies and migration, increasing gaps betweenthe rich and the poor’ (Comber, 1998). Indonesia’s surviv-viv-al in these troubled times is exacerbated by its ongoingeconomic crises. The impact of these crises is such thatcolossal efforts have to be made just to keep children inschools. The Government of Indonesia (GOI), the World), the WorldBank and the Asian Development Bank all provide loansto schools through special programmes that aim to mini-mize the dropout rates and improve the quality of educa-tion. The programmes are widely promoted through aThe programmes are widely promoted through a‘stay in school’ media campaign.

Steady increases in the budgets have, through scholar-ships, enabled disadvantaged children to stay in schoolswhile, at the same time, care is taken not to dilute the useof technologies in the classrooms due to financial con-straints, thus ensuring quality. This paper is devoted to thecurrent status of the teaching of science and technology,challenges ahead, recent reforms in the field, and innova-tive ways of teaching science and technology to studentsfrom vulnerable backgrounds.

II. THE STATUS OF TEACHING SCIENCEATUS OF TEACHING SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY

General science is taught to all students from 4-16 yearsience is taught to all students from 4-16 yearsof age. After the age of 17, the students can choose to spe-cialize in any specific discipline of their choice.

Science is taught as an integrated topic with other sub-jects in pre-school, with a view to ensuring wholesome in-view to ensuring wholesome in-

Estimated population (1996)

Public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product (1996)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

200,453,000(1)

1.4

—

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1996)Teachers (1996) hers (1996) Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters ge of repeaters (1996)

29,236,2831,327,17822:1

113115110

6

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1996)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—TotalTotal—Male—Female

14,209,974

515548

Third-level enrolment ratio (1996) 11

Estimated adult literacy rate (2000)—Total—Male—Female

879282

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations.

Ella Yulaelawati

27

tellectual development. Science vocabularies andknowledge are introduced at the primary school level(grade 1 and 2). Integrated science or general science is). Integrated science or general science istaught in primary school (three ‘teaching hours’ for grade3—40 minutes per ‘teaching hour’, six ‘teaching hours’ forgrade 4, 5 and 6), combined science which consist of biol-ogy and physics (six ‘teaching hours’ each; one teachinghour is 45 minutes) is taught in lower secondary school,while the separate subjects of chemistry (three ‘teachingjects of chemistry (three ‘teachinghours’), biology (four ‘teaching hours’), and physics (five‘teaching hours’) are taught in the upper secondary phasewhen the students reach 17 years of age.

After age 17, those interested in pursuing higher stud-ies in engineering, technology, architectures, physics,medicine, biology, and pharmacy could take courses com-prising seven lessons (45 minutes per lesson) of physics,45 minutes per lesson) of physics,seven ‘teaching hours’ for biology, and six for chemistry.Those who choose the language stream and the social sci-ences do not study any science.

In general, the objectives of the science curriculum areas follows:� To develop scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes;� To develop process skills in acquiring and applyingquiring and applying

scientific and technological knowledge, concepts, andinvention;

� To develop the ability to apply knowledge, under-standing and skills in science and technology for im-proving the quality of life, and facilitate progressthrough advanced learning experiences for higher ed-ucation; and

� To promote the learners’ intellectual, physical, emo-tional and social well being.

III. PROBLEMS AND ISSUESROBLEMS AND ISSUESIN PROMOTING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYY

1. The curriculum and assessment constraints

The rigidity of the syllabus and the scarcity of curriculumguidelines places limitations on the creativity of the teach-ers and inhibits spontaneity in teaching science. The syl-labus consists of objectives, descriptions of topics and

sub-topics, time allocation, methods, resources and as-sessment or evaluation methods. It is considered too rigidand limits the flexibility for creative teachers to developactivities based on teaching science in consonance withtheir own real-life situations. On the other hand, the cur-riculum guidelines do not provide enough materials forhelping teachers to develop scientific research. However,some Indonesian educationists believe that the broad andflexible curriculum may give liberty to some talentedteachers but pose difficulties for the average Indonesianteacher

The quality of teaching and learning science is serious-quality of teaching and learning science is serious-ly hampered by excessive curriculum and assessmentloads. Both are responsible for trivial and didactic cover-age of content, and for the consequent failure of studentsto acquire the depth of understanding and the criticalthinking skills. Aspects of curriculum load include thenumber of subjects studied by each student and theamount of content prescribed in each subject. In addition,at the end of each term, there is an external examination,the results of which determine a child’s progression to thenext grade.

According to Boediono and Sweeting (1999), Indone-Sweeting (1999), Indone-sian primary children spend more hours on their studiesthan children from other countries, namely 28 hours perweek, compared with 23.75 hours in England and Singa-75 hours in England and Singa-pore, and 24.25 hours in the Netherlands. The 28 hours arespread over six days in Indonesia rather than the five daysof the other countries. Indonesian primary children spendcountries. Indonesian primary children spendmore time learning science than children from other coun-tries, namely 4 hours compared with 2.30 hours in Eng-land, 2.45 in Singapore, and 1.30 hours in theNetherlands.

Blazely (1999) compares the content of the IPA curric-ulum for Indonesia, Singapore, England and Australia forgapore, England and Australia forthree topics, namely Electricity, Structure and function ofplants and Air. In these topics, Indonesian children mustcover more content. Table 1 indicates the overload contenton the electricity topic compared to the three other coun-tries.

TABLE 1. Primary school science curricula comparedPrimary school science curricula compared

Indonesia Singapore United Kingdom Australia

ELECTRICITY1. Static electricity

2. Electrical energy and electrical devices X X

3. Electric current and simple circuits X X using dry cells X

4. Conductors and insulators X X

5. Changing the brightness of lights X X

6. Electrical switches X

7. Storage cells, dry cells and dynamos X X X batteries

8. Designing and building variety ofelectrical appliances

Source: Blazely, 1999

28

The additional material in the Indonesian curriculumpertains to practical technology. However, owing to thewever, owing to thelack of resources required for hands-on learning, teacherstend to lecture instead of conducting practical classes.Therefore most of the contents that are to be acquiredthrough practical instruction are poorly understood by thestudents.

In junior secondary school, again, Indonesian childrenspend longer on their studies than do other children;namely 31½ hours compared with 26 hours 40 minutes in½ hours compared with 26 hours 40 minutes inEngland and 27½ hours in Singapore (Boediono & Sweet-& Sweet-ing, 1999). In science, Indonesian students spend slightlylonger on their studies than children from other countries,4.4 hours compared with 4 hours in England and Singa-pore. Besides, far too many subjects are crammed into thebjects are crammed into thepre-university high-school courses—thirteen subjectscompared to three in England and Wales (Slimming,1999) and six in Australia.Australia.

2. The pre-service training of teachers

Pre-service training does not bring out the kind of compe-tence that is a pre-requisite for a successful teacher—athorough understanding of the subject taught and well-developed skills in educating the student. Most institu-tions responsible for pre-service training emphasizemastery of the content to be taught in school but tend toy of the content to be taught in school but tend toneglect the art of promoting learning in school

3. In-service training

Most in-service training in science education uses a cas-cade model. This top-down model, however, has little rel-evance owing to the heterogeneous character ofIndonesian culture, its teachers and the varying levels ofavailable resources. A generic training programme cannotachieve the same results across different ethnic groupsand this, in turn, jeopardizes the development of sciencezes the development of scienceand technology. A community driven collaborative ap-proach might perhaps be more beneficial for the develop-ment of science.

4. Textbooks ks A central agency known as ‘The Book Center’ (BC) eval-’ (BC) eval-uates its own textbooks and those of private publishers toensure that all science textbooks are of good quality. Thetextbooks thus approved are supplied to schools free ofcharge by the government. The textbooks provide sciencement. The textbooks provide scienceinformation with accompanying exercises. However, thecontent and presentation in these textbooks fail to stimu-late learner interest or encourage serious study. This mayperhaps be attributed to an inability to disseminate infor-mation with a suitable clarity and simplicity.

5. Science laboratory

Slimming (1999) points out that many secondary schools999) points out that many secondary schoolshave some serviceable laboratories with a moderate togood range of useable equipments. However, very fewmake more than occasional use of these expensive facili-ties. This is because teachers lack training in the use ofequipment. Furthermore, the highly theoretical scienceFurthermore, the highly theoretical sciencecurricula, time constraints and an examination system that

does not reward a laboratory approach to science have allconspired to stunt growth in this respect.

IV. RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCENT DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

1. The 2000 school science curriculum reform

The 2000 school science curriculum reform will set thehe 2000 school science curriculum reform will set thebenchmark to asses and standardize basic competency inscience and technology achieved in Indonesia. This is asignificant departure from the description of the pre-scribed learning experiences stated in 1994 science sylla-994 science sylla-bi. This is in line with the implementation of Law No. 22,1999, on Regional Autonomy, whereby education be-utonomy, whereby education be-comes the responsibility of each district. The districts willthus have more flexibility in adapting the science curricu-lum to optimize learning skills among the students.

A competency-based curriculum is not unknown insome other countries and is being developed in Indonesiaas well, based on the realization that the country is multi-cultural with numerous ethnic groups. A curriculum of ageneric kind would therefore be quite unsuitable for coun-try-wide use, as each province is unique. A generic curric-ulum is therefore obviously not the right solution forimproving the quality of education. Moreover, the Indo-Moreover, the Indo-nesian education system is overcentralized. This systemhas placed schools and teachers in the unenviable positionof being obliged to fulfill objectives regardless of availa-ble resources, local interests and needs.

2. Basic Technology Education (BTE) Pilot ProjectEducation (BTE) Pilot Project

Basic technology education (BTE) offers children of agesE) offers children of ages12 to 15 (junior secondary education—JSE) an orientationon technology; makes them aware of the impact that tech-nology has on their environment and increases the chancevironment and increases the chancethat children choose a career in a technical profession.Thus BTE plays a role in the provision of the need forskilled technical specialists. The BTE also offers somepractical training so that children who leave school afterJSE can enter the world of work with equipped with thenecessary technical skills.

Aims of the BTE projectThe BTE Pilot Project—Phase I aims to design, developject—Phase I aims to design, developand implement a BTE curriculum in the first, second andthird year of four selected JSE pilot schools in differentprovinces of Indonesia. The four selected pilot schools arein the following provinces: South Sulawesi, Maluku,Maluku,West Java and West Sumatra.

The major aims of the BTE Pilot Project are:� To improve the technological awareness and skills ofprove the technological awareness and skills of

junior secondary school students; and� To orient students with regards to the impact of tech-

nology on local activities.The major objectives of the BTE curriculum are:� To enable students to familiarize themselves with

those aspects of technology that are relevant to theways in which students function in society; and to fur-ther the technical capability of the students;

299

� To acquire knowledge and understanding of the func-tions of technology, particularly the close links be-tween technology, natural sciences and society;

� To become actively involved in the application oftechnology;

� To learn to design solutions for human needs;� To learn how to use technological products safely;� To enable students to explore their abilities and inter-

ests with regard to technology;� The curriculum should offer equal opportunities for

boys and girls and should appeal to both sexes.

Gains of the BTE projectThe BTE project is making significant progress and hasE project is making significant progress and hasalready achieved the following:� A framework was developed for the three-year Indo-

nesian BTE curriculum; Lessons for years 1, 2 and 3Lessons for years 1, 2 and 3have been developed;

� The textbooks for years 1 and 2 have been finalized,and those for year 3 will be finalized in June 2000;

� A study guide for the teachers’ training programmewas developed;

� A training programme was conducted for the staff ofTEDC Bandung;

� A teacher-training programme was implemented foryears 1, 2 and 3;2 and 3;

� A BTE school management programme was imple-mented;

� Equipment was procured as per the specifications out-lined by the BTE;y the BTE;

� Installation of training equipment at the four pilotschools and the TEDC is complete;

� Training related to the operation and maintenance ofall equipment was also carried out.

The application of scientific discoveries usually leads toveries usually leads tothe development and improvement of goods and servicesthat ideally improve the life of humans and the environ-ment they live in. Such goods and services include mate-rials, machinery and processes that improve production orsolve problems. In schools, technology ranges from pen-cils, books and furniture to lighting, transportation, com-puters and so on. However, most schools relatetechnology to computer science or computer-related pro-grammes.

3. Empowering students through service learning

There are some private enterprises involved with the pro-motion of science and technology education. They try toexplain how high-school students can seize the initiativeto develop a virtual learning forum that can influence theirpotential to learn. These institutions try to empower stu-dents by using the innate power of technology to motivatelearners. CD-ROMs and computer laboratories are of-CD-ROMs and computer laboratories are of-fered in order to apply technology to enhance learning.The aim is to both communicate with teachers and moni-tor student exploration of technology. This system guidesxploration of technology. This system guidesthe direction of student inquiry, and promotes new pat-terns of thinking.

The programme is highly innovative in its use of tech-nology and stands out as a good example of a learningcentre. The ‘learning centre’ is a teaching methodologythat enriches instruction by providing thoughtfully de-signed opportunities for students to use their skills andknowledge for and with the community. The goal is tohave students develop their skills and knowledge throughactive participation in the media, because there is often aneed for information exchange or the dissemination ofideas.

Science and technology modules are in written formand the team disseminates these to secondary school stu-dents, accompanied by enrichment tasks on CD-ROMs.D-ROMs.The team then writes letters or e-mails to teachers and stu-dents to build a responsive forum in promoting scienceand technology. This communication functions as in-serv-ice training and provides teachers with professional skillskillsto promote student learning. Internet research and inter-school communication through e-mail are encouraged andthis interaction is moderated through the learning centre.The students would find the motivation to use the learningcentre to enhance their understanding of technology. Thestudents receive encouragement, praise and the securitythat they have a support system to enable their future edu-cation.

The learning centre provides an ‘open Forum’ for stu-dents to meet the needs of the classroom curriculum usingreal-world applications. The ‘open Forum’ provides aplatform where students interact with each other and withteachers, administrators and parents in the school settingto jointly move towards achieving a common vision in thedevelopment of science and technology development and,indeed, that of the country.

References

Boediono; Sweeting, E. 1999. Sweeting, E. 1999. Issues in Indonesian basiceducation: some research evidence. Jakarta, Balit-bang.

Blazely, L. 1999. Review of primary school science cur-w of primary school science cur-riculum. Jakarta, Balitbang.

Muljoatmodjo; Yulaelawati. 1995. Thinking and prob-djo; Yulaelawati. 1995. Thinking and prob-lem-solving skills development across the curriculumin Indonesia. Innotech journal (Manila), vol. 19, no. 1,Manila), vol. 19, no. 1,p. 57–62.

Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development. 1999.m Development. 1999.Basic Technology Education Project. Jakarta, SLO.

Slimming, D. 1999. Strategy for improving implementa-tion of SMU curriculum. Jakarta, Senior SecondaryEducation Project.

Yulaelawati, E. 1995. New ways of science teaching: theactive learning and professional support project. Pa-per presented in CONASTA Seminar, Brisbane, Aus-Brisbane, Aus-tralia.

30

TABLE 2. Who is doing what in scientific and technological curriculum development in Indonesia?m development in Indonesia?

CENTRAL LEVEL REGIONAL LEVEL SCHOOL LEVEL

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES X X

CURRICULUM PLAN X X X

METHODSAND APPROACHESTO TEACHING

X X

MATERIALS X X

EVALUATIONAND EXAMINATION

X X X

31

I. THE STATUS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYEDUCATION IN JAPANPAN

In Japan, the ‘course of study,’ namely the course objec-tives, approach and content of the school curriculum, isdetermined by the standard national curriculum set by theMinistry of Education. It is legally compulsory for schoolsgally compulsory for schoolsto abide by the national curriculum standard, so that uni-formity and standardization of the school curriculum maybe attained throughout the country. The course of studyhas been periodically revised by the Ministry of Educa-tion, every ten years or so since 1972. The course of study2. The course of studyfollowed in Japanese schools in the year 2000 was initiat-ed at the elementary school level in 1991, while the lowerand higher secondary schools adopted it in 1992 and 1993respectively.

As recommended by the Curriculum Council, the sci-Curriculum Council, the sci-ence and technology syllabus is a selection of quintessen-tial topics such as scientific phenomena commonlyencountered by students in day-to-day life. The aim is totrain students in the practical aspects of scientific learn-ing through laboratory and other experiments, developtheir powers of observation and hone their ability to inter-pret and apply their knowledge. Although private compa-nies produce textbooks, they require mandatoryauthorization from the Ministry of Education. The ele-zation from the Ministry of Education. The ele-mentary and lower secondary school textbooks are dis-tributed free of charge.

1. Policies that have shaped the curriculumof year 2000

Guiding principles:� To foster a rich and vibrant student spirit;� To provide a firm foundation for life and learning;� To promote quality education that spurs individuality;quality education that spurs individuality;� To foster student ability to continually pursue self-ed-

ucation;� To inculcate respect for culture and tradition; � To promote international understanding.

2. Science in the present course of study

General points:� The emphasis is on the basics of science and on indi-

viduality;� Learning is based on science encountered in everyday

life and applied technology;

Estimated population (1996))

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1994)

Duration of compulsory educa-tion (years)

125,351,000000(1)

3.6

102

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1997)Teachers (1997) Pupil/teacher ratio (1994)

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—MaleMale—Female

Estimated percentage of repeat-ers

7,855,387420,90119:1

101101101

—

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1994)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

9,878,568

1033103104

Third-level enrolment ratio (1994)

41

Estimated adult literacy rate —

Note: in each case the figure given is the last yearavailable.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statisticalyearbook, 1999999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the ex-UNESCO, 1999, with the ex-ception of (1) Population Division, Department forvision, Department forEconomic and Social Information and Policy Anal-ysis of the United Nations and (2) ) World data on ed-ucation, Paris, UNESCO, 2000.

Masakazu Goto

32

� The aim is to enable the development of the basicpment of the basiccapabilities and creative skills necessary to cope witha rapidly changing societal environment.

Specific aspects that help develop a scientifictemperament:� Observations, experiments and growing plants;� Scientific perception of nature;� Research activity and task study;� Scientific assessment, judgement and clear self-

expression;� Computing skills and applications; � Science education oriented towards the protection of

the environment.

3. The key policies of the science course in 2000

At the elementary school level:Efforts are underway to utilize experiments and observa-tions to help students gain insights into natural phenome-na. ‘Life environment studies’ were introduced in the firstand second grades, while students begin learning scienceas a discipline from grade III onwards.

At the lower secondary school level:Students will be offered many more opportunities for ex-perimentation and scientific observation. The aim is toThe aim is tostrengthen their capacity to study science, kindle a passionfor science, and enthuse them to explore and comprehendnature more deeply.

At the upper secondary school level:Students will be encouraged to study science on their ownand urged to develop scientific ways of thinking. Theywill be given the freedom to choose their classes accord-ing to aptitude, capability and future plans. Preparationsare underway to introduce computers to classrooms at alllevels.

4. The learning programme for science

At the elementary school level:The course content is divided into three areas: a) Livingthings and their environment; b) Matter and energy; c)The earth and the universe. Science and social study areintegrated into ‘Life environment studies’ in the first andsecond grades. Therefore pure science is taught from thethird grade onwards.

Overall objectives:To help develop one’s ability at solving problems, to fos-ter love and sensitivity towards nature, and to inculcate adeeper understanding of the phenomena of nature utiliz-ing a variety of observations and experiments. This wouldhelp nurture a more rational and logical thought processthat helps to develop a scientific worldview.

Contents for each grade and area:Third Grade:Grade: a) Familiar plants, the process of theirFamiliar plants, the process of theirgrowth and their structure; the body structure of insects;and the human body; b) The properties of air and water,the properties of substances; c) The features and proper-ties of substances composing the surface of the earth.

Fourth Grade: a) The relationship between the growth ofplants and the environment, the inter-relationship betweenhuman and animal activity and the environment; b) Thedifference of the weight of materials, the functions ofelectricity and light; c) How running water transformsland, water and the various changes that take place in thenatural world.Fifth Grade: a) The process of germination, growth andfruition by growing plants; the birth and growth of ani-mals, example, by raising fish; the birth and growth of hu-man beings; b) The various ways of dissolving substancesin water depending upon the temperature and amount ofwater; the mechanism and functions of a lever; using a le-ver; the movement of materials using weights; c) Thechanges in weather, the movement and relative positionsof the Sun and the Moon.Moon.Sixth Grade: a) The function of water in plants and thefunctions of leaves, observed by growing plants; the func-tions of breathing, digestion, excretion and circulation byobserving the visceral anatomy of an animal; the charac-teristics of human beings and their interaction with the en-vironment; b) The properties of water solutions, theproperties of materials and air, and the changes observedupon burning and heating materials; the functions of elec-tric current; c) The characteristics of stars and their move-ment, the characteristics of the matter that forms the land,and the formation of land.

At the lower secondary school level:The science content is divided into two fields. The firstdeals with ‘Matters and phenomena related to substancesand energy’ and second with ‘Living things and naturalmatters and phenomena’. The overall objectives are to en-able students develop the capacity to undertake investiga-ke investiga-tions in a scientific manner; to deepen their understandingof scientific phenomena. The aim is to arouse students’ in-terest in nature through experiments and observation andhelp them develop scientific views and thinking.

Contents of each fieldFirst field:1. Familiar substances and their changes: water solu-

tions, change in the state of substances, formation ofgases (Grade VII); VII);

2. Familiar physical phenomena: light and sound, heatand temperature, force, pressure (Grade VII);

3. Chemical changes: chemical changes, atoms and mol-ecules (Grade VIII);

4. Electric current: electric current and electric pressure,functions of electric current and flow of electrons(Grade VIII);

5. Chemical changes and ions: electrolysis and ions, ac-ges and ions: electrolysis and ions, ac-ids, alkali, and salts (Grade IX);

6. Motion and energy: functions of force, motion of ob-jects, work and energy, progress of science and tech-work and energy, progress of science and tech-nology, and human life (Grade IX).

Second field:1. Life of plants and kinds of plants: life of plants and

their body structures, classification of plants (Gradebody structures, classification of plants (GradeVII);

2. The earth and the solar system: planets and the solarsystem (Grade VII);

33

TABLE 1. The number of hours available for teaching

School level Grade level Present After 2002 Integrated Elective Total (Now)

Elementary school 1st Grade 102 782 (850)

2nd Grade 105 840 (910)

3rd Grade 105 70 105 910 (980)

4th Grade 105 90 105 945 (1015)

5th Grade 105 95 110 945 (1015)

6th Grade 105 95 110 945 (1015)

Lowersecondaryschool

7th Grade

8th Grade

9th Grade

105

105

105-140

105

105

80

70-100

70-105

70-130

0-30

50-85

105-165

980 (1050)

980 (1050)

980 (1050)

Uppersecondaryschool

10th Grade

11th Grade

12th Grade

More than sixcredits forgraduation

More thanfour creditsforgraduation

Three tosix credits

Above seventy-four credits forgraduation

3. Life of animals and kinds of animals: life of animalskinds of animals: life of animalsand their body structures, classification of animals(Grade VIII);

4. Weather changes: weather changes, weather in Japanges: weather changes, weather in Japan(Grade VIII);

5. Links between living things: living things and cells,reproduction and heredity, mutual linkages in themutual linkages in theworld of nature (Grade IX);

6. Earth, its changes: volcanoes and earthquakes, geolog-ical strata and geological history, the earth and humany, the earth and humanbeings (Grade IX).

At the upper secondary school levelOverall objectives are to arouse students’ curiosity and in-terest in nature, foster the capability of scientific investi-gation through observation and experiments, and deepentheir understanding of natural phenomena, thereby devel-oping a scientific view of nature. w of nature.

Contents: Subjects: Integrated Science (4 credits); Phys-ics IA (2 credits), Physics IB (4 credits), Physics II(2 credits); Chemistry IA (2 credits), Chemistry IBChemistry IA (2 credits), Chemistry IB(4 credits), Chemistry II (2 credits); Biology IA (2 cred-its), Biology IB (4 credits), Biology II (4 credits); Geol-ogy IA (2 credits), Geology IB (2 credits), Geology II(2 credits); IA is the ‘Course of Daily Life Science’.Life Science’.The science student takes IB and II. Students mustchoose at least one subject each from two subjectgroups of these five.

5. Timeframe

One unit or school ‘hour’ is a class period equivalent to 45quivalent to 45minutes at the elementary school level and 50 minutes at

the secondary school level. Thirty-five school ‘hours’ oflessons per school year are counted as one credit (seeTable 1).

II. STATUS OF CHILDREN AND EDUCATION ATUS OF CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

In the curriculum for the year 2000, the overall academiclum for the year 2000, the overall academicachievement of Japanese children is considered to be sat-isfactory. For example, according to the TIMSS (Third In-SS (Third In-ternational Mathematics and Science Study), theachievements of Japanese children in the fourth andeighth grades are the second and third highest respective-

ly, among the twenty-six and forty-one participatingcountries. However, there remain several issues that stillHowever, there remain several issues that stillrequire to be addressed:• A substantial number of children do not fully under-

stand the syllabus content.• Children’s abilities to study and judge by themselves

and to express their opinions have yet to develop fully.press their opinions have yet to develop fully.• Children’s abilities to view things from different per-

spectives are not yet satisfactory.• Children are excessively challenged by comprehen-

sive science problems, such as ‘problems related to en-vironment and the essence of science’ (TIMSS).SS).

• Children lack interest in science and its study.The percentage of students who demonstrate an interest inscience has registered a worrying drop from 85% in GradeGradeIV to only 56% by Grade VIII. This measure of the eighthgrade students’ interest in science is the lowest among theparticipating countries. The percentages of students whothink that science and technology are important to dailylife and desire to enter future jobs related to science andtechnology are the among the lowest, namely 48% and20% respectively (TIMSS).0% respectively (TIMSS).

34

Student disinclination to study science, as well as thetendency of students to opt for non-scientific fields, areexceedingly serious problems for a nation whose econo-xceedingly serious problems for a nation whose econo-my is built on science and technology. Also of concern isthe problem of how to promote national scientific literacy,given that, after graduation, students seem to forget thescientific knowledge that they are supposed to have ac-quired. There are but few instances of students using com-puters or doing fieldwork.

Other challenges include: integrating computers into: integrating computers intoscience education; keeping science education in stepwith advances in science and technology; and teachinglessons that deal with environmental problems caused bythe progress of science. An important consideration iswhether or not to introduce ‘information education’ or‘the gathering and utilization of information’ as new sub-jects. The computer has been introduced into all schools,but only a small percentage of schools have actually uti-lized computers in the science lessons. Also, few stu-dents get the opportunity to do the prescribed fieldwork.

6. The entrance examinationThere are a variety of problems surrounding the entranceexamination, among which: a social climate where dispro-portionate emphasis is placed on academic credentials;unhealthy competition in the entrance examinations; vari-ous kinds of problem behaviours by children and youngpeople; and the harmful effects of uniformity and rigidityin school education.

In addition, rapid and wide-ranging social change hascreated a strong need to develop an education system ca-pable of accommodating these changes. As part of the ef-fort to deal with these problems, the National Council onNational Council onEducational Reform recommended the following:• The introduction of the principle of respect for the in-

dividual;• The transition to a lifelong learning system;• The importance of coping with social changes, includ-

ing internationalization and the shift to an informa-tion-oriented society

7. The issues beginning in 2002The most pressing issues are the introduction of the five-day school week and the consequent reduction of sciencek and the consequent reduction of scienceclass time (30% reduction of contents and teaching time),as well as the reorganization of science content in the newcourse of study.

Each school must develop an original curriculum andp an original curriculum andteaching materials according to their ingenuity and theconditions pertaining in their schools. These courses arenaturally dependent on the commitment and capabilitiesof the teachers involved. Pre-service and in-service teach-ing education will thereby gain greater significance.

I. THE NEW CURRICULUM AND THE REFORMW CURRICULUM AND THE REFORMOF SCIENCE EDUCATION

1. The purpose of reforming the standard national cur-dard national cur-riculum

• To help a child develop humanitarian values, sociabil-elp a child develop humanitarian values, sociabil-ity and self-identity as a Japanese person living in theinternational community;

• To help a child develop the ability to learn and thinkindependently;

• To help a child develop his/her individuality by pro-viding ample scope for learning opportunities;

• To encourage each school to show ingenuity in devel-oping distinctive educational activities.

2. Introduction of integrated study

In addition to the existing disciplines, moral education andspecial activity, the new integrated course of study hasbeen introduced into the present curriculum and will comeinto effect from 2002. A ‘period for integrated study’ willA ‘period for integrated study’ willbe established to encourage each school to show ingenuityin providing interdisciplinary and comprehensive courses,including international understanding, foreign-languageconversation, information study, environmental educationand welfare education.

The contents and teaching times of all subjects will bereduced by 30% because of the introduction of integratedstudy and the five-day school week. To promote scientifick. To promote scientificliteracy, science teachers should utilize the period of inte-grated study in addition to the science lessons. This is de-pendent on the competence and commitment of theteachers at the respective schools.

Science teachers will also need to make use of facili-ties outside the school, such as museums and human re-sources, in order to enrich science education during theschool year, a period crucial to the lifelong learning proc-ess. Teachers will play the role co-ordinators and organiz-ers. Training science teachers therefore assumes greatersignificance than ever before.

3. The reform of science learning

A. The elementary reform standardObjectives: The main objectives of the elementary reformstandard are:• To help students familiarize themselves with nature,

cultivate intellectual pursuits and an inquiring mind;• To help students set clearly defined experimental

goals and carry out experiments and record their ob-servations;

• To help students develop the ability and aptitude tocarry out scientific inquiry;

• To help students develop a scientific world-view and ascientific way of thinking.

The reform envisions the following:• To appreciate and value learning related to natural ex-

periences and daily life;• To appreciate and value learning related to natural en-

vironments and human beings;• To observe and conduct numerous experiments with a

definite purpose;• To foster problem-solving abilities and multi-lateral

and integrated approaches.

4. Suggested reforms

A. The elementary school• To foster problem-solving abilities (comparison of(comparison of

events, abstraction of factors with change, designedobservation and experiment, multi-lateral considera-tions);

35

• To enable students to understand the relationship be-tween science and daily life: (a) Life and its environ-ments (The life and growth of flora and fauna); (b)Matter and energygy (Character of matter, changes ofstate); (c) Earth and the cosmos (Phenomena in thePhenomena in thelithosphere, atmosphere and the terrestrial globe, nat-ural disasters).

B. The lower secondary school• To foster problem-solving abilities and scientific ways

of thinking;• To progress from learning on the basis of direct expe-

rience and observation to developing analytical and in-tegrated points of view;

• To learn outdoor observation to develop problem-solving skills;

• To perceive inquiry related activities as an ideal wayto accomplish given tasks.

C. The upper secondary school• To appreciate the importance of inquiry-related study;• To develop the ability and attitude to inquire into

nature;• To help students become scientifically literate accord-

ing to their aptitudes, abilities and future plans:(a) The establishment of ‘basic science’: Investigat-

ing and solving the secrets of nature, contributingto the development of civilization, becomingzation, becomingaware of our scientific heritage, problem-solving,becoming aware of the challenges facing scienceand the relationship between science and humanlife, fostering a scientific world-view and scientif-ic ways of thinking.

(b) The establishment of ‘Integrated science A’ and‘Integrated science B’: B’: Integrated science A:learning ways of inquiring into natural events thatare related to our daily life, such as matter and en-ergy, focusing on ‘the relation between scientifictechnology and human beings’, developing an in-tegrated view of nature, and the ability and apti-tude to inquire into nature. Integrated science B:Learning ways of inquiring into the natural eventsthat are related to real-life phenomena and the ter-restrial environment, focusing on ‘life and its en-vironments’, fostering a integrated view of nature,and the ability and aptitude to inquire into nature.

(c) ‘Physics I’, ‘Chemistry I’, ‘Biology I’, ‘Earth sci-Physics I’, ‘Chemistry I’, ‘Biology I’, ‘Earth sci-ence I’, which have simpler content than found inthe current ‘IB’ and ‘II’ observation, experimenta-tion and inquiry activities, and learning the basicconcepts and methods of inquiry.

(d) ‘Physics II’, ‘Chemistry II’, ‘Biology II’, ‘Earthscience II’ should train students in observation,experimentation and inquiry into these subjects,jects,and inculcate methods of inquiry; teachers shouldselect content according to the interest, ability andaptitude of the students.

Subjects. Students must choose at least two subjects fromthe above for graduation. Credit points are accorded asfollows: Basic Science (two credits), Integrated Science A), Integrated Science A(two credits), Integrated Science B (two credits), Physics I(three credits), Physics II (three credits), Chemistry I

(three credits), Chemistry II (three credits). Biology I(three credits), Biology II (three credits), Geology I (threecredits) and Geology II (three credits).

III. THE LIFELONG LEARNING SOCIETYE LIFELONG LEARNING SOCIETY

During 1999-2000, facilities outside of the school envi-2000, facilities outside of the school envi-ronment have been trying to contribute to science educa-tion and science related activity. For example, sciencemuseums, natural history museums and science centres atboth the national and local levels have made special ef-forts to inspire and nurture young people’s interest in na-ture and science. Science teachers should make use ofsuch facilities and human resources to promote a positiveattitude towards science among their students.

For instance, science teachers have developed the sev-enth- and ninth-grade curricula in a way that places field-work or outdoor learning at the centre of learningactivities; such curricula can integrate many subjects.

Teachers sometimes organize team-teaching in thesecurricula. By using facilities like museums and with thehelp of external human resources, teachers create oppor-tunities to exhibit their students’ works in these local fora.Students are then able to present their research and workto friends and the general community. Teachers also en-courage their students to talk about their work through theInternet to reach out to students in other schools, as wellas to people outside of the school environment. The gen-eral aim is to optimize school education. Students will ex-pand their learning organically from school to their localenvironment, and thence to the outside world. By utilizingvarious educational networks, students will develop theirlearning capacity in an exponential fashion. Therefore,such a method of science learning is defined as ‘organicand expansive learning’.

The learning network is vital to organic and expansivelearning. The learning network is hierarchical in nature,comprising several networks among subjects, students,jects, students,schools and educational facilities outside the school, themuseum-centred network, the Internet, the mass mediaand so on.

1. Reasons for the fieldwork-centred curriculumk-centred curriculum

• Students like to carry out fieldwork;• Students can develop their inquiry-related assign-

ments according to the level of their ability;• Many people (adults) are attracted by nature. Children(adults) are attracted by nature. Children

and adults can share their pleasure in nature. There-fore, fieldwork may lay the foundations of lifelonglearning;

• Fieldwork embraces many subjects and this can facil-itate networking between subjects;

• Students can easily be assisted in their studies by thecurator and specialist in the local museum;

• The fieldwork is related to daily life and can be devel-vel-oped in collaboration with the local community;

• Students investigate the flora, fauna and geologicalfeatures of their respective regions and develop an un-derstanding based on comparative study with the situ-ation in other parts of the world;

36

• Real-life experiences and hands-on activities are moreimportant to their education than knowledge gainedfrom books and television/films.

2. The organic and expansive learning method

The role of teachers consists mainly of presenting lessonsin an engaging and interesting fashion, assisting the stu-dents with their research and co-ordinating between stu-dents and specialists.

3. The developed curricula

• Seventh-grade level science: fieldwork related to floraand fauna;

• Ninth-grade level science: fieldwork related to geology.

4. The established networks

A. Interdisciplinary curriculum network (the network ofsubjects)

In the seventh fieldwork-centred science curriculum, sciencegains importance as the core subject whose relationship withother subjects is as follows: English: expression and commu-English: expression and commu-nication of fieldwork in English; Social studies: socialproblems related to the local environment; Homemaking:cookery classes; Mother-tongue (Japanese): science essayMother-tongue (Japanese): science essayon bird-watching or nature-watching; Fine arts: sketchingand sculpture of natural subjects.

Science teachers take their students on field trips. Stu-dents devise their own assignments to investigate the flo-vise their own assignments to investigate the flo-ra and fauna, and the geological aspects of their localenvironment. They then conduct inquiry-based study onthe basis of their findings. In order to enable students tofind answers to questions which teachers are unable toprovide, the teachers then co-ordinate their students’ visitto facilities like the museum and the university, etc. Stu-dents thereby have an opportunity to learn from special-ists at the various facilities. On Sundays, science teachersco-ordinate and organize the optional fieldwork with theassistance of the specialist. Students learn how to makeuse of the social facility in their learning, and such expe-xpe-rience contributes to their lifelong learning. In order todisseminate their students’ achievements, teachers organ-ize exhibitions of students’ works. Students are also en-couraged to participate in science festivals to sustain theirinterest in science and nature (see Figure 1).

CONCLUSIONONCLUSION

The objectives of the new course of study are:• to foster self-learning and self-thinking through infor--learning and self-thinking through infor-

mal, flexible and innovative methods;• to be highly selective about the course content and en-

able students to acquire basic knowledge and skills;• to promote individuality;• to introduce and develop an evaluation standard to

judge the various abilities of children in addition tomeasuring the quantity of their knowledge.

In order to encourage the development of a lifelong learn-ing society, we are formulating a system of standards thatwill adequately evaluate various learning achievements.Properly recognized, it is expected that these learningachievements will make a beneficial contribution to thedevelopment of the local community, volunteer activities

and career development. The introduction of the five-dayThe introduction of the five-dayschool week reduced the content of and time devoted toscience education. But it is our duty to empower childrento evolve into scientifically erudite and responsible citi-zens of the information age.

Therefore, at secondary school, a larger selection ofelective courses will be introduced to satisfy student inter-est, inspire learning, excellence and intellectual curiosity,and promote learning as a joyous experience. In order topromote the decentralization of education in the new cur-riculum, a new course, namely ‘Integrated Study’, will be’, will beintroduced; teaching time will also be made more flexible.Each school can organize it’s own curriculum dependingon its requirements and ingenuity. The design and devel-opment of the school’s own curriculum depends upon theschoolteachers and the principal. The ability and compe-tence of teachers will be called upon more than ever be-fore. The role of teachers is not only that of teachingchildren but also of co-ordinating, organizing and facili-tating their learning and related activities. Therefore, thepre-service and in-service training of teachers is more im-portant than ever before.

The role of science and technology education cannotbe overemphasized, as Japan is an industrial and techno-logical nation. Teachers and researchers of science andtechnology, recognize this fact. Teachers should make usenon-formal opportunities for learning, such as utilizinghuman resources and facilities available outside theschool environment. In addition to formal education, non-formal education should contribute to cultivating scientif-ic literacy among children. We are at a point in time whenWe are at a point in time whenwe as a nation should think and act in co-operation witheach other for the edification of the next generation. Weshould sincerely take on the challenge of solving the ex-isting problems, as well as those that might arise in futurein the interest of good education for the coming genera-tion.

Referencesferences

Matsubara, S. Science and technology education in Japan:new course of study and the trends. Selected papers onworld trends in science and technology education,p. 299–307. N.p., International Organization for Sci-299–307. N.p., International Organization for Sci-ence and Technology Education, 1989.ucation, 1989.

Miwa, Y. The reform of science education in JapanJapan. Paris,OECD, 1996. (Country paper presented to OECD.)er presented to OECD.)

Miyake, M. Japan: current issues in the science curricu-lum. In: National contexts for mathematical and sci-ence education, p. 223. Vancouver, Canada, PacificVancouver, Canada, PacificEducational Press, 1997. (TIMSS.)

Miyake M., et al. ke M., et al. Japanese children: what are theirstrengths and weakness? An international comparisonof mathematics and science education. Tokyo, NationalInstitute for Educational Research, 1999. [In Japanese.]

Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (Mon-Science, Sports and Culture (Mon-busho). Course of study for elementary schools. To-kyo, 1998. [In Japanese.]In Japanese.]

——. Synopsis of the Curriculum Council’s Mid-TermReport. Tokyo, 1998.

——. Education in Japan 2000. Tokyo, 1998.——. Course of study for lower secondary schools.

Tokyo, 2000.

37

FIGURE 1. Ninth-grade science: the curriculum on geological aspects

38

CENTRAL LEVEL REGIONAL/PROVINCIAL LEVEL SCHOOL LEVEL

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The Ministry of Education Prefectural Board of EducationPrefectural Educational CentreThe Research Group

Teacher

CURRICULUM PLAN The Ministry of Education Prefectural Board of EducationPrefectural Educational CentreThe Research Group

Teacher

METHODS AND APPROACHES TO TEACHING

The Ministry of Education Prefectural Board of EducationPrefectural Educational CentreThe Research Group

Teacher

MATERIALS The Ministry of Education Prefectural Board of EducationPrefectural Educational CentreThe Research Group

Teacher

EVALUATION AND EXAMINATION The Ministry of EducationUniversities and colleges

Prefectural Board of EducationPrefectural Educational CentreThe Research Group

Teacher

TABLE 2. Who is doing what in the development of scientific and technological curricula in Japan?

39

I. INTRODUCTION

Malaysia is cognizant of the priorities being giventhroughout the world to science and technology. As thecountry prepares to join the ranks of developed nations by2020, it has placed on its national agenda the creation of ascientific and progressive society that is innovative, for-ward looking and one that is not only a consumer of tech-nology, but also a contributor to the scientific andtechnological civilization of the future. With the advent ofinformation technology and a knowledge-based economy,it is imperative to produce knowledgeable workers. Mas-tery of science and technology among the young is cru-cial, as this will provide the necessary pool of technocratswho have the capabilities and creativity to take the lead inthe various technology related activities. The implicationson the school curriculum are obvious.

II. STATUS OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

1. Science education

Science is a core subject in the school curriculum andcomprises science for primary, science for secondary,physics, biology, chemistry and additional science. Thescience curriculum is developed centrally. At the primaryand lower secondary levels, science is compulsory to allwhile at the upper secondary level, students either takecore science or choose science electives.

A. Philosophy and aims of science education

The National Philosophy of Science Education states that,‘In consonance with the National Education Philosophy,science education in Malaysia nurtures a science and tech-nology culture by focusing on the development of individ-uals who are competitive, dynamic, robust and resilientand able to master scientific knowledge and technologicalcompetency’. With this philosophy, science education,therefore, is aimed at developing the potentials of individ-uals in an overall and integrated manner so as to produceMalaysian citizens who are scientifically and technologi-cally literate, competent in scientific skills, practice goodmoral values, capable of coping with the changes of scien-tific and technological advances and be able to managenature with wisdom and responsibility for the bettermentof mankind.

Estimated population (1996)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1997)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

20,581,000(1)

4.9

—

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1997)Teachers (1997) Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters

2,840,667148,00019:1

101101101

—

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1998)

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—Female

1,889,592

646959

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995)

12

Estimated adult literacy rate (2000)

—Total—Male—Female

889184

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations.

Malaysia

Sharifah Maimunah Syed Zin

40

B. Primary science

The main aim of science at the primary level is to lay thefoundation for building a society that is culturally scientif-ic and technological, caring, dynamic and progressive.This is to be achieved through providing opportunities forstudents to acquire sufficient skills, knowledge and valuesthrough experiential learning that inculcates the sense ofresponsibility towards the environment and a high regardof nature’s creation.

Emphasis is given on the mastery of scientific skillsneeded to study and understand the world. Scientific skills

refer to process skills and manipulative skills. At the low-er primary level, elements of science are integrated acrossthe curriculum. Science is taught as a subject at the upperprimary level (years 4, 5, 6); 150 minutes per week isgiven to this subject.

C. Content of primary science curriculum

The basic knowledge of the primary school scienceprogramme (years 4 to 6) is organized around five areas ofstudy, as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Content of the primary science curriculum

Investigating ... the living world the physical world the material world Earth and the Universe

the world of technology

Year 4 Variety of life in nature

Features and characteristics of animals and plants

The basic needs of animals and plants

Life processes in animals and plants

Understanding length

Understanding area

Understanding volume

How time is measured

Objects have weight

Properties of magnets

Natural and synthetic materials

Variety of materials in nature

Physical properties of materials and its uses

The Earth its shape, size and gravitational pull

The Earth’s surface

The Sun its shape and size

Heat and light from the Sun

The Moon its shape, size and surface

The Earth-Moon distance

Knowing technology

Development in transportation, communication, agriculture and buildings

Inventors and their contributions

Year 5 How animals and plants survive

The food chain

The food web

Electric current in a complete circuit

Sources of electrical energy

Electrical energy transformations

Heat energy and its effects

Understanding temperature

Properties of light

Light can travel through some materials

Sound

Solid, liquid and gas

How materials behave when heated and cooled

Clouds and rain

Chemical properties of materials

RustPreventing rustThe need to prevent rust

Natural phenomena on Earth

Night and day

Moon phases

The beauty of the night

Strength and stability of structures

Designing a structure

Year 6 Competition a form of interaction between living things

Man’s role towards living things

How man differs from other life forms

The effects of forces

Moving objects

Preserving food

Waste disposal and its effects on the environment

Recycling waste materials

Why recycle?

Solar and Lunar eclipse

The Solar System

Constellations

The grandness of the universe

Simple machines and their functions

Designing tools and devices

Appreciating technology

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D. Secondary science

Science continues to be offered as a core subject to all stu-dents at the lower secondary level. The curriculum at thislevel further develops, nurtures and reinforces what hasbeen learned at the lower primary level. Particular empha-sis is given on the acquisition of scientific knowledge,mastery of scientific and thinking skills, inculcation ofmoral values concurring with the premise that man is en-trusted with the responsibility of managing the world andits resources wisely. This will enable pupils to understandand appreciate the role of science and its application indaily living as well as for the development of the nation.The time allocated is 200 minutes per week.

At the upper secondary level, students are offered sci-ence electives (biology, chemistry, physics and additionalscience) in addition to the core science. While the tradi-tional pure sciences have been in the curriculum for a longtime, additional science is relatively new. It comprises el-ements of physics, chemistry, biology, earth science, agri-culture, oceanography and space science.

Those taking two or more electives are not required tostudy core science. The electives tend to be favoured bystudents who have acquired good passes at the nationalexaminations taken at the end of lower secondary level ofschooling. Elective sciences at this level are allocated 160minutes per week. Table 2 breaks down the allocation oftime for science subjects.

The contents of science curriculum at the upper sec-ondary level are organized around specific themes asshown in Table 3.

E. Scientific and thinking skills

Central in the teaching-learning approach in the science cur-riculum at all levels is the mastery of scientific skills, whichcomprise process skills, manipulative skills and thinkingskills. Process skills are mental processes that encouragecritical, creative, analytical and systematic thinking and in-clude observing, making inferences, classifying, measuringand using numbers, predicting, communicating, using timeand space relationships, interpreting, defining operation-ally, controlling variables, making hypotheses and exper-

imenting. Manipulative skills are psychomotor skills usedin scientific investigations such as proper handling of sci-entific equipment, substances, living and non-living things.

Thinking skills comprise critical thinking and creativethinking, which when combined with reasoning lead tohigher order thinking skills such as conceptualizing, deci-sion-making and problem solving. The operation of thesestrategies can be seen in Figure 1.

Various methods can be used to inculcate scientificand thinking skills. In the science curriculum, the infusionmethodology is recommended. Scientific and thinkingskills are infused through science lessons in various stag-es. These stages range from introducing scientific andthinking skills explicitly, applying these skills with guid-ance from teachers and finally applying these skills tosolve specific problems independently.

F. Attitudes and values

The infusion of desirable values and attitudes is also em-phasized in the teaching approaches. Such values includeshowing interest and curiosity towards thee surroundings,honesty and accuracy in recording and validating data,flexibility and open-mindedness, perseverance, being sys-tematic and confident, cooperation, responsibility for

TABLE 3. Content of the secondary sciences

Science Additional science Biology Physics Chemistry

Man and the variety of living things

Earth’s abundant resources and their management

Energy for life

Man and the balance in nature

Life maintenance

Exploring the elements of nature

Managing nature’s resources

Exploring Earth and space

Man and the maintenance of life

Man and the continuity of life

Man and the management of the environment

Man and social health

Mensuration

Kinematics and dynamic

Properties of materials

Energy

Optics and waves

Electro-magnetism

Electronics

Study of matter

Interactions between substances

Productions of synthetic materials

TABLE 2. Time allocation for science subjects

Levelof schooling

Subject Minutes per week

Primary Primary science 150

Lower secondary Core science 200

Upper secondary Core Science 200

Chemistry 160

Biology 160

Additionalscience

160

42

one’s own and friend’s safety, and towards the environ-ment, appreciation of the contributions of science andtechnology, thankfulness to God, appreciation and prac-tice of a healthy and clean life style and the realization thatscience is one of the ways to understand the universe.

2. Technology education

Elements of technology-based education are introduced atthe upper primary level through the living skills curricu-lum, which covers various aspects of manipulative skills.This subject is taught to all students until the lower sec-ondary level. The main purpose is to orientate students toearly prevocational education. At the primary school lev-el, the subject focuses on three main topics, namely:l Maintaining, repairing and producing things;l Buying and selling things;l Managing self and work.At the secondary level, the subjects consist of two sec-tions, namely, the core subject and the alternatives sub-ject. The core subject integrates: l Manipulative skills;l Commerce and entrepreneurship; andl Family living.The alternatives subject consists of:l Additional manipulative skills;l Home economics; and l Agriculture.At the upper secondary level, technology-based educationcourses become more specialized and are offered as elec-

tives. These include invention, information technology,engineering drawing (offered in general academic schools)and the very highly specialized technical and vocationalsubjects in the technical and vocational schools.

A. Aims of technical education

Technical education is aimed at developing the potentialsof students who have the interest and inclination towardsa technology-oriented program in an effort to produce ahighly knowledgeable and competent workforce in vari-ous technical and engineering fields. Vocational educa-tion aims at providing students with general and technicalsubjects towards providing them with employable skillsand a good foundation for admission into polytechnicsand other institutions of higher learning.

III. MAIN PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THETEACHING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Examination-oriented teaching

A keen emphasis on public examinations by teachers hasled to teaching being mainly geared towards passing theseexaminations. Practical and experimentation are often sac-rificed since these do not form a significant percentage inthe overall marks. Thus teaching learning in the classroomin some context becomes largely teacher-centred, therebyignoring the development and mastery of scientific andthinking skills among students as required by the curriculum.

FIGURE 1. A model of thinking skills

43

2. Group practical activities

In studies conducted on science education, it is observedthat practical work is often conducted in groups ratherthan individually or in pairs. Such practices limit activework to two to three students while the other memberstend to be passive observers. In some cases, this occursdue to the large classes (especially in urban schools) andlimited apparatus and equipment to allow small group orindividual work

3. Teaching of abstract topicsThere are certain topics that are abstract in nature and in-volve concepts and calculations that students find difficultto learn. This includes topics such as energy, motion, elec-tricity, atomic and molecular structure, etc. With ineffec-tive teaching, this brings frustrations to students.

4. Low cognitive-level questioningLearning science effectively needs a high level of cogni-tion. At the same time learning science also developsone’s cognitive ability. Good science teachers will pro-voke students with questions, which challenge them tothink in order to make logical deduction and induction.Science teachers generally lack the skill of higher orderquestioning or do not place importance on this kind ofquestioning. Most of the time, teachers rely on pass-yearexamination questions and examination-orientated books,which do more drilling than developing higher cognitiveabilities to understand abstract science concepts.

5. Inquiry-discovery approach not frequently adopted

Science being an empirical subject invites students to ex-plore and inquire in order to gain knowledge and makeconclusions on their own. The inquiry-discovery ap-proach, necessary in science teaching and learning, hasbeen actively advocated for more than a decade. Howev-er, education officials have observed that in many in-stances science is still being taught in a didactic manner.A small number of teachers do not do experiments withtheir students and a handful of them concentrate more ondemonstration. Many teachers instruct students to carryout experiments following procedures stated in textbooks and make conclusion for them without havingmuch discussion with them or giving them more room todiscover or inquire as is required in the inquiry-discov-ery approach. This has seriously affected the students’interest in and their ability to engage in scientific in-quiry.

6. Dissemination of curricular changes

Dissemination of any new programme introduced by theMinistry of Education is through the cascade system.Through this training model, a group of key personnel aretrained. They in turn train other users of the programme.This training is usually at the state and district levels.While this system proves to be the most economical andfastest method of dissemination, it has its drawbacks.Courses conducted for the trainers at the national leveltend to be of longer duration and quite intensive. Howev-er, those at the state and district level tend to be of a short-er duration or held at intervals. During the process, some

amount of dilution of knowledge occurs, which might leadto poor understanding of the philosophy and misinterpre-tation of the programme.

7. Shortage of science teachers

Malaysia currently faces a shortage of teachers in scienceand technology-related fields. With new subjects being in-troduced in the school, this shortage is expected to in-crease. Consequently, in some schools, particularly at theprimary level, teachers who are not trained to teach sci-ence teach science. Part of the problem lies in the lack ofsuitably qualified candidates joining the teaching serviceas science teachers. Teaching is not an attractive career,and many consider it as a last resort. Those who acquiregood grades in science will take up other science and tech-nology-related careers thus leaving the mediocre and av-erage to join the teaching profession. This inadvertentlyaffects the quality of teaching in the classroom.

To alleviate the problem of under qualified scienceteachers, the training curriculum in teacher education hasincorporated knowledge of science as a component. Theaim is to enhance the trainees’ skills and knowledge in sci-ence.

IV. RECENT REFORMS

The rapid development of information technology and theneed to produce a workforce that will be equipped to meetthe challenges of the information age has entailed a reviewof the existing school curriculum. This is with a view ofcapitalizing the presence of leading edge technologies toenhance the teaching and learning in schools. Smart learn-ing and smart teaching as part of the Smart School initia-tive involves creating a teaching-learning environmentthat makes learning interesting, motivating, stimulatingand meaningful. The initiative emphasizes total pupil in-volvement, develops skills that will prepare pupils to meetgreater challenges and caters to the wide range of interestsand needs of the students.

The curricular change focuses on the delivery systemand learning outcomes. Technology becomes an enabler tofacilitate teaching and learning activities. A multi-modalapproach combining the best of network-based and coursematerials is adopted. The science curriculum has been re-framed to incorporate smart learning and smart teachingwith mastery learning as an important component.

There are several implications of this reform. The highdegree of individualized attention will necessitate a re-thinking of the roles of teachers and school heads. Teacherdevelopment will be critical to the success. The availabil-ity of high-level technological infrastructure will requirequalified personnel who can provide technical support aswell as sufficient funds for maintenance costs. There isalso the issue of the role of the traditional textbooks. Allthese will require a change in the mindset of the variousgroups of people involved in schooling, including thecommunity.

The Smart School concept represents a major under-taking that will require a substantial commitment from allstakeholders as well as of resources, but it is an investmentthat will benefit the nation.

44

V. INNOVATIVE USES OF NON-SCHOOLRESOURCES IN THE TEACHINGOF SCIENCE TO PRIMARYAND SECONDARY SCHOOL PUPILS

Science education is well supported by many other gov-ernmental and non-governmental agencies. For instance,the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment hasprovided a five-year grant to the Ministry of Education toundertake science and technology-related activities forpupils and teachers. These activities are in the form ofcompetitions, exhibitions, workshops and seminars andscience camps. With the establishment of the NationalScience Centre and National Science Planetarium underthis Ministry, many schools have organized trips to theseplaces for their pupils. The Forest Research Institute ofMalaysia is another favourite place for pupils to study theflora and fauna common to Malaysia and other areas ofsimilar climate and vegetation. During these trips, very of-ten the teachers, with the co-operation of these agencies,organize suitable activities to ensure that the students ben-efit from these visits.

Private corporations, such as British Petroleum, ShellMalaysia, Esso and Petronas (National Petroleum Compa-ny), have given contributions in both cash and kind to the

Ministry of Education to conduct various co-curricular ac-tivities, such as Science Across the World and APECYouth Science Festival. Some foundations, such as the Ma-laysian Toray Science Foundation, have annually organ-ized activities to encourage innovations and inventions inthe teaching and learning of science among teachers.

VI. CONCLUSION

Moving into the twenty-first century, Malaysia strives asa developing nation to have a competitive edge in theworld economy and global scientific and technologicalfields. As human resource development is crucial in theadvancement of any nation, Malaysia places great impor-tance on its education, especially science and technologyeducation. With the Philosophy of Science Education as aguide, various subjects and programs have been plannedand implemented. Just like any other nation, various prob-lems exist; continuous, concerted and systematic effortsare needed to overcome these problems. The SmartSchool initiative, as the most recent reform, is a plannedendeavour to create this systemic change to alleviate prob-lems encountered in science and technology teaching andlearning.

TABLE 4. Who is doing what in scientific and technological curriculum development in Malaysia?

CENTRAL LEVEL REGIONAL/PROVINCIAL LEVEL

SCHOOL LEVEL

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

Central Curriculum CommitteeCurriculum Development CentreTechnical Education Department

CURRICULUM PLAN

Curriculum Development CentreTechnical Education Department

State Education Department School Science & Technical Subject Committee

METHODS AND APPROACHES TO TEACHING

Curriculum Development CentreTeacher Training DivisionCentral School InspectorateUniversity

Teacher-Training CollegeState School Inspectorate

MATERIALS Curriculum Development CentreText Book DivisionEducational Technology Divi-sionTechnical Education Department

State Education DepartmentDistrict Education CentreTeacher Activity CentreState Educational Resource Centre

EVALUATION Examination SyndicateCurriculum Development CentreMalaysian Examination Council

State Education Department

45

FIGURE 2. Structure of the Malaysian school system (with reference to science and technology education)

46

I. THE NEW ZEALAND EDUCATION SYSTEMM

In New Zealand, schooling is compulsory from age 6 to16. Some 2,790 schools are registered at primary and sec-90 schools are registered at primary and sec-ondary level.

A new curriculum framework was published in 1993identifying seven essential learning areas, and eight essen-tial skills to be learned, and emphasizing the developmentof attitudes and values. It presents outcomes as achieve-ment objectives—stating ‘what students are to know andjectives—stating ‘what students are to know anddo’, and not ‘what teachers are to do’. Its implementationis regulated through the National Administration Guide-lines. The Education Review Office conducts effective-Review Office conducts effective-ness reviews of all schools on four-year cycles.

II. STATUS OF TEACHING SCIENCECHING SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY IN NEW ZEALAND

Science and technology teaching are both mandatory cur-d technology teaching are both mandatory cur-riculum areas from year 1 to 10. They are both optionalabove year 10.

A new science curriculum published in 1993 has beenmandatory since 1995. The science statement replacedold syllabuses dating from mid-1980s. The new technolo-80s. The new technolo-gy curriculum was published in 1995, and has been man-datory since 1999. It was a new addition to thecurriculum but replaced workshop craft and aspects ofhome economics in years 7 and 8.

1. Major aimsThe major aim of science teachingjor aim of science teaching is to develop knowl-edge and coherent understanding of living, physical mate-rial, and technological components of their environment;skills for investigating the above in scientific ways; op-portunities to develop attitudes on which scientific inves-tigation depends.

The major aim of technology teaching is to developtechnological literacy defined as a combination of techno-logical knowledge and understanding, technological capa-bility, and awareness and understanding of the inter-relationship between technology and society

2. Basic knowledgeIn science teaching, the various knowledge aspects tackledwithin the framework of each strand, are the following:� The nature of science and its relationship to technology;� Scientific skills and attitudes;

Estimated population (1996)996)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1996)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

3,602,000(1)

7.3

12(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1997)Teachers (1997) Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—FemaleFemale

Estimated percentage of repeat-ers (1992)

357,56919,52318:1

101101101

4

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1998)

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—Female

1,889,592

101101101

Third-level enrolment ratio (1997)

63

Estimated adult literacy rate —

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statisticalyearbook, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with theESCO, 1999, with theexception of (1) Population Division, Department forEconomic and Social Information and Policy AnalysisInformation and Policy Analysisof the United Nations and (2) World data on educa-tion, Paris, UNESCO, 2000.CO, 2000.

Frances Kelly

47

� The living world;� The physical world;� The material world; and� The planet Earth and beyond.In technology teaching, seven technological areas are de-fined: biotechnology, electronics and control technology,food technology, information and communication tech-nologies, materials technology, production and processtechnologies, structures and mechanisms. Under theseareas, the following knowledge aspects are considered:� The use and operation of technologies;� Technological principles and systems;� The nature of technological practice;� Communication, promotion and evaluation of techno-

logical ideas and outcomes.

3. Number of hours devoted to science and technologyf hours devoted to science and technologyteaching at each level

The number of hours devoted to each subject is decided atthe school level. There are no reliable data at a nationallevel. A survey conducted in 1999 showed, on an average:A survey conducted in 1999 showed, on an average:years 1 to 6 devoted 1 to 2 hours per week per subject area;years 7 to 8, 2 to 3 hours; years 9 to 10, 3 hours; years 113 hours; years 9 to 10, 3 hours; years 11to 13, 4 hours.

4. Outcomes

An Education Review Office report found that:� A small percentage of schools barely implement thell percentage of schools barely implement the

curriculum;� There is an uneven coverage of the strands in many

schools—the ‘Living World’ strand, for instance, be-ing given much greater emphasis than others;

� Science is generally taught in the afternoon in primaryschools;

� There is a reasonably high level of essential skill de-velopment in the context of science in most schools;

� Secondary science is far more prominent and taughtby specialists. Science had a required time allocationquired time allocationin years 9 and 10 until recently and so has a well-established place in the junior secondary timetable.However, teaching approaches vary considerably andolder science teachers tend to take a traditionalapproach. Younger, more recently trained scienceYounger, more recently trained scienceteachers are more likely to base their programmes onthe new curriculum than on older schemes of work.Within the science teacher profession, there are manywho are familiar with constructivist approaches;

� Many primary schools do not teach science as a stand-alone subject, but instead integrate science topics withject, but instead integrate science topics withother curriculum areas. ERO found this approach didnot always result in science objectives being clearlymet;

� Most schools provide students with opportunities toundertake practical investigations in science.ke practical investigations in science.

III. MAIN PROBLEMS IN TEACHING OF SCIENCETEACHING OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY

Among the main problems encountered in teaching sci-e main problems encountered in teaching sci-ence and technology in New Zealand are:

� Teacher confidence, knowledge of the subject contentand knowledge of the subject pedagogy;

� Lack of specialist facilities in primary schools;� Newness of technology—lack of established base of

teaching learning and assessment experience, lack ofxperience, lack offamiliarity with 'real world' technological practice,legacy of craft-based curricula years 7 and 8;

� The difficulties of attracting and retaining teachers, es-pecially at secondary level, in the field of physical sci-ences.

Up-dating of curricula

The science curriculum was updated in 1992-93. A new2-93. A newtechnology curriculum was developed in 1993-95. A Cur-riculum assessment is planned for 2000-02, following thepublication of the full set of curriculum statements.blication of the full set of curriculum statements.

Production of materials

The Ministry of Education produces resource materialsthrough Learning Media Limited, a government-ownededucation publisher. The key resources used in each areaare:

In science

� Science in the New Zealand Curriculum;� Three senior curriculum statements: biology, chemis-

try, physics;� Putaiao (the Maori word for science);(the Maori word for science);� ‘Making Sense of’ series of teachers’ guides, includ-

ing, ‘Making Sense of the Nature of Science’;� Other teacher guides.

In technology

� Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum;Curriculum;� Hangarau (the Maori word for technology);� Know-how video tapes;� Teachers’ guides: for technological areas and for year

1 to 8 programmes;� Summary leaflet of the curriculum.

Commercial publishers

One of the reasons the Ministry has developed a compre-hensive programme of publications to support science andtechnology is that commercial publishers in New ZealandNew Zealandhave not responded strongly to new curriculumdevelopments 40,000 teachers and 700,000 students donot constitute a large commercial market for publishing.

Partnerships

The Ministry of Education also works in partnerships withprivate companies to produce resources. For example, the'delta' series of technology case studies provides good ex-amples of schools working with professional bodies, prof-it and non-profit enterprises, and outside facilitators//experts to develop and test authentic technology units ofwork. Examples are how Tranzrail can develop a bettersystem for cleaning railway locomotives, and a better de-sign of enclosure for zoo animals. Each study includesvaluable comment from curriculum experts on how the

48 8

unit matches the aims and objectives of the technologycurriculum.

5. Training of teachers

Pre-servicevice

The Ministry of Education does not have direct controlover content of pre-service courses. However, the mainproviders have rearranged their own curricula and depart-mental structures to accommodate the inclusion of tech-nology in the mainstream school curriculum. As inAs insecondary schools this was not always easy as technologywas seen as a resource hungry cuckoo in the nest pushingother demands aside.

In-service

The Ministry of Education has been a significant purchas-er of in-service education on behalf of schools, contract-ing providers to support the introduction of curriculumchange. In science this was largely focussed on the newcurriculum statement itself; this is considered to havebeen insufficient to produce all the benefits for studentsthe curriculum was intended to bring.

In technology there was a much larger investment overa longer period, 1995-99. This was designed to introduce1995-99. This was designed to introducea new learning area to the curriculum. It has focussed onthe nature of technology education, the technological are-as, approaches to teaching and learning, technologicalpractice in the outside world, and is now turning to assess-ment. A major thrust was the training of technology advis-ers/facilitators to lead teacher development programmes,which involved these people in part of a masters-level pro-gramme.

Secondary schools have taken up opportunities forprofessional development far less than primary schoolsand as a result there is less understanding and less supportfor the new science and technology curricula in secondaryschools. This is partly explained by:� The teachers having a greater focus on changes in as-sessment for qualifications—these are only just appearingin technology (for National Certificate in EducationalNational Certificate in EducationalAchievement) and so there has been a mismatch betweentechnology in years 9 and 10 and courses designed for tra-0 and courses designed for tra-ditional qualifications above those levels;� The fact the curriculum changes are compulsory only

at two secondary levels—years 9 and 10;� Because they are subject specialists and feel confident

in their ability to deliver a programme based on pastpractice and their own efforts;

� A climate of change avoidance/aversion.University departments, which bring together expertise inboth science and education or technology and education,have provided research information on curriculum teacherattitudes and capabilities, student capabilities and assess-ment practices. They also provide guidance and supportthrough undergraduate and graduate specialist programs.

6. Support services

The Ministry has contracted time for science and technol-Ministry has contracted time for science and technol-ogy curriculum support from its six support service pro-

viders since 1990, supplementing contracted ProfessionalDevelopment (PD) programmes and following on fromwing on fromthem when they finish. Science advisers have a long his-tory of support to mainly primary teachers. Technologyadvisers are new since 1995.

7. Subject associations

ASE (Association of Science Educators) and TENZ) and TENZ(Technology Education New Zealand) are two very activeorganizations, which organize well attended, biennial na-tional conferences and local network meetings. ASE hasASE hasbeen in existence since the 1970s. TENZ also has a website and an on-line discussion forum. TENZ has soughtm. TENZ has soughtmembership from beyond schools in tertiary educationand technology based industry and professional bodies,e.g. IPENZ, to link technology education practice with au-thentic, 'real world' technology practice.

8. Adequate methods of assessment

Among the methods of assessment used:� National Education Monitoring Project (NEMP),

which has looked at aspects of science twice (1995,pects of science twice (1995,1999) and aspects of technology once (1996) (see re-ports);

� Third International Mathematics and Science Study:Science Study:middling Population 1 and 2 results prompted theMinister to call for a Math and Science Task Force(refer report););

� Computer assessment resource banks in science;� A programme of exemplar development in all learning

areas at levels 1 to 5, which is just beginning.The National Certificate in Educational Achievement tobe introduced in 2002 will include science both as a gen-eral subject option and as specialist sciences.ption and as specialist sciences.

IV. MOST RECENT REFORMS IN EITHER SCIENCEOR TECHNOLOGYLOGY

Among the most recent reforms in science or technologyare:� The introduction of technology as a compulsory cur-

riculum in its own right, developed in 1992-95, pub-992-95, pub-lished in 1995, and mandated for the 1999 school year;

� The policy work partly done by the University ofWaikato, which also won the contract to develop astatement;

� The educational TV (ETV) series to launch it (KnowHow)— with Know How 2 as part of the follow-up PDpackage;ge;

� The now developmental work focussed on assess-ment; and

� The development of Maori-medium curricula in bothareas.

A few conclusions

� It is still too early to tell; the National Education Mon-itoring Project has provided only baseline data.Project has provided only baseline data.TIMSSR results are not yet available.

49

� Some concerns cropped up in secondary schools abouthow to implement technology as a stand-alone subjectw to implement technology as a stand-alone subjector as a subject integrated with science and other sub-jects (some reluctance to abandon exiting optionalsubjects such as home economics).

� Secondary science teachers were divided in their opin-ions about the new curriculum.

� The ERO report O report Science in schools, 1996, found thatteachers were not well enough trained to teach the newcurriculum effectively and had a relatively low level ofexpertise and confidence in the subject. ERO was alsoRO was alsoconcerned at the relatively small amount of time de-voted to science in primary schools.

V. INNOVATIVE USES OF NON-SCHOOLE USES OF NON-SCHOOLRESOURCES IN TEACHING OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY

The Government funds a considerable range of providersvernment funds a considerable range of providersof Learning Experiences Outside the Classroom (LE-OTC). Some of these are attached to existing institutions,,e.g. museums, zoos, observatories, Portobello Marine Lab(Otago peninsula). Others provide ‘road shows’, whichtravel across the country.

Also, the Royal Society+IPENZ+TENZ 'delta' seriesof technology case studies also provide good examples ofprovide good examples ofschools working with professional bodies, profit and non-profit enterprises and outside facilitators/experts.

50

51

Estimated population (1996)

Public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product (1997)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

69,282,000282,000(1)

3.4

10(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1997)Teachers (1996)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters (1985)

12,159,4952,159,495341,18318:1

117——

2

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1997)

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—Female

4,979,795

78——

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995)

29

Estimated adult literacy rate(2000)—Total—Male—Female

959595

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-ch case the figure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theInformation and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations and (2) World data on education, Paris,UNESCO, 2000.CO, 2000.

I. INTRODUCTION

Basic education in the Philippines is composed of sixppines is composed of sixyears of elementary and four years of secondary educationor a total of ten years, one of the shortest in the world.Within ten years, Filipino youth complete basic educationat the age of 16 or 17 years. They then proceed to institu-tions of higher learning, to obtain a degree or a certificatefrom a post-secondary vocational/technical institution, or/technical institution, orenter the world of work. Basic education in the Philip-pines is free at both levels but compulsory at the elemen-tary level only.

On the basis of funding, schools are either govern-ment-supported or privately funded. The number of gov-ernment schools in the elementary level is 91% of the total91% of the totalnumber and 60% in the secondary level.

The school year in the Philippines begins on the firstMonday of June and ends on the last Friday of March thefollowing year. The school year for the elementary andsecondary levels runs from Monday through Friday, con-sists of not less than 40 weeks or 200 days, and is dividedinto four grading periods.periods.

In the Philippine education system, the central officeforms policy and sets standards that are implemented bythe regional and division offices. Supervision of schools,therefore, is the function of the regional and sub-regionaloffices.

II. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATIONAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATIONIN THE PHILIPPINES

Curriculum development at the basic education level isdevelopment at the basic education level isthe responsibility of the Bureaux of Elementary and Sec-ondary Education, Curriculum Development Divisions atthe Central Office. The bureaux define the learning com-The bureaux define the learning com-petencies for the different subject areas, conceptualize thestructure of the curriculum and formulate national curric-ular policies. These functions are exercised in consulta-tion with other agencies and sectors of society, e.g.industry, socio-civic groups, teacher training institutions,professional organizations, school administrators, par-ents, students and other stakeholders.

The subject offerings, credit points and time allot-ments for the different subject areas are determined at thenational level. In this sense, there exists in the Philippinesa national curriculum. Schools, however, are given the op-tion to make modifications/adaptations on the curriculum(e.g., content, sequence and teaching strategies) to ensurethat the curriculum responds to local concerns. Table 1

Bella Marinas

52

shows who is doing what in science and technology cur-riculum development.

The programme at the basic education level sets out tomeet the needs of the students and society as a whole. Thecurriculum is designed to ensure that the student upon grad-uation from a secondary school will be able to learn moreindependently, acquire academic excellence, and developthe capability to cope with new knowledge and technology.knowledge and technology.On the other hand, elementary schools prepare students tocope with the challenges of secondary education.

Science is one of the subject areas in the elementaryand secondary education curricula. Science and health isoffered forty minutes daily from grade I at the elementarylevel. In the secondary level, it is offered as science andtechnology and is taken eighty minutes daily.

Since there is no streaming, or grouping of studentsaccording to their intellectual capacity, at the higherlevels of secondary school, there are science schools orschools with science and technology-oriented classes/sections. Following are brief descriptions of theseschools/classes:� The Engineering and Science Education Projectgineering and Science Education Project (ES-

EP) was a project of the Department of Science andTechnology (DOST) funded by World Bank throughOST) funded by World Bank throughwhich science and technology classes were organizedin 110 secondary schools. These schools also received0 secondary schools. These schools also receiveda two-room science laboratory, science equipment,and scholarship grants for the teachers, and imple-mented a science and technology-enriched curricu-lum.

� The Philippine Science High School System is a net-work of seven secondary schools funded by DOST im-ST im-plementing a science and technology-enrichedcurriculum with a highly selective admission process.

� The sixteen Regional Science High Schools supervisedby the Department of Education, Culture and Sport(DECS) offer a science-enriched curriculum, similar to) offer a science-enriched curriculum, similar tothat of the Philippine Science High Schools.

� A Learning Resource Center is established in six sec-ondary schools. This was a joint project of the localwas a joint project of the localgovernment unit and US Agency for International De-velopment (USAID). The schools, like the 110 ESEP). The schools, like the 110 ESEPschools, have two or more classes per year level offer-ing a science and technology-oriented curriculum.

1. Aims and objectives

The government recognizes the importance of developingits science and technology capability as a means of ad-bility as a means of ad-dressing the concerns of industrialization and globaliza-tion. The education sector, along with other governmentagencies, is tasked to contribute to the achievement of thenational development goals. As such, DECS has focusedCS has focusedits efforts towards programmes and projects aimed at im-proving English, science, and mathematics education inbasic education.

The objectives of elementary and secondary schoolscience:At the end of grade VI, the child is expected to apply sci-VI, the child is expected to apply sci-entific knowledge and skills in identifying and solvingproblems pertaining to health and sanitation; nutrition;food production, preparation and storage; environmentand the conservation of its resources; and evolving better

ways and means of doing things. (Bureau of ElementaryEducation, 1998)998)

The Secondary Science Education Programme aims todevelop understanding of concepts and key principles ofscience, science processes, skills and desirable values tomake the students scientifically literate, productive andeffective citizens (Bureau of Secondary Education, 1998).zens (Bureau of Secondary Education, 1998).

These objectives are contained in the preface for thelearning competencies.g competencies.

2. Curriculum plan

The approach to curriculum design in the country is con-tent-topic-based and competency-based. The school chil-dren are expected to master a list of competencies at theend of each grade/year level and at the end of elementary/secondary schooling. The Bureaux of Elementary andSecondary Education develop, publish, and issue to thefield the learning competencies.

The content in science and health is organized in in-creasing complexity from grade I to grade VI, in cate-VI, in cate-gories on people, animals, plants (and environment),matter (mixture and solutions, physical/chemicalchange, materials at home), energy, Earth, and the sun(the solar system, beyond the solar system). In second-ary school, science includes general science (first year),biology (secondary year), chemistry (third year) andphysics (fourth year). To provide for additional compe-tencies for fast learners, enrichment is added in sometopics (BSE, 1998). BSE, 1998).

3. Teaching methods and learning activities

The curriculum plan does not include teaching methodsfor the teachers. It is in the teacher’s manuals or guidesthat higher-level content and suggestions for teaching andassessing instruction are included. Being able to plan anduse the appropriate teaching-learning activities are chal-lenges to the creativity of the teachers. Learning materials such as textbooks, supplementary ma-terials and science equipment are provided. Learning ac-tivities are not confined to the classrooms.

4. Evaluation and examination

One of the subject areas tested in the nationally adminis-tered National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT)Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT)and the National Secondary Assessment Test (NSAT) isscience. These examinations are based on the learningcompetencies and are administered towards the end of thef theschool year. The results serve as bases for policy formula-tion and educational reforms.

Examinations are also administered to a sample by theregional and divisional offices. School-based assessmentis conducted to determine performance and/or achieve-ment of the students in science and to report progress toparents and other officials.

III. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN TEACHINGOBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN TEACHINGSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Problems in teaching science and technology are encoun-oblems in teaching science and technology are encoun-tered in curriculum, learning materials, teachers, and stu-dent performance.

53

TABLE 1. Who is doing what in curriculum development?

CENTRAL LEVEL REGIONAL/PROVINCIAL LEVEL SCHOOL LEVEL

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Formulates and determines educational aims and objectives that support national development goals.

Formulates and determines specific vision, mission and objectives of the region/division or district.

Formulates the vision, mission and objectives of the school.

Determines specific cognitive, affective and psychomotor instructional aims and objectives.

CURRICULUM PLAN Develops national education policies, standards and programmes for curriculum implementation.

Formulates learning competencies.

Monitors the implementation and adaptation of educational programmes suited to regional and provincial needs and cultures.

Implements budget of work based on learning competencies.

Modifies/adapts the S&T programme to learners of different needs, cultures and abilities.

METHODS AND APPROACHES TO TEACHING

Conducts research/studies on innovative approaches and recommends effective ones.

Recommends strengthening of and continued use of effective methods.

Conducts teacher-training programmes on strategies found to be effective.

Conducts research, trial and demonstrations on new methodologies for teachers.

Uses appropriate methodologies and innovative approaches.

Employs activities that enhance lifelong and life-wide competencies.

MATERIALS Exercises control over evaluation and distribution of textbooks and other instructional materials.

Supervises the selection and distribution of instructional materials to divisions and schools.

Ensures the availability and adequacy of instructional materials.

Procures materials based on approved list.

Supervises the use of instructional materials by learners and teachers.

Adopts indigenous learning materials.

EVALUATION ANDEXAMINATION

Formulates policies based on nationallyadministered examinations.

Conducts studies/research on studentperformance.

Conducts supervisory visits.

Provides technical assistance.

Monitors achievement level of studentswithin region/division/district throughadministration of tests.

Administers formative and summative tests; uses results to improve teaching/learning process.

Makes report of student performance to parents and school officials.

54

1. On the curriculum

Teachers often complain that the curriculum is over-crowded and that they are not able to finish the content incertain year levels and there are not enough teaching-learning materials. Some teachers complain some topicsare too difficult to teach (Nebres & Vistro-Yu, 1998).& Vistro-Yu, 1998).

Concern also has been expressed about the placementof science subjects in the curriculum. Earth science, forEarth science, forexample, is offered in the first year, although it requiresknowledge about concepts in chemistry and physics thatare taken up in higher year levels. Another example ischemistry (third year) and physics (fourth year). There areThere areincreasing suggestions that the courses be reversed be-cause of the perception that chemistry is more difficultthan physics (Mendoza, 1998).

2. On learning materials

Learning materials such as books and science equipmentks and science equipmentare either unavailable or inadequate in many schools.Also, very few schools have science laboratories.

Concern also has been expressed that teachers’ manu-als, intended to help teachers teach more effectively, areinadequate.

3. On teachers

In science, because of the shortage of science teachers ingeneral, and majors in certain science disciplines in partic-ular, a science teacher may be hired to teach a science sub-ject that is not his major. Thus, a teacher must be multi-Thus, a teacher must be multi-skilled to teach all science disciplines. But that is not thereality (Mendoza, 1998). Even teachers in science highEven teachers in science highschools find difficulty in teaching the integrated way(Reyes, 1998).

Future science teachers graduate from pre-service pro-grams, yet few are competent enough to actually teachtheir subjects (Nebres & Vistro-Yu, 1998).bjects (Nebres & Vistro-Yu, 1998).

4. On student performance

Various assessments and surveys report downward trendswnward trendsin students’ performance in science. The results are con-sistent, but a major concern is whether such results areused as a starting point when new programmes and activ-ities in science and mathematics education are organized.In particular, it is not clear whether teachers are informedof the results of assessments (Nebres & Vistro-Yu, 1998).Yu, 1998).

IV. RECENT REFORMS IN SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATIONHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Recent reforms in science and technology education areforms in science and technology education arethe products of foreign-assisted projects implemented inthe country to improve instruction in science. Amongthese are:� The Science and Mathematics Education ManpowerMathematics Education Manpower

Development Program (SMEMDP) of the Japan Bankfor International Co-operation advocated the PracticalPracticalWork Approach (PWA) in teaching science and math-ematics. The programme focused on the training ofelementary and secondary teachers on PWA and thedevelopment of appropriate instructional materials.

� The Project in Basic Education (PROBE), ject in Basic Education (PROBE), funded bythe Australian Agency for International DevelopmentInternational Development(AusAID) supported the improvement of instructionin science and mathematics. The project promoted thecreation of teacher support units for both pre-serviceand in-service teacher training, and the developmentof curriculum and teacher support materials.

� The National Science Teaching and InstrumentationmentationCenter, a project with the German government,German government,produces prototype science equipment that is mass-produced and provided to public schools.

� Science teachers may upgrade their competenciesthrough the Continuing Science Education via Tele-vision (CONSTEL), which is evolving into TEL), which is evolving into Continu-ing Studies in Education via Television, a jointproject of DECS, DOST, PTV4 (the government TVV4 (the government TVstation), University of the Philippines’ Institute forScience and Mathematics Education DevelopmentMathematics Education Development(UP-ISMED) and the Foundation to Upgrade therade theStandards of Education (FUSE). The project willsoon include teaching episodes in English and math-ematics.

V. NON-SCHOOL RESOURCES IN THE TEACHINGOF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Science centres are good venues for enhancing a sense oftres are good venues for enhancing a sense ofcuriosity and discovery among students. Through a well-co-ordinated programme of lectures and experiments intheir classrooms and regular visits to the science centresfor more instrument-intensive experiments or demonstra-tions, young students may become more excited about thewonders of science and the logic of mathematics (Nebres& Intal, 1998).998).

Visits to manufacturing companies and industrial sitesalso provide students with on-site knowledge and experi-ences of the various applications of science concepts andcorresponding technologies.

Science fairs/camps, product promotion by manufac-turers, and industries and competitions provide studentswith alternative venues to present their investigatory andresearch projects.jects.

VI. CONCLUDING STATEMENT

Education officials, especially those involved in scienceion officials, especially those involved in scienceeducation, have a lot to do to raise the quality of scienceand technology education in the country. It is notable thatgovernment and non-government organizations have de-vised inter-agency programmes and projects to improvescience and technology education. Curricular review ofthe science and technology programmes in both levels ison-going. Summer teacher training programmes are fo-cused on science and technology.

The DECS registers its appreciation to the DOST, par-DECS registers its appreciation to the DOST, par-ticularly the Science Education Institute for its programmeson science and technology manpower development and forpromoting science and technology culture. AppreciationAppreciationalso goes to the University of the Philippines’ Institute forScience and Mathematics Education Development for in-Development for in-service teacher and materials development. They areDECS’ partners in the quest for quality science and tech-nology education.

55

56 6

References

Galang, C. 1998. Roundtable discussion for the NationalScience and Mathematics Education Congress on Ma-matics Education Congress on Ma-terials and Methods in Basic Education and In-ServiceTeacher Training in Science and Mathematics (1960-1998), held at UP-ISMED on September 15, 19988), held at UP-ISMED on September 15, 1998. In:Ogena, E.B.; Brawner, F., eds. Science education inthe Philippines: challenges for development, Vol. 1.Metro Manila, SEI- Department of Science and Tech-f Science and Tech-nology.

Mendoza, A. 1998. Roundtable Discussion for the Nation-Nation-al Science and Mathematics Education Congress onMaterials and Methods in Basic Education and In-Service Teacher Training in Science and Mathematics(1960-1998) held at UP-ISMED on September 15,960-1998) held at UP-ISMED on September 15,5,1998. In: Ogena, E.B.; Brawner, F., eds. Science edu-cation in the Philippines: challenges for development,Vol. 1. Metro Manila, SEI- Department of Scienceand Technology.

Nebres, B.F.; Intal, A.M.G. 1998. The challenge of de-M.G. 1998. The challenge of de-veloping science culture in the Philippines. In: Oge-na, E.B.; Brawner, F., eds. B.; Brawner, F., eds. Science education in thePhilippines: challenges for development, Vol. 1. Met-

ro Manila, SEI- Department of Science and Technol-hnol-ogy.

Nebres, B.F. & Vistro-Yu, C.P. 1998. A look at organiza-A look at organiza-tional structure for an effective delivery of science ed-ucation. In: Ogena, E.B.; Brawner, F., eds. Scienceeducation in the Philippines: challenges for develop-ment, Vol. 1. Metro Manila, SEI-Metro Manila, SEI- Department of Sci-ence and Technology.

Philippines. Department of Education, Culture and Sport.Bureau of Elementary Education. 1998. Minimumlearning competencies. Metro Manila, DECS.

——. 1998. Philippine secondary schools learning com-petencies. Metro Manila, DECS.

Reyes, V. 1998. Roundtable Discussion for the NationalV. 1998. Roundtable Discussion for the NationalScience and Mathematics Education Congress on Ma-Congress on Ma-terials and Methods in Basic Education and In-ServiceTeacher Training in Science and Mathematics (1960-0-1998) held at UP-ISMED on September 15, 1998. In:Ogena, E.B.; Brawner, F., eds. Science education inthe Philippines: challenges for development, Vol. 1.Metro Manila, SEI- Department of Science and Tech-f Science and Tech-nology.

57

I. THE SITUATION OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

1. The development of science and technology, socialchange and education

Historically, scientific discovery has impelled world cul-torically, scientific discovery has impelled world cul-tural, historical, social, and ideological development. Sci-ence and technology development prompted drasticeconomic and social change in the Republic of Korea overthe past thirty years. In recent years, advancements in in-formation technology have touched every aspect of dailylife in the Republic of Korea, economically, socially andculturally.

The Internet has made it possible to shop from home,keep abreast of the news in an instant, and even conductstock transactions by phone from a car.

The Internet also has made significant improvementsin education, bringing materials and resources into thehome and classroom and forever changing the concept ofthe textbook. While some teachers and students use thextbook. While some teachers and students use thewealth of information available on the Internet, many stilldo not recognize its value as a teaching and learning tooland its potential to vastly improve education. To drivehome this point, new strategies need to be adopted for thenation’s education system.

2. Centralized education system

The Education Law promulgated in 1949 requires theLaw promulgated in 1949 requires theadoption of a school ladder following a single track of 6-3-3-4: six years in elementary school; three years in mid-dle school; three years in high school; and four years incollege and university.versity.

The Republic of Korea has a centralized educationsystem that determines educational policies and curricu-lum, and sets the standards for textbooks. Such a systemhas merits and shortcomings. One of the merits of a cen-tralized education system is a nationally standardizedteaching and learning environment that utilizes similarmaterials. But this system also discourages teachers fromBut this system also discourages teachers fromdeveloping new teaching methods and seeking innovativematerials and resources.

Some efforts were made in the new national curricu-lum for 2000 to overcome the negative effects of the tra-ditional centralized education system. But the measureswere insufficient to encourage more diversity in the teach-ing environment.

Estimated population (1996)1996)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of grossnational product (1995)

Duration of compulsoryeducation (years)

23,000,000000,000(1)

3.7

9(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1997)Teachers (1997)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1997)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeat-ers

3,794,447122,74331:1

949495

—

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1996)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

4,662,492

102102102

Third-level enrolment ratio(1997)

68

Estimated adult literacy rate (2000)—Total—Male—Female

989996

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-gure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theInformation and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations and (2) World data on education, Paris,UNESCO, 2000.CO, 2000.

Joohoon Kim

58

3. Educational reform: reform of teaching and learn-: reform of teaching and learn-ing methods

Since 1995, the Republic of Korea has promoted reformsin all educational fields, such as in instructional methods,the education system, policy, teacher training, finance andystem, policy, teacher training, finance andthe educational environment.

II. THE STATUS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYOF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYEDUCATION

1. School science curriculum

ObjectivesjectivesThe national curriculum mandates that kindergarten pro-ional curriculum mandates that kindergarten pro-vides contact with nature to arouse interest in natural phe-nomena; elementary school familiarizes students withbasic concepts of science and experience inquiry; middle

school exposes students to scientific ways of thinking; andhigh school develops an understanding of the system ofscientific knowledge. Time allotment

For lower grade levels (grades 1 and 2) of elementary) of elementaryschool, science is taught in ‘intelligent life’, which inte-grates science, technology and social studies, and ac-counts for 102 hours (3 hours a week). From grade 3 to 6,science is taught for 102 hours (3 hours a week), as can beseen in Table 1.

In the seventh National Curriculum, time for sciencewas reduced, as indicated in parenthesis in Table 1, to in-crease the school discretionary time and give teacherstime for creative activity. Time was also reduced for Ko-rean language, social studies and mathematics.

Science education in high school includes general sci-ence (eight units in the sixth curriculum, and six units inseventh curriculum) for all students; four units each inphysic, chemistry, biology and earth science for non-sci-ence college-bound students; and physics, chemistry, bi-ology, earth science (eight units each in sixth curriculum,and six units each in seventh curriculum) for students aim-ing to enter a science college.

The vocational stream of academic high schools andthe other schools take science subjects according to theirspecialization. One unit means 50 minutes per week forOne unit means 50 minutes per week forone 17-week semester.

Contents

In 1973, the Republic of Korea introduced a discipline-Korea introduced a discipline-centred curriculum. Although the science curriculum hasbeen revised four times since then, the content of scienceeducation has remained traditional, including energy,chemical reactions and continuity of life. In the elementa-ry level the content is topic-oriented real-life situations,but in middle and high school highly discipline-centredcontents prevail. There is some merit in the discipline-centred curriculum, but there are also many problems thatwill be mentioned later.

III. MAIN PROBLEMS OF SCIENCEN PROBLEMS OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATIONY EDUCATION

1. Centralized curriculum and uniformity of schoolculture

As mentioned earlier, Korean education suffered from acation suffered from acentralized education system and a centralized curricu-lum. We need a creative school environment to cope witha knowledge-based information and technology society.In some respects, the centralized system is no longer ef-fective and hinders educational reform.

Science classes lack excellent teachers, materials andmodels from which other teachers can learn. Most teach-Most teach-ers at the middle- and high-school levels use similar ma-terials and methods, relying on lectures and blackboardsrather than laboratory activities, field trips, discussionsand information technology. There has been some gradualmovement towards overcoming the centralized system aseducational autonomy increased, but more needs to bedone.

2. Discipline-centred curriculum

The science curriculum of the Republic of Korea is a high-Korea is a high-ly discipline-centred one that does not adequately preparestudents for daily life and their futures, despite the intro-

TABLE 1. The time allotment in the elementary and middle school

School level Elementary school Middle school

Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3

Periods per week*week* 4(3)

4(3)

3(3)

4(3)

4(3)

4(3)

4(3)

4(4)

4(4)

Percentage** 7.6(10.8)

8.0(12)

10(10.3)

13.3(10.3)

12.5(9.4)

12.5(9.4)

11.8(8.8)

11.8(11.8)

11.8(11.8)

* A period is 40 minutes in elementary and 45 minutes in middle school once per week for 34 weeks (one year).minutes in elementary and 45 minutes in middle school once per week for 34 weeks (one year).** () is in the seventh National Curriculum from 2000 to 2004.Curriculum from 2000 to 2004.

59

duction of Science and Technology in Society (STS). It isdifficult to motivate students and ignite within them an in-within them an in-terest in science.

3. Examination-oriented circumstances

Korean education has suffered from high-stakes examina-tions, such as entrance examinations for university. En-trance examinations are so competitive that teachers stresssolving problems for the examination rather than mean-ingful learning through laboratory activity, discussionsand field trips.

4. Knowledge-centred instruction

In science education, it is important to attain total humandevelopment, harmonizing the cognitive, affective andpsychomotor domains. The objective of the affective andpsychomotor domain is not stressed due to the examina-tion-oriented culture, a lack of instructional models, thelack of proper teaching and learning materials, and thelack of teacher training.

5. Lack of specialists in teacher training

Teacher training—pre-service and in-service training—iscrucial for improving teaching and learning methods. ButButthe pre-service and in-service training suffers from a lackof science education specialists who can prepare scienceteachers for the challenges they face. This is one of themost pressing problems that needs to be addressed.

6. Overcrowded classrooms

Science classes suffer from overcrowding, which hindersindividual student participation, hands-on activities andlaboratory activities required for meaningful learning. Asa result of urbanization, much of the country’s populationzation, much of the country’s populationis located in the metropolitan areas. In these districts,classes average more than forty students per class, placinga burden on teachers and making hands-on activities inscience classes almost impossible.

IV. REFORM OF SCIENCEORM OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

1. Introduction of open education

Another educational reform movement, namely open ed-other educational reform movement, namely open ed-ucation, was launched by teachers in the mid-1980s andhas received much interest. The concept of open educationis designed to respect the students’ personality and indi-viduality and to strive for a humane school environment.It is devoted to reforming teaching and hands-on, minds-on activities in science, especially in elementary school.Unfortunately, the movement has not reached the middleand high schools yet.

2. Reduction of the influence of the Entrance Exami-xami-nation System and Activation of Performance As-sessment

In reforming education in the Republic of Korea, the re-Republic of Korea, the re-form of evaluation is an important factor. To that end, ef-forts were made to lessen the impact of high-stakesexaminations such as university entrance examinations.

A basic strategy of science education reform is substitut-ing performance assessment for the traditional paper-and-pencil multiple-choice test, examining children’s activi-ties, and stressing teaching and learning activity ratherthan textbook instruction. But it is not easy to assess sci-ence classes in school and it will take more time for suchan endeavour to flourish.

3. Promoting research and development among teach-ers by providing funds

Since 1998, the government has provided funds for teach-8, the government has provided funds for teach-ers who want to conduct research and develop their skills.Teachers must conduct the research as a team. Thousandsof teachers participated and exchanged ideas for betterteaching and learning methods and materials and sharedexperiences. I believe this is a good strategy for exchang-ing ideas and experiences and it enhances the teaching re-form.

4. Introduction of accreditation for information tech-nology

In the information technology age, the capability to usecomputers and related material is essential for effectivelearning and improving life in general. Thus, from 2002,the capability to use information and technology will beincluded as part of the entrance examinations for highereducation, such as for colleges and universities. All stu-All stu-dents applying for higher education will be required to ob-tain accreditation for information technology literacy.

5. Introduction of STS in science education

Since the Ministry of Education developed the disciplinecentred science curriculum in 1973, the curriculum has973, the curriculum hasbeen criticized as being isolated from real-life situationsand from the problems that confront students in daily life.Consequently, the public pointed out that it failed to culti-vate students’ interests and concerns for science learning.Also, the contents of science have been too abstract anddifficult for most students to understand and master.

To compensate such negative effects, Science andScience andTechnology in Society was introduced in the sixth nation-al science curriculum and strengthened in the seventh sci-ence curriculum. STS will be stressed in the newtextbooks, but it is not yet satisfactory due to the lack ofprototype materials.

6. Application of educational technology in scienceeducation

It is essential that educational technology keeps up withand utilizes advances in information technology. As thecomputer becomes increasingly important in every daylife, it becomes an indispensable tool in science education.Textbooks are being developed that stress the use of infor-mation from the Internet in science classes. The govern-ment is attempting to supply schools with the necessarycomputer hardware by the end of 2000.000.

But the utilization of excellent software is more impor-tant than the preparation of hardware systems. In the Re-public of Korea, many kinds of software are developedand available throughout the country. Software is also de-ghout the country. Software is also de-veloped and sold commercially in the private sector. But,

60

in both instances, the quality of the software is primitiveand not sufficient to inspire interest among students.

V. EXAMPLES OF INNOVATIVE USESOF NON-SCHOOL RESOURCESRESOURCESIN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

1. Home as a place for science and technology educa-tion

Home is an important place to carry out science and tech-n important place to carry out science and tech-nology education. Many suburban homes have computerswith Internet facilities available to the entire family. Chil-dren are able to learn from their parents and friends andcan master the skills and processes needed for school sci-ence classes.

2. Science Park

In August 1993, EXPO ’93, the international science and993, EXPO ’93, the international science andtechnology exposition, was held in Dae-joen. It contribut-ut-ed much toward the understanding of the development ofmodern science and technology.

After the exhibition, most of the facilities of the EXPOO93 were maintained and used as the national science andtechnology education centre. All the facilities were takenover by private enterprise and converted into educationcentres.

3. National Science Museum and Provincial ScienceCentre

The Republic of Korea has a National Science Museum inRepublic of Korea has a National Science Museum inSeoul, a National Science Museum in Dae-joen and six-teen other provincial science centres scattered around thecountry.y.

The National Science Museum not only exhibits in-dustrial technologies developed recently by Korean indus-trial groups and research institutes, but also providesyoung students with activities related to their school sci-ence projects. Each provincial science centre has summerjects. Each provincial science centre has summerand winter learning sessions (camps) for young studentsduring vacations. All students have access to these camps.Every year, about half-a-million students join in the sci-ence activities provided by the provincial science centre.Sometimes the provincial science centre provides publiclectures concerning science and technology.

The provincial science centres display prototypes andmodels of science equipment and science learning to stu-quipment and science learning to stu-dents and teachers, and provide them with science activi-ties. The museums occasionally open exhibits, such asaquariums and rare plants, to the public of the provinces.

4. Mass media and science magazine

In the Republic of Korea, newspapers, radio, and televisionhave contributed to enhancing the understanding of scienceand technology. Broadcasting systems such as KBS, MBC,S, MBC,SBS and EBS, which is a special station devoted toeducation, provide the public with special programmesabout science and technology. Some programmes aredeveloped abroad and others by the domestic stationsthemselves. All attract large audiences.

SBS produces a variety of science and technology pro-f science and technology pro-grammes, including a programme called ‘Invitation forCuriosity’, which is very popular and attracts students atall education levels.

There are a number of science and technology-orient-ed magazines for students that are published monthly, bi-monthly and quarterly. The most popular sciencemagazines for students are Student's science, Student'selectronics, Newton, and Science Dong-a. They are pub-lished monthly and present workshops, projects, productsand information that stimulate students' imaginations and' imaginations andcreative minds.

5. Science exhibitions and science fairsfairs

A students’ science fair has been operated by the NationalScience Museum and the Ministry of Science and Tech-nology since the early 1960s. The aim of the science fair960s. The aim of the science fairis to stimulate scientific creativity in students and to culti-vate students' interest in science and science learning.Many bright students with creative minds, teachers andthe public have participated in the science fair since itopened.

‘The Big Feast for Science’ is an annual event in theBig Feast for Science’ is an annual event in theRepublic of Korea that features science inquiry competi-tions, discussions, research for students and scienceteachers, science games, and exhibitions. It runs fromMarch until the end of the year. Winners of the variouscompetitions have been awarded fringe benefits, such asadmission to university, scholarships and overseas studytours.

61

62

Sri Lanka embarked on major reform of formal educationat all levels from primary education to university educa-tion beginning in 1998. Reforms were started with gradewere started with grade1 classes in one district. Countrywide reforms were intro-duced in 1999 with entry points at grades 1, 6 and 9. InAugust 1998 some changes were made in the grades 12and 13 curricula in keeping with changed requirements forkeeping with changed requirements foradmission to universities. As a relief measure, the ar-rangements of question papers in mathematics and sci-ence at the General Certificate of Education OrdinaryyLevel (GCE O-level) will be changed in 2000. Thenumber of years required to prepare for the GCE O-levelmber of years required to prepare for the GCE O-levelis reduced to two starting January 2000 and changes were2000 and changes weremade in the list of subjects.

In this paper, a comparison is made between primaryand secondary education before and after the reforms. Theschemes at present are a mix of arrangements: pre-reform,reformed and interim. The status given below refers topre-reform arrangements.

I. THE STATUS OF TEACHING SCIENCEE STATUS OF TEACHING SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY

In the primary span covering grades 1 to 5, mathematics isrimary span covering grades 1 to 5, mathematics istaught in all grades commencing from grade 1, and intro-ductory science is taught in grades 4 and 5. In the junior-secondary span covering grades 6, 7 and 8, mathematicsand science are taught in all grades. In the ordinary-levelspan covering grades 9, 10 and 11, mathematics and sci-ence are taught, together with an optional technical sub-with an optional technical sub-ject selected from a list of advanced-level span coveringgrades 12 and 13. Candidates have to select combinationsof four subjects from among applied mathematics, botany,chemistry, physics, pure mathematics, and zoology.

All the subjects are studied using prescribed text-books. The textbooks are supplied free from grade 1 to theks. The textbooks are supplied free from grade 1 to theGCE O-level.

The pupil attainments are assessed through mid-yearand end-of-the-year written tests.written tests.

Practical work in the sciences is not compulsory at anygrade, but pupils do some practical work and investiga-tions. The teacher guides indicate the tasks that can bedone. However, the amount of time allotted to sciencepractical work varies among schools.

Equipment is provided to teachers to demonstrate sig-nificant phenomena.

At GCE O-level and advanced-level, pupils read sub-jects for three years and two years respectively before tak-

Estimated population (1996)mated population (1996)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1997)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

18,100,000(1)

3.4

—

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1996)Teachers (1996)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeat-ers (1996)School-age population out of school (1995)

1,843,84866,33928:1

109110108

2

4,000(2)

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

2,314,054

757278

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995)

5

Estimated adult literacy rate (2000)—Total—Male—Female

929489

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-gure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theInformation and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations and (2) International Consultative Fo-Fo-rum on Education for All, Paris, January 1996.

C.L.V. Jayatilleke

63

ing the public examinations that are conducted once a yearxaminations that are conducted once a yearcountrywide by the Department of Examinations.

At the ordinary level, candidates are examined in amaximum of eight subjects, including science and mathe-matics. Most employers of persons who have sat the GCEGCEO-level require passes in mathematics, science and themother tongue from applicants.

At the advanced-level examinations, up to Septemberber1999 candidates had been offered a choice of four combi-nations. The most preferred subject combinations are:� Botany, chemistry, physics and zoology, offered for

those who intend to do further studies in medicine, ag-riculture and biological sciences.

� Applied mathematics, chemistry, physics and puremathematics, offered for those who intend to do fur-ther studies in engineering and physical sciences.

The medium of instruction is either of the two nationallanguages, Sinhala or Tamil, as determined by the parents.

Outside the state-funded formal school system thereare private schools that prepare candidates for examina-tions conducted by authorities in the United Kingdom.These schools admit children to grade 1 and take themthrough to the GCE Advanced Level. The medium of in-GCE Advanced Level. The medium of in-struction is English. The textbooks are imported. Practicalported. Practicalwork is conducted in conformity with the standards stipu-lated by the examining authorities in the United Kingdom.Teachers are mostly Sri Lankan. Lankan.

II. MAIN PROBLEMS IN TEACHING OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGYD TECHNOLOGY

Several problems have been identified and they all are ei-dentified and they all are ei-ther directly or indirectly related to the wide disparities inthe country’s physical infrastructure. Problems in com-munication, availability of potable water, electricity sup-ply, housing and income levels are evident in varyingdegrees across the country. These affect nutrition, motiva-tion, teacher deployment and school resources.

Despite a wide variation in the country’s social andliving standards, there is a high demand for primary andjunior secondary education. A composite index used bythe National Education Commission divides localities intoNational Education Commission divides localities intofour broad areas, ranging from developed to disadvan-taged, based on social and living standards. It is notewor-thy that the demand for schooling as reflected in pupilenrolment is high in districts that are disadvantaged.

Dropping-out from school becomes significant aftergrades 8 and 9. Only about 15 % of an age cohort continue9. Only about 15 % of an age cohort continuethrough to the advanced-level classes. Poverty and theneed to help support the family are the most significantreason for leaving school. Recent surveys show an in-crease in the incidence of child labour. It is also particu-It is also particu-larly noteworthy that unemployment is highest amongthose who leave school from grades 12 and 13 with orwithout advanced-level qualifications. This could be afurther disincentive to continuing with education beyondordinary-level.

The following are some problems associated withteaching science and technology:� Difficulties in conducting practical classes;� Shortages in the production and printing of textbooks

and supplementary reading material;

� Delays in implementation of school-based assessmentprogrammes;

� Absence of regular teacher training, re-training andupgrading programmes;

� Shortcomings in the deployment of teachers.Since there has been no compulsion to conduct practicalclasses at all levels, the standards of facilities have gener-ally deteriorated over the past four decades. In manyschools, chemistry equipment, microscopes and precisioninstruments are not in good working order. This reflects aworking order. This reflects ageneral lack of interest on the part of both teachers and pu-pils to spend time on practical work and the necessary fol-low-up activities. Large-scale absenteeism from GCE O-E O-level and A-level classes, especially in the months preced-ing examinations, shows the negative effect of publicwritten examinations on science education.

The majority of teachers in the primary and junior-sec-jority of teachers in the primary and junior-sec-ondary classes use the equipment that is supplied in orderto demonstrate the basis for learning, arousing interest andfor motivating the pupils. Some teachers take the initiativein producing their own materials to facilitate learning,such as posters, handouts with explanatory notes and ex-ercises.

Using the national languages—Sinhala and Tamil—asthe media of instruction in schools and universities hasmixed blessings. Each language has its own rich literatureEach language has its own rich literatureand each is amenable to communicating complex ideasand philosophies. However, when used for scientific andtechnological communication, they suffer from a lack ofadequate vocabulary. The creation of new words and theabsorption of English technical terms have enabled thelanguages to cope with new information. However, trans-lating the latest scientific and technological literature andprinting it for a small national market is a costly and cum-bersome exercise.

There are very few authors who write books and au-thoritative papers in the national languages. In neighbour-ing India, where Tamil is the mother tongue of a largepopulation, higher education and research publicationsare in English. Hence, those who study science and tech-nology in the national languages are at a distinct disadvan-tage. Engineering, science and technical courses aremostly conducted in English, preceded by intensive Eng-lish courses to give language proficiency. Action has beenAction has beentaken to improve the teaching of English at all levels inprimary and secondary education.

A project is underway in school libraries to phase inbooks in English, as well as multimedia material, and in-formation and communications technology facilities. Thiswill enhance the accessibility of the latest scientific andtechnological information to schoolchildren. Although SriLanka has electricity and telephone networks that covermany parts of the country, there are thousands of schoolsthat do not have electricity and telephone connections thatcan support the use of information and communicationstechnology. Providing updated books and training teach-Providing updated books and training teach-ers will continue to receive the highest priority.

School-based assessment (SBA) that has been intro-duced to all school grades has been received with mixedfeelings. Some teachers have complained that their work-load has increased significantly. Some parents and chil-dren have viewed the procedures as being corruptible and

64

burdensome. Many teachers have adopted SBA as aA as ameans of monitoring the effectiveness of the total learningprocess and of giving useful feedback to the pupils. Theattendance in the upper grades has improved considera-bly. Many parents have expressed satisfaction that theyare getting valid information on the progress of their chil-dren. The need remains to improve the SBA procedureand to incorporate it into the normal teaching/learning/learningprocess in a less obtrusive and user-friendly manner.

The introduction of a significant content of technolog-ical education into the secondary school curriculum wasdifficult at the outset. There were no technologically qual-ified teachers. The teachers and curriculum designers aretrained in mathematics and science and those teachingtechnical subjects have diplomas in the technical and vo-cational trades. Hence the design of curricula, preparationof teachers’ guides, and induction and training of teachersalready in service required extra effort. In the future, it isplanned to recruit persons with appropriate basic qualifi-cations in technology into the teacher service.

The deployment of teachers in the less-developed anddisadvantaged areas is difficult. This is particularly so be-cause those who are qualified in science and technologyare mostly drawn from the more developed localities. Thepersons from the backward areas who receive science andkward areas who receive science andtechnology education migrate to urban areas in search ofbetter prospects. Hence, underdevelopment is a part of avicious cycle that continues to marginalize the disadvan-taged.

Education should not be viewed solely as a means oftransferring scientific information and technologicalknow-how, but more as a means of enriching peoples’lives in a meaningful manner. More effective use of solarradiation, arable land and water, and conservation of for-ests require the integration of the best modern practices.

Modernization cannot be equated simply to the trans-fer of technology together with the importing of plant andmachinery from developed countries. In the context ofxt ofglobalization, less-developed countries are used more likelabour resources that will continue to create wealth fordeveloped countries without being able to generate a sur-plus for investment in raising the standard of living of thepeople at home. Education should enable our people tolive in a dignified manner with sustainable and healthylife-styles. This is particularly important because recentstatistics show alarming increases in crime, alcohol andnarcotics consumption, and child abuse.

III. MOST RECENT REFORMS (1999 OMWARDS)OST RECENT REFORMS (1999 OMWARDS)

The reforms of primary and secondary education, as de-forms of primary and secondary education, as de-scribed below, form a part of a nationwide thrust to in-crease educational opportunities for all and to makeeducation consistent with the achievement of worthwhilenational goals. Every curricular change is examined for itsconsistency with these goals. The following are the na-tional goals for education: � Development, leading to cumulative structures of

growth for the nation.� Active partnership in nation-building should ensure

the nurturing of a continuous sense of deep and abid-ing concern for one another.

� The achievement of national cohesion, national integ-rity and national unity.

� The establishment of a pervasive pattern of social jus-tice.

� The evolution of a sustainable pattern of living—a sus-tainable lifestyle, which is vital for a future when eventhe provision of air and water cannot be taken forgranted.

� The generation of work opportunities that are digni-fied, satisfying and self-fulfilling.

� In the above framework, the institution of a variety ofpossibilities for ALL to participate. In a rapidly chang-ing world, such as we live in today, it is imperative tocultivate adaptability to change. This must be coupledwith the competencies to guide change for the better-ment of oneself and of others.

� The cultivation of a capacity to cope with the complexand the unforeseen, moving towards a sense of securi-ty and stability.

� The development of those competencies linked to se-curing an honourable place in the international com-munity.

This is viewed as a counter to the prevalent tendency topreserve a socio-economic stratification of the countrywhich has persisted since the time of colonial rule. EthnicEthnicand religious variety resulting from many centuries of in-teraction and influences has been turned into a source ofstrife and conflict rather than of enrichment. Pressuresarising from increased population, scarcity of physical re-sources, rising expectations of the people, and local andforeign commercial interests have to be contained. Someof the critical issues that need to be addressed are:� Deterioration of the environment and the resources for

supporting life and the community, such as groundwater, natural vegetation and soil nutrients;

� Increasing brackishness of the ground-water in thekishness of the ground-water in theJaffna peninsula, submerging of fertile valleys in thehill country, and deforestation of river catchmentbasins;

� Insufficient diffusion of wealth and the benefits ofwealth into the less-developed areas;

� Increasing isolation from the mainstream of economicand social activity;

� Increasing impotence on the part of the government indealing with the administrative and commercial mech-anisms, devices, and processes that are affecting thegeneral population;

� Communication problems that affect each individualcritically in the spheres of health, education, justice, fi-nancial matters and employment;

� Frustration in coping with life with no support duringtimes of high stress and crises, creation of unrealisticneeds, perceptions of unfairness in the distribution andaccess to the means for coping, ignorance of how to at-tain some degree of contentment and peace of mind.

� Rising expectations due to higher levels of educationxpectations due to higher levels of educationand advertising, without a corresponding improve-ment in the means of fulfilling these expectations, andrural/urban divisions;

� Ineffectiveness in law enforcement and a resultingsense of insecurity;

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� Delays in the judicial process and inability to pay forlegal redress.

Education reform is expected to contribute to fashioningboth the infrastructure and superstructure that are neces-sary. Beginning from the grade 1, emphasis will be placedon the attainment of a set of basic competencies, which in-clude:� Competencies in communication—using words, nu-

merical and quantitative data, pictures and diagrams.The child should be able to receive and to originatecommunications of an appropriate degree of difficulty.Particular emphasis will be given to the improvementof the ability to listen for meaning. The communica-tions will be presented through a variety of media—spoken, written, printed, electronic and symbolic. mbolic.

� Competencies related to the environments—social,natural and human. Here, the performances expectedare in the form of selection, correct use, maintenance,orderliness and cleanliness, in relation to items in theenvironment. Thinking deductively and inductivelyabout them, making value judgements and decisions,judgements and decisions,identifying issues, problem solving and being well in-formed about them.

� Competencies related to the moral, ethical, philosoph-ical and spiritual. Ability to identify ethical and moralissues, and to make choices and selecting strategies onthe basis of ethical and moral considerations. Aware-ness of principles, rules and criteria for making moralchoices and ethical conduct. These principles are to bebased on one’s own religion or personal philosophy.

� Competencies related to relaxation, recreation andpleasure. Ability to relax and rest the body and mind,and to use them without pressures. Ability to enjoyoneself without hurting and offending others, and totake pleasure in aesthetic experiences. Ability to prac-tice methods of exercising, massage, yoga and medita-tion for recreational purposes.

� Competencies to learn about and to develop oneself.Ability to find information without having to dependon others, thus demonstrating self-reliance. Ability toorganize and store information for future use. Abilityto explore, observe, investigate and expand one’s ownexperience with a minimum of instruction and guid-ance from others. Ability to sharpen the senses and re-fine awareness, especially non-verbal awareness.Creativity.

This set is comprehensive and includes aspects that areeither left out of or glossed over in contemporary formaleducation. Under the reforms assessment procedures,Under the reforms assessment procedures,teacher education, performance appraisal of personnel,school infrastructure and parent and community participa-tion are expected to contribute positively to the attainmentof the competencies. Behavioural indicators of attainmentcan be used in the assessment of pupils.

Specific aspects of reform that have been introduced inschools since 1999 are as follows:� Replacing the subject ‘introductory science’ in gradesg the subject ‘introductory science’ in grades

4 and 5 with ‘environment related activities’ (ERA) ingrades 1 to 5. As the pupil progresses through thegrades, ERA will involve systematic observation, datamatic observation, datacollection and analysis, information gathering and

communication. This will be reinforced through pupilprojects.

� Replacing the subject ‘science’ in grade 6 with ‘envi-ronmental studies’, which integrates science and so-cial studies.

� Development of skills used in formal study and inves-tigation in grade 6 as a prelude to formal secondaryeducation.

� Replacing the subject ‘science’ in grades 7 to 11 with7 to 11 with‘science and technology’.

� Making a technical subject compulsory at the GCE O-level examination: This subject will be selected from axamination: This subject will be selected from alist of available options and will be studied in grades10 and 11. It will be presented through a mix of theoryand practice.

� Replacing ‘botany’ and ‘zoology’ at the GCE A-levelGCE A-levelwith ‘biology’. In preparing for the A-level examina-tion, the subject will be studied in grades 12 and 13.12 and 13.

� Introduction of practical and technical skills develop-ment in grades 6 to 9. This will be done in a phasedmanner so that all schools will be covered by the endof 2004. In the intervening period, the subject ‘life4. In the intervening period, the subject ‘lifeskills’ as now found in schools is being replaced or up-graded in a feasible manner.

� Progressive introduction of eight technology subjectsin grades 12 and 13, in preparation for the advanced-3, in preparation for the advanced-level examination. The subjects are: civil technology;electrical and electronics technology; mechanicaltechnology; food technology; bio-resources technolo-gy; soft materials technology; and services-relatedtechnology. The treatment of each subject will not beexhaustive. It will be context-based, and arranged sothat concepts and principles will be presented in acomprehensive manner. Topical issues will be focusedon as points of entry. Laboratories and workspaceswill be provided to introduce pupils to instrumenta-tion, generation of technological information, and ele-ments of design.

In the reformed curricula of all grades the topics and thecontents of each topic are selected so that there is integra-tion of learning across subjects, meta-skills associatedwith education are acquired, meanings are created in themind, and linkages are created with life and the communi-ty around the child.

Education has to connect the child with her or his cul-ture in a meaningful and active manner. The home, schooland the community contribute to this process. Traditions,indigenous knowledge and practices, means of testing thevalidity of beliefs, sensitivity and openness to wholesomenew ideas, and respect for the culture of others are aspectsof being culturally competent. Preserving one’s own cul-tural identity while living harmoniously and effectivelywithin a nation with cultural diversity is essential. Thenew curricula will have provisions for allocating time andresources for a variety of learning activities focused onculture as a component of education so that there is a bal-anced development of the intellect.

The ability to select, learn and apply theory is impor-tant in science and technology education. On the onehand, a person must have the ability to create complex the-oretical models of systems in making valid deductions.More importantly, there should also be the ability to think

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quickly and logically through a set of propositions to ar-rive at a conclusion as a part of an overall mental processthat is associated with human activity and decision-mak-ing.

School-based assessment (SBA) will be an integralA) will be an integralpart of the entire teaching/learning process. It has specialrelevance in subjects within the sciences and technologiesgroup. SBA will help to focus attention and to give dueemphasis to practical and technical aspects of these sub-jects. Science and technology education involves the in-culcation of attitudes and approaches to work that happensthrough steady application to situations of interest. Inten-sive tutoring to prepare for examinations goes counter toxaminations goes counter tosuch steady application. Practical work, tutorials andprojects will accompany reading of theory in science andtechnology subjects for the GCE O-level and A-level ex-O-level and A-level ex-aminations. SBA will be used to ensure that these essen-tial tasks are carried out. Results of SBA will be enteredin the certificates.

In all grades SBA will be used to reinforce learningand to give essential feedback to pupils. As a result of itspupils. As a result of itsintroduction, the daily attendance of pupils has improvedsignificantly. SBA instruments and procedures have alsohelped to focus the attention of pupils and teachers. Im-provement of school productivity is to be expected. Whileit is premature to arrive at conclusions about the effects ofSBA, the interest of both parents and potential employershas been generated through publicity. They have been in-formed of a better procedure and formats for recordingand reporting of pupil progress. School authorities willwillmaintain a record of work done by each pupil in respect ofsubject, and extra-curricular and co-curricular activities.Relevant details and attainments will be entered in a pupilrecord book, which will be an official document kept inthe possession of the student after leaving school.

Pupil projects at the advanced-level are individualprojects and group projects. Individual projects involveinvestigation and application of theory in a subject of thepupil’s choice. The work will involve reading, informa-tion gathering, theoretical formulation, analysis, and pres-entation of results and production of a report. GroupGroupprojects are of wider scope. The pupils are free to selectthe topic. A group should preferably include pupils froma mix of subject specializations so that the outcome willhave a multi-disciplinary nature. It is expected that theprojects address issues or problems of interest to theschool or its community. The guiding principle is that theprojects are life enhancing and reinforcing. They shouldresult in an outcome that is beneficial to many and dem-onstrate a capacity to resolve significant issues.

Pupils in grade 10 do group projects based in theirschool. They identify an issue or a practical problem,which they study in depth to identify means to resolve orsolve respectively. They involve making systematic ob-servations, analyzing data, searching for feasible and op-timum solutions, verifying their effectiveness, andpresentation of their results through demonstrations andreports. Surveys done in schools indicate that children arehighly innovative, conscious of their social responsibili-ties, and value the opportunity to work in teams.

Pupils in junior-secondary grades will do two kinds ofprojects. One kind will be done in grade 9 using practicalOne kind will be done in grade 9 using practical

and technical skills acquired in grades 6 through 8. Theseprojects have a high science and technology content, andwill use electronic and mechanical devices and incorpo-rate detection and control systems. Schools are encour-Schools are encour-aged by authorities to hold exhibitions and fairs to showthe outcomes of their projects to their community andpupils of other schools.

In the second kind of project, teachers supervise pupilsof junior-secondary grades as they explore locations in anarea less than 2 km from their school to encounter objectsand situations pertaining to the concepts they are studyingin their lessons. These projects reinforce science and tech-nology, technical subjects, and environmental studies.During trials in rural areas it has been found that effective-ness of learning has improved significantly, as indicatedby the time saved in covering the syllabus and improvedretention of learned items.

The contents of every subject in all grades have beenupdated and trimmed to make learning more relevant andmanageable. An attempt is made to strike a balance be-tween content-based and theory-based arrangement ofcontents. Issues drawn from contexts that are more or lessfamiliar to pupils are arranged into an order such that the-oretical formulations allow a logical sequencing of con-quencing of con-cepts and principles. Issues are selected so that they fallinto topics and topic clusters that are deemed essential andinteresting.

Since Sri Lanka has significant variations of social,cultural, economic, geographic, and climatic conditionsacross it the curriculum must have aspects that are differ-entiated into three layers that are appropriately mixed atany given locality. These layers are: national scope; pro-vincial or regional scope; local and personal scope. Thisarrangement is relevant in science, technology, and tech-nical education. As pointed out by teachers who like towho like towork outside big cities, a uniform national curriculumdoes not meet their needs. In effect, it alienates the chil-dren as they reach the ordinary-level and advanced-levelstages. Those who pass the GCE A-level and do not enterA-level and do not entera university, a technical education institute, or a teachereducation institute stay unemployed over the longest peri-od. Most eventually enter jobs that do not match their fieldof study. This is considered an inefficiency of the systembecause the students at this terminal stage of schooling areconfined very narrowly to a few science subjects. Since atthis stage they are on the threshold of adulthood such nar-row confinement for a two-year period of intense study isseen as disadvantageous.

The content of national scope is presented throughguidelines that are centrally produced and distributedthroughout the country. For pupils in grades up to and in-For pupils in grades up to and in-cluding grade 11 textbooks are issued free of charge.Those in advanced-level grades have to buy prescribedtextbooks or study guides. All teachers are educated andtrained to deliver the national curriculum. Curricularchanges are introduced to teachers in the field throughprograms conducted by master teachers and resourceteachers. They are also provided with teacher guides thatare produced by the National Institute of Education con-National Institute of Education con-currently with new textbooks. In the future, textbooks willalso contain a few pages advising parents how they could

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be supportive of their children’s education in relation tothe respective subjects.

The content of the provincial or regional scope will bepresented through supplementary readers and lesson ma-terials produced at that level. Teachers and officials willbe provided guidelines and the methodology for workingout details of curricula. This is considered to be a neces-sary development since each of the country’s nine prov-inces will be given a degree of autonomy.

The content of the local segment of the curriculum willbe activity-based learning and pupil projects. Teachersand the community of a school are free to decide on whatshould be included in the curriculum locally. Teachers ob-tain the support of community experts in implementingthe decisions. It is found that there is a high degree of in-terest shown and support given by the parents and thecommunity and a whole. Projects are clearly helping chil-dren and parents to appreciate the relevance and potentialof education. Before this segment was introduced, formallearning was solely focused on certification and job seek-ing in the public sector as an escape from poverty. It is ex-pected that the new orientation will enable youth to realizezethat there are valid opportunities for gainful work and in-dustry in virtually every locality.

Due to a combination of factors including broad-basededucation, the rate of population growth of the country isnot as high as in other South Asian countries. However,education has not contributed significantly to the ability ofthe people to be more productive and industrious. The ten-The ten-dency has been for the formally educated persons to aspireto a few professional areas or to a secure government em-ployment. Higher education and tertiary education aimedat middle-level technical and industry related jobs havenot expanded. Hence, the national workforce is not condu-cive to expansion of industrial activity and high produc-tivity. Agriculture has not absorbed more advantageoustechnologies and techniques and is practised by the per-ques and is practised by the per-sons with the least formal education. Off-farm food pres-

ervation and value addition is not prevalent.Consequently, there is much wastage and uneconomicaluse of food material.

Service industries and foreign employment can absorbpersons with education in sciences and modern technicalareas. It is expected that the curricular changes that havebeen introduced under education reforms will producepersons who are more employable and productive. Theraising of the standards of education and linking educationking educationto employment through appropriate curricular and struc-tural changes is also seen as a precursor to gainful self-employment in the rural sector. The widespread use of ap-plications of information and communications technologywill facilitate the opening up of more avenues of employ-ment and opportunities for non-traditional economic ac-tivity.

IV. INNOVATIVE USEE USEOF NON-SCHOOL RESOURCES

The National Institute of Education has taken the initiativeken the initiativein promoting investigative and creative activities amongschool children through an educational museum project. Itis in the process of establishing a network of provinciallevel museum units with the institution-based museum atthe apex. Study of natural history, technological innova-tions and inventions, local practices that have a nationalrelevance, study of local arts and crafts, and educationalinnovations are among the features that will be promotedand supported by the project.

Some of the largest firms in the private sector havecommitted themselves to promoting the development ofeducation through selected interventions. Of particular in-terest to them are teaching English, use of information andcommunications technology, and promotion of physicaleducation. A foreign contractor on a national project hasA foreign contractor on a national project hasadopted a number of schools in the vicinity for teaching ofscience.

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I. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY

The impact of science and technology on society makes itpact of science and technology on society makes itimperative that all citizens in all societies throughout theworld become literate in science and technology. This in-cludes not only science concepts, but also the process ofacquiring knowledge. In order to achieve science andtechnology literacy goals, the whole system needs to bechanged; namely the science curriculum, the teaching/learning process, the assessment of students’ outcomesand the training of science teachers.

According to the eighth National Social and EconomicNational Social and EconomicDevelopment Plan (1997–2002), Thailand must becomeust becomepart of the nations of the world and prepare for the comingcentury. The plan emphasizes the development of humanresources in science and technology. It has two major pur-poses: to improve people’s quality of life and to develop anation capable of competing with others in the age of glo-balization.

The Government of Thailand recognized that thesegoals can only be achieved through the education system.Therefore, the National Education Plan has stated that theNational Education Plan has stated that theprimary goal is education for all citizens. Moreover, thenew Constitution (1997) emphasizes that all individuals1997) emphasizes that all individualshave an equal right to receive basic government-fundededucation for at least twelve years.

In 1999, the National Education Act stressed the im-Education Act stressed the im-portance of science and technology and stated that:� The goal of education is to develop Thai citizens phys-

ically, intellectually and culturally, and to urge them toco-operate with others.

� Teachers must act as facilitators who will encouragestudents to fully develop their potentials.

� Formal and informal education must emphasize andintegrate knowledge, values and the learning processat each grade level. Students will learn science andtechnology concepts and how they apply to environ-mental management and the conservation and sustain-able use of national resources.

� The quality of education will be assessed based onquality of education will be assessed based onmany types of measurement, such as observation,participatory learning, interviews and reports, aswell as tests.

Under the National Education Act of 1999, education is999, education isdecentralized and compulsory and has been extendedfrom six years to nine years. Government-funded educa-tion, including science education, is available to all Thaicitizens from year 1 through to year 12.

Estimated population (1996)6)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of grossnational product (1996)

Duration of compulsoryeducation (years)

58,703,00003,000(1)

4.8

6(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1997)Teachers (1992)Pupil/teacher ratio (1992)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)ment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeat-ers (1980)

5,927,90227,902341,12220:1

87——

8

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1997)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—FemaleFemale

4,097,331

56——

Third-level enrolment ratio(1996)

22

Estimated adult literacy rate(2000)

—Total—MaleMale—Female

969794

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations and (2) Nations and (2) World data on education, Paris,UNESCO, 2000.

Nantiya Boonklurb

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The National Education Act of 1999 emphasizes sci-Act of 1999 emphasizes sci-ence and technology education and the Institute for thePromotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST)plays a major role in the teaching of science, mathematicsjor role in the teaching of science, mathematicsand computer education in Thailand.

II. THE MAJOR ROLES OF IPSTR ROLES OF IPST

The major roles of IPST are:� To conduct and promote research and development in

science, mathematics and technology education, in-gy education, in-cluding teaching/learning approaches and materials;

� To conduct and promote in-service teacher training onteaching/learning science, mathematics, and technolo-gy;

� To revise and update science, mathematics and tech-nology curriculum and teaching/learning materials;

� To establish standards of teaching/learning science,mathematics and technology and evaluating thosestandards.

IPST has set the following goals to improve and promotescience education for 2000 and beyond:� Use information technology in the science class to in-

vestigate, collect data and research information;� Develop teaching/learning instruction packages;� Encourage and develop local curricula;� Encourage the development of a database for science

teachers;� Promote the improvement of science teachers with

self-learning packages and seminars and symposiathat encourage the exchange of ideas and experiences;xchange of ideas and experiences;

� Encourage science teachers to teach science as a proc-ess of inquiry and problem solving.

III. STRUCTURE OF THE SCIENCE CURRICULUMUCTURE OF THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM

The present education system, in accordance with the Na-ucation system, in accordance with the Na-tional Scheme of Education of 1992, is 6:3:3:4+ for pri-mary, lower secondary, upper secondary and higherghereducation respectively. However, pre-school education isalso provided.

The national science curricula objectives set up byIPST are as follows:� To understand principles, concepts and theories of

basic science;� To understand the nature of science;� To promote the process of learning science and re-

search in science and technology;� To promote an open-minded, rigorous attitude towards

science;� To understand the inter-relationship and impact of sci-

ence, technology, humanity and the natural environ-ment;

� To demonstrate applications of science and technolo-gy in daily life and society.

At the lower secondary level, general science courses areoffered as core-compulsory and elective ones.

At upper secondary education level, students are di-vided into science and non-science stream. The science-stream students are those who intend to pursue higher ed-ucation in pure science, applied science, technology andother science-related areas. The non-science students are

those who do not intend to pursue education in scienceand the science-related areas (Table 1).

For the science-stream students, physics, chemistry,biology and environmental science are offered as compul-sory elective and free elective courses. For the non-sci-ence stream, various units (modules) on physical andbiological science are offered.

IV.V.THE NEW CURRICULUM ACCORDING TOTHE NEW NATIONAL EDUCATION ACT 1999999

According to the National Education Act 1999, eight areasof basic education are now identified:� Health and physical science;� Arts, music and drama;� Mathematics;� Thai language;� Social studies;� Science and technology;� Foreign language;� Work-oriented and careers.Science and technology will be offered and specific cours-pecific cours-es from primary education through secondary education.As for basic education, according to the National Educa-tion Act of 1999, IPST is establishing standards of scienceT is establishing standards of scienceeducation. This standard comprizes two parts. The firstpart is science that must be attained by all students. Thesecond part is the standard that must be met by all studentswho need more background in science and technology forfurther education. These standards are still being devel-oped.

V. TEACHING/LEARNING APPROACHESCHING/LEARNING APPROACHESAND STRATEGIES

IPST has incorporated the inquiry approach in teaching/rporated the inquiry approach in teaching/learning science, mathematics and computer teachers foryears. However, there are limitations such as class sizes,lack of science equipment and shortage of qualified teach-ers that affect the outcome. The system of entrance exam-ination to higher education is also a major hurdle toeffectively teaching/learning science. The testing is in-tended to emphasize both content and the learning proc-both content and the learning proc-ess, but students have demonstrated they are moreinterested in passing the examination only as a means tobeing admitted to a certain university.

Fortunately, the National Education Act of 1999, pro-poses the following reforms:wing reforms:

TABLE 1. Science courses for upper secondary school level (non-science-stream students)tream students)

Biological science Physical science

Food and healthMedicine for lifeGeneticsOur bodiesEvolution

Solar energyLightMatterElectricitySound in daily lifeEarth and starsNatural resources

and industrial dyes

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� Provide substance and arrange activities to meet stu--dents’ interests and aptitudes, bearing in mind individ-ual differences;

� Stimulate the thinking process and promote manage-ment, coping with situations and applying knowledgeto obviate and solve problems;

� Organize activities for learners to draw from authenticexperience; drill in practical work for complete mas-tery and enable learners to think critically, acquiregood reading habits and maintain a thirst for knowl-edge;

� Achieve, in all subjects, a balanced integration of sub-jects, a balanced integration of sub-ject matter, integrity, values and desirable attributes;

� Enable instructors to create the ambience, environ-ment, instructional media and facilities for students tolearn, be well-rounded persons and be able to benefitfrom research. In so doing, both learners and teachersmay learn together from different types of teaching/learning media and other sources of knowledge;

� Enable individuals to learn at all times and in allplaces. Seek cooperation with parents, guardians andmembers of the community to encourage students toreach for their potential.

The IPST emphasizes the following aspects for qualityPST emphasizes the following aspects for qualityscience teaching:� Inquiry-based teaching/learning process;� Higher-order thinking process;king process;� Scientific process;� Communication and decision;� Project-based skills;� Using Information Technology (IT) for teaching/y (IT) for teaching/

learning;� Learning how to learn.In 1999, IPST launched IT policy in teaching science andmathematics in upper secondary school.

IPST intends to train teachers to use IT in scienceclasses in the following:� Planning and reporting experiment;xperiment;� Analysis of data;� Retrieving of data and information from database;� Collecting data from experiments using devices such

as light, temperature, humidity, pressure and soundsensors.

Using IT in science instruction will enable students to uti-will enable students to uti-lize computers to search for information from many datasources. At this stage, IPST has initiated IT-assisted ex-periments in the upper secondary level in chemistry, biol-ogy and physics, using probes and sensors.

IPST also recognizes the importance of the teachers,and has implemented the teacher-training scheme. In anattempt to have nationwide teacher training, IPST hastrained the so-called ‘master-teachers’ who will return totheir homes and teach teachers in their areas. So far, IPSThas trained 1,400 primary master teachers in science and1,400 primary master teachers in science andmathematics, 1,200 lower secondary master teachers inscience and mathematics, and upper secondary masterteachers (chemistry 400, biology 400, physics 400, physi-cal and biological science 205, mathematics 400, andcomputer 600).

In conclusion, IPST has been responsible for scienceST has been responsible for scienceeducation in the nation. It has been recognized as thenational institution in this field. It works towards the goalto make science curricula more applicable to the needs ofthe modern economy, to increase the effectiveness of themethods of teaching and learning, to develop training pro-grammes that give skills appropriate to the modern curric-ula and to offer various programmes suitable to differentgroups of learners, for the quality of school science.

More importantly, IPST has worked towards a sciencePST has worked towards a sciencelearning society, which is the major goal of education pol-icy of the new century.

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TABLE 2. Who is doing what in scientific and technological development in Thailand?

CENTRAL LEVEL REGIONAL/PROVINCIAL LEVEL SCHOOL LEVEL

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

National aims and objectives, linked to the citizen needs

Aims and objectives, related to the region/provinces

Aims and objectives, related to the target group of the students

CURRICULUM PLAN National core curricula for basic education, good citizenship, livelihood as well as for further education

Prescribing curricula related to the needs of the community and of the society

Prescribing curricula related to the school environment and to society

METHODS AND APPROACHES TO TEACHNIG

Setting the standards of science teaching according to the National Education Act. Conducting evaluation for the standards

Conducting evaluations of education achievements in order to assess the quality of schools

Organising the learning process for the learners to learn and to be able to benefit from research as part of the learning process

MATERIALS Promote an establishment of all types of lifelong learning resources; public library, science museum, zoo, botanical garden, data bases and other resources

Promote the schools that appeal to local resources and to ‘local wisdom’

Using the different types of teaching/learning media and resources of knowledge

EVALUATION AND EXAMINATION

Setting the standards of science and technology assessment for basic education

Co-operate with the school to translate the standards for practical in each level, a report to the national level

The school shall assess learners’ performance through the observation of their development learning behaviour, participation in learning activities and results of the test

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I. THE STATUS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYTEACHING

1. Legislative framework

Defining and applying education policy is the responsibil-fining and applying education policy is the responsibil-ity of the government within a general framework laiddown by the legislature, which, under the Constitution,merely establishes ‘general principles’ applicable to theteaching system. Within the government, the Minister ofNational Education, Research and Technology is respon-sible for education policy.

The French education system used to be extremelycentralized. When it was decided in 1982 to transfer au-When it was decided in 1982 to transfer au-thority and responsibilities in a number of areas from theState to the territorial communities, France embarked on amajor decentralization exercise that radically altered thejor decentralization exercise that radically altered therespective powers of the State administrative authoritiesand the territorial communities. The State does, though,retain an important role: it is answerable for the smoothfunctioning of public services and the consistency ofteaching.

The 1982 and 1983 acts on decentralization assigned2 and 1983 acts on decentralization assignedFrance’s regions and departments a markedly greater role.The regions were given responsibility for building (or ex-uilding (or ex-panding), repairing and operating the ‘lycées’ (higher sec-ondary schools), the departments were given the sameresponsibilities for the ‘collèges’ (lower secondaryschools), and the communes were tasked to do the samefor primary (infant and elementary) schools.

2. The basic principles underlying teaching in FranceFrance

France has non-compulsory infant schools. They take inchildren from the age of 2 upwards, free of charge but sub-ject to the availability of space. Schooling is free and com-pulsory between the ages of 6 and 16—i.e. elementary andlower secondary school. On average, pupils finish lowersecondary school—which lasts four years if they do notrepeat any classes—at the age of 15. In theory, to meet thecompulsory schooling requirement, pupils who have notquirement, pupils who have notbeen held back a class must therefore undergo at least oneyear of full-time education either at a general and techni-cal lycée or at a vocational lycée (see Appendix I).

The decree of 30 August 1985, as amended, accordedcollèges and lycées autonomy over pedagogical and edu-pedagogical and edu-cational matters in their general administrative arrange-ments. The result was a plan of establishment, developedunder a procedure laid down in the Act of 10 July 1989defining the general thrust of education.

Estimated population (1996)6)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1996)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

58,333,0000(1)

6.0

12(2)

I. Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1996)Teachers (1996)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—FemaleFemale

Estimated percentage of repeaters (1991)

4,004,704211,19219:1

105106104

4

II. Secondary education

Students enrolled (1996)udents enrolled (1996)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

5,979,690

111112111

Third-level enrolment ratio (1996)

51

Estimated adult literacy rate —

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-h case the figure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-CO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theInformation and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations and (2) World data on education, Paris,UNESCO, 2000.CO, 2000.

Pierre Malleus

75

This made education the country’s top priority, and setthe objective of ‘raising an entire age-group, ten yearsfrom now, to at least the level of a w, to at least the level of a certificat d’aptitudeprofessionnelle [certificate of vocational ability] or brevetd’études professionnelles [vocational studies diploma],and 80% of it to the baccalaureate level’.

The five-year Work, Employment and VocationalEmployment and VocationalTraining Act of 20 December 1993 assigned the nationalhe nationaleducation system special responsibility for helpingschool-leavers to find jobs, establishing the principle that‘before leaving the education system every young person,whatever level of instruction he or she may have reached,must have been offered vocational training’.

3. Financing

Teaching, educational and counselling staffs are paid bythe State. Nowadays, however, the territorial communitiesare responsible for the assets and operation of school es-tablishments:� the regions, for higher secondary schools (lycées) and

specialist institutions (regional special teaching estab-lishments);

� the departments, for lower secondary schools (collèg-es);

� the communes, for primary schools (infant and ele-mentary).

4. Science and technology at elementary school(ages 6–11)

The science and technology teaching in the curriculum isan accompaniment to instruction in the basic skills ofreading, writing and arithmetic. It is not offered consist-It is not offered consist-ently, and depends on the abilities of the teacher. The ini-tial training of elementary schoolteachers tends to be inliterary subjects; this is the main obstacle to introducingscience and technology at elementary school as a standardpractice.

5. Science and technology at lower secondary school(ages 11–15)

The purpose of France’s collèges is to educate all chil-dren emerging from elementary school, giving them acommon education as defined by the national curricula.Children are provided with textbooks by the school. Theschools have some latitude for initiative so that they canoffer learning opportunities suited to pupils’ diverseneeds.

Since the May 1996 reform, education at collèges cov-ers four classes (years) and is divided into three cycles.� Adaptation, covering sixth class only: Schools have

flexibility in giving effect to a teaching plan centred onbility in giving effect to a teaching plan centred onbasic skills, in particular proficiency in French.

� Central, covering two classes, fifth and fourth: Theschool sets pupils’ schedules within regulatory time-brackets. Optional courses, including one on technol-ogy, enrich the learning process.

� Orientation, comprising third class only: Three differ-ent ways of arranging the teaching allow pupils to de-fine their future ambitions without choosing aparticular academic stream. A decision on which di-A decision on which di-rection to follow is taken at the end of the year.

6. Relative weight of science and technology

Three subjects fall under the heading of science and tech-nology teaching: life and Earth sciences, physics andchemistry, and technology.

During the adaptation cycle, only life and Earth sci-ences are taught, with 1.5 hours of instruction in each per5 hours of instruction in each perweek. They account for 10.7% of a total of 28 hours ofteaching.

During the central cycle, science and technology se-d technology se-quences in smaller teams (three groups for two classes)are encouraged. Physics and chemistry, life and Earth sci-ences, and technology are taught for 1.5–2 hours per weekeach. Taking the bottom of the bracket for each subject,bottom of the bracket for each subject,this makes for 4.5 hours out of a total of 20 hours of teach-ing in 5th class (i.e. 22.5%), and 4.5 hours out of a total of23 in 4th class (i.e. 19.5%).

For the orientation cycle, life and Earth sciences aretaught for 1.5 hours per week. Technology and physics/chemistry are taught for 2 hours each to 3rd class pupilsfollowing the modern languages option. Pupils followingPupils followingthe technology option have half an hour less of physics/chemistry and three hours more of technology. Scienceand technology teaching in collèges amounts to 5.5 out ofa total of 28.5 hours of teaching for pupils following themodern languages option (i.e. 19.2%), and 8 out of 27.59.2%), and 8 out of 27.5hours of teaching for pupils following the technology op-tion (i.e. 29%).

7. Teaching content

Exchanges and consistency between scientific subjectsbetween scientific subjectsare encouraged. The same holds true of the links withmathematics teaching.

Adaptation cycle

For historical reasons dating back to 1992, only technolo-gy and life and Earth sciences are taught in the sixth class.

Central cycle

Life and Earth sciences. By the end of the cycle, pupils areexpected to have acquired the following general abilities:� to be able to explain the basic functions of the human

organism;� to be able to identify the biological and geological

components of their immediate or broad environment;� to grasp the diversity, unity and arrangement of the liv-

ing world.

Physics/chemistry teaching pursues particular objectivesset forth for both collèges and lycées. First, it is not merelyconcerned with training future physicists and chemists.By means of the experimental approach it should incul-cate rigor, critical reasoning and intellectual honesty. Itshould develop both qualitative and quantitative reason-ing. The study of matter and its transformation is the do-The study of matter and its transformation is the do-main of qualitative reasoning par excellence, since thedominant factors have to be teased out of a complex phe-nomenon.

It must be open towards technology, which for themost part has its roots in physics and chemistry. It mustencourage scientific vocations and, for that reason, be an-chored in everyday experience and modern technology.

76

Like other scientific disciplines, physics and chemistryke other scientific disciplines, physics and chemistryhave a bearing on political, economic, social and ethicalchoices.

Physics/chemistry teaching must make it plain thatthese subjects are essential elements of culture by show-ing that the world is understandable. The extraordinaryrichness and complexity of nature can be described in bysmall number of universal laws, which together constitutea consistent representation of the world as it is. It mustshow that this representation is deeply rooted in experi-ence. Physics and chemistry teaching must educate citi-zens and consumers in the proper use of the technologyand chemical products they will find themselves using indaily life. Lastly, it must make optimum use of modernLastly, it must make optimum use of modernmethods. Emphasis is laid on the use of computers for dataentry, data processing and simulation.

Technology. Emphasis is laid on project execution, bring-ing into play different options, resources, pupil activities,skills and information technologies.

Orientation cycle

Life and Earth sciences. Teaching hinges on a return toconcrete and practical activities in the laboratory. Theprincipal notions are to do with genetics, namely unity anddiversity of human beings, protecting the organism andhow the organism functions, cell activity and exchangeswith the environment.

Physics/chemistry. The starting point for the teaching ofphysics and chemistry is the questions that pupils are aptto ask themselves in their daily lives, namely regardingmaterials and in their physical surroundings.

Technology. The three main areas of concentration areproject execution, computer-assisted tasks (communica-(communica-tions, fabrication, automation), and finding solutions totechnical problems.

8. Science and technology at senior secondary school(ages 15–18)

The initial year at senior secondary school (lycéeée) is a timefor firming up decisions: the choices pupils make do notlock them into a particular baccalaureate stream and, theirresults permitting, they can apply for any penultimate-year (first) class they like. Once in the penultimate yearthey are committed to a stream leading towards a bacca-laureate in a particular mix of subjects.

Science teaching revolves around practical work doneby the pupils themselves. Special-purpose facilities (lab-oratories, preparation rooms), modern scientific equip-ment and laboratory staff are available. For physicalsciences and technology, official equipment guides de-scribe what facilities and equipment are desirable at eachlevel. Those investing in the school infrastructure there-fore know how much it costs to set up a class, section orinstitution.Proportion of science and technology teaching at lycées1

The way teaching is organized is under review. The cur-zed is under review. The cur-rent weekly timetables can only indicate an order of mag-

nitude since details of the new timetables (September2000) have not yet been published. The figures in paren-theses refer to times for which class size is doubled.

Common-core subjects are taught for:� Life and Earth sciences: 5 + (1.5) hours;

or Automated systems technology: 0 + (3) hours;� Physics and chemistry: 2 + (1.5) hours.All in all, depending on pupils’ choices, this amounts topending on pupils’ choices, this amounts toabout 5.5 out of a total of 23.5 or 24.5 hours of teaching(23.5%).

Options such as computers and electronics in physicalsciences (0 + (3) hours), physical science techniques (0 ++ (3) hours), physical science techniques (0 +(4) hours) and automated systems technology (0 + (3)hours) may flesh out the teaching given, depending onpupils’ choices and the subjects offered at each lycée.

Its very up-to-date approach combining computer-to-date approach combining computerstudies, physical measurement and electronics, the flexi-bility it leaves teachers and pupils, and the way it enablespupils to consolidate the scientific knowledge they haveacquired have made the computer and electronics option agreat success with all concerned.

Penultimate year (First class). ). The details given herecover non-specialist lycées.

Science series � Life and Earth sciences: 1.5 + (1.5) hours;;

or Industrial technology: 2 + (6) hours; and� Physics/chemistry: 2.5 + (1.5) hours.Sciences other than technology account for 7 out of 26hours of teaching, or 27% of the total. For pupils who takewho taketechnology, the science and technology schedule amountsto 12 hours, or 44% of the total.

All pupils must choose an option. Of the six offered,two are scientific::� Experimental sciencesperimental sciences (life and Earth sciences, and

physics/chemistry): 0 + (3) hours;� Industrial technology: 0 + (3) hours.

Economic and social series. Science is available only asan option: 2.5 + (1.5) hours.1.5) hours.

Literary series. This includes a common core in science of2.5 + (1.5) hours.

Teaching content (second class)2

The curriculum described here will come into effect inSeptember 2000.

Science teaching at lycées is designed first and fore-ées is designed first and fore-most to make pupils enjoy science by showing them theintellectual steps involved, how ideas evolve, and howspecific bodies of knowledge are built up bit by bit. Sci-ence is not composed of certainties but of queries and re-sponses that change and adapt over time. Emphasis is laidon the general knowledge aspect, but pupils must acquireenough basic scientific culture to be able to aim for one ofthe predominantly scientific baccalaureate streams. TheTheteaching is designed as a whole, not as an amalgam of dif-ferent subjects.

The curriculum for experimental subjects does not relyon the mathematics curriculum either for terminology orfor the pupils’ final assessment. The thinking behind this

77

is that science develops through a constant interchangebetween observation and experiment, on the one hand,and conceptualization and modelling, on the other.

Life and Earth sciences. Courses are devoted to the planetCourses are devoted to the planetEarth and its environment; the organism and how it func-tions; and cells, DNA and living entities.

Physics and chemistry. About 20% of the time is left free% of the time is left freefor teachers and pupils to pursue a topic of their choosing,such as: determining the chemical or organic nature ofsomething; examining what constitutes matter; transfor-mations of matter; space exploration; the universe in mo-tion and time; and the air around us.

Baccalaureate streams (first and terminal class)

The final certificate of education is the baccalaureate,which can be in technology or general education.

The information given in Tables 1, 2 and 3 illustratesthree streams (number of candidates, the weekly schedulekly scheduleof subjects taught and the weight given to each in theexamination). French is taught in the first class, andpupils are assessed at the end of the year. The same istrue of history and geography for pupils in technologicalstreams.

The ‘special subject’ is compulsory; pupils mustchoose among the three mentioned. Life/Earth sciencesLife/Earth sciencesinclude biology and geology, as well as some geophysics.In some lycées, industrial technology must be taken in-stead of Life/Earth sciences. A special subject is then notcompulsory.

II. CURRICULUM REFORM

1. Advisory bodies involved

The National Curriculum Board, National Curriculum Board, created by the 1989 actdefining the general thrust of education, is made up ofg the general thrust of education, is made up ofmembers chosen by the minister for their expertise. It of-fers opinions and makes suggestions to the ministers con-cerned on the ‘overall design of teaching, the mainobjectives to be pursued, how well curricula and subjectfields match these objectives and how well they lendthemselves to the development of knowledge’.

TABLE 1. Scientific series S, 166,192 candidatesLE 1. Scientific series S, 166,192 candidates (1998)

Coefficient Weekly scheduleule

French 4

Mathematics 7 6

Physics/chemistry 6 3 1/3 + (1.5)

Life/Earth sciencesfe/Earth sciences 6 1.5 + (1.5)

or industrial technology 9 2 + (6)

History and geography 3 3

Modern language 1 3 3

Philosophy 3 4

PE and sports 2 2

Special subjectpecial subject

Mathematics 2 2

Physics/chemistry 2 0 + (2))

Life/Earth sciences 2 0 + (2)

TABLE 3. Electro-technical engineering series (STI), 17,144 candidates (1998)7,144 candidates (1998)

Coefficient Weekly schedule

Building study 6 1.5 + (3)5 + (3)

Study of industrial systems 9 2 + (10)

Applied physics 7 3 + (3)

French 3

History and geography 1

PE and sport 2 2

Modern language 1uage 1 2 2

Mathematics 4 2 + (2)

Philosophy 2 1 + (1)

TABLE 2. Laboratory science and technologyE 2. Laboratory science and technology series (STL), laboratory and industrial chemistry, 1,858 candidates (1998)

Coefficient Weekly schedule

Physics/chemistry 7 7

Chemical engineering 3 0 + (3.5)5)

Practical work 5 0 + (7)

Laboratory techniques 7 0 + (4)

French 3

History and geography 1

PE and sports 2 2

Modern language 1 2 2

Mathematics 4 2 + (2)

Philosophy 2 1 + (1)

78

Members of the Higher Council on Education repre-sent the teaching staff in public education, the users (par-ents, pupils and students), the territorial communities, andassociations and groups supporting individual schools andthe broader aims of education. It offers opinions on any-thing to do with education (aims and operation, rules gov-erning curricula, examinations, school attendance, etc.).

2. Reform rationale

The education system in France has undergone many re-France has undergone many re-forms over the last twenty-five years. The reforms are apermanent process of adaptation to various factors.� Economic progress creates a need for more qualified

manpower. It became necessary to extend compulsoryschool attendance to the age of 16 in 1976. The aver-76. The aver-age time which a child beginning nursery school canexpect to spend in education reached exactly 19 yearsin 1995–96, compared with 16.7 years in 1982–83.3.

� Changes in society. In only eighty years, France hasevolved from a mainly rural country to a highly indus-trialized one with dramatic breakthroughs in telecom-munications and rapid transportation by train and air.French society had to adapt quickly and not withoutdifficulties and negative fallout. The growing problemof violence in schools (mainly in poor neighbour-hoods), as well as the increasing number of one-parent), as well as the increasing number of one-parentfamilies, has lead to strong differences in learningabilities amongst pupils. This has been taken into ac-count in the recent reform of the collège.

� Scientific and technological progress. Knowledge hasgrown at a rapid, nearly exponential, pace. Innovationhas not only occurred in the content but also in theway scientists and engineers see their own activitiesand in manufacturing methods. Curricula in scienceCurricula in scienceand technology must keep pace with these changes.Some teaching tools are obsolete and must bereplaced (for example, traditional measurements bycomputer-aided data acquisition). The dilemma is todecide what content should be eliminated from thenew curricula.

In France, curricula and structures are decided at the cen-France, curricula and structures are decided at the cen-tral level. Although teachers take part in the process ofelaborating new curricula, it is always necessary to ex-plain the reform and help teachers adapt. Several lessonshave emerged from the French education reform experi-ence.� As far as possible, the new curriculum should be tried

out in different schools all over the territory at leastone year before full implementation.

� The number and quality of available teachers must fitthe needs. If not, provide for teacher training.If not, provide for teacher training.

� Sufficiently detailed documentation with commentsand examples of practical work sessions must be pro-duced.

� There should be a body of regional inspectors (at leastone per subject) who meet with teachers in the schoolsand explain the aims of the reform, show examples ofassessment, experiments and courses. A team of care-A team of care-fully chosen teachers assists the inspectors.

� The reform must provide for expenses like new equip-ment and special chemical products.

� Plans for the reform’s evaluation are essential.

3. General reform procedures

The procedure for changing curricula has been alteredseveral times. A curriculum reform exercise normally in-cludes the following:� Formulation of a draft curriculum, on the basis of

specifications drawn up by the minister, by a subject-specific working group chaired by a university profes-sor or a national education inspector and comprisingteachers selected by the chairperson(s). The draft isforwarded to the working groups addressing other sub-jects at the same level.

� A one-year trial at a number of schools around thecountry.

� Production of a definitive draft curriculum, which be-comes official after it has been before the co-ordina-tion and advisory bodies (the National CurriculumBoard and the Higher Council on Education) and beenEducation) and beenpublished in the official journal.

� Production of an accompanying document setting outthe intentions and limits of the curriculum, describingthe trials, with a bibliography and academic referencesfor teachers, and explaining how it fits together withother subjects.

� Training the trainers—regional education inspectorsand teacher-trainers.

� Training given at schools by the regional education in-spectors and teacher-trainers.

� Evaluating curriculum implementation and its effectson pupils is the responsibility of the corps of nationaleducation inspectors.

� The Department of Curriculum Design and Develop-Department of Curriculum Design and Develop-ment conducts an overall evaluation of the educationsystem, using sophisticated, up-to-date tools, and un-dertakes statistical surveys for the minister.

Depending on the circumstances, the minister may alsoorder national consultations by post or at specially con-vened meetings, and may commission reports from thecorps of national education inspectors or notable outsidefigures.

4. A special case

The procedure followed for technology teaching is differ-ent. The draft curriculum for a special subject in the tech-nology baccalaureate is drawn up by the corps of nationaleducation inspectors with teachers in that particular sub-ject. The curriculum is first submitted to a ProfessionalAdvisory Committee, comprising representatives of theminister, industrialists in the field concerned who makeknown their requirements, representatives of the industri-al and teachers’ unions, and experts in industrial safety.Once agreement is reached, the draft goes before the sameco-ordinating and advisory bodies as other curricula.

5. Thrust of the reforms completed and underway

Away from excessive mathematics

In the 1960s, the teaching and learning of physics andchemistry had not really changed for thirty years. Thesesciences were considered as applied mathematics and ex-aminations such as the baccalaureate were devised in thisspirit. No links were made between science and technolo-No links were made between science and technolo-gy and industry.

79

In fact, a strong tradition in France was to value main-ly abstract studies and mathematics. Teaching a scientificsubject only in the form of lessons followed by mathemat-ical-type exercises tended to make pupils believe that sci-pe exercises tended to make pupils believe that sci-ence was final, perfect, removed from reality and not to bequestioned.

The development of a new scientific elite in France en-couraged a new way of considering science and its teach-ing. Some examples of this new turn of mind:� It is better to show how a physical situation leads to an

equation than to solve the equation. Knowing the in-Knowing the in-fluence of parameters when they tend to zero or infin-ity, and recognizing homogeneity in a formula areincreasingly valued.

� It is better to involve pupils in problem-solving exer-cises than to teach science as though it were truthsstrung together like pearls on a thread.

Because mathematics is far easier to assess than science,it was the favourite tool of assessment in our educationsystem. The assessment of new types of abilities did notThe assessment of new types of abilities did nottake place before 1986. Even now, we must be careful notto fall back into old habits.

The introduction of practical work

Although practical work has been specified in syllabusesgh practical work has been specified in syllabusessince as early as 1902, it was considered by many teachersas a negligible part of the teaching and learning process.Nowadays, comparisons with many foreign countriesshow France at the leading edge of what is called ‘experi-mental teaching’ of physics and chemistry. Now practicalwork is done at the secondary level even if it is costly,vel even if it is costly,since smaller size classes and scientific equipment areneeded. It took nearly a quarter of century to change theteachers’ minds by:� Giving teachers examples of new and interesting ex-

periments;� Convincing older teachers that pupils should not be

taught science the way they were themselves taught;� Leading schools to build laboratories and buy equip-

ment;� Lobbying national or regional decision-makers to con-

vince them that practical work is worth the investment.

The development of links to everyday lifeand the environment

Science must not remain separate from its applicationsand technology. Documents and visits to industrial sitesshould link science learnt at school to the manufacture ofgoods and products, particularly in chemistry.

Nowadays pupils are taught respect for the environ-ment and involve themselves in collecting chemicalwastes from the school’s laboratory experiments. The en-vironment is explicitly mentioned in the syllabus.

As education for citizenship has become a major con-cern, science and technology teaching is addressing thistopic as well.

Project ‘la main à la pâte’ (hands-on science)(hands-on science)

With the support of the French Academy of Sciences,French physics Nobel Prize winner Georges Charpak hasGeorges Charpak hasdeveloped a new pedagogical process at the elementary

school called ‘Hands-on Science’. The pupils observe anobject or a phenomenon and experiment on it. Throughoutject or a phenomenon and experiment on it. Throughoutthe investigation, the pupils reason, argue and discuss ide-as and results. The activities are organized in sessions andrely on a curriculum but leave a large amount of autonomyto the pupil. The objective is the gradual assimilation ofscientific concepts and technological know-how.

The idea is reform teaching methods for 5–12-year-olds. Hands-on Science was developed in 1995 and grad-Hands-on Science was developed in 1995 and grad-ually grew and gained prestige. At the beginning of 1999,it had been extended to 4% of all French schools and its% of all French schools and itsreputation was visibly much more extensive than that.

Preliminary research has demonstrated the very posi-tive effects of the hands-on methodology, not only in theacquisition of scientific knowledge but also in expressionin the mother tongue, a general broadening of the mindand, perhaps, in the acquisition of social skills. The resultsThe resultsobtained by this method are particularly evident in diffi-cult sociological contexts. Of course, one must be carefulbecause the teachers may lack the scientific training need-ed to infer a correct conclusion and support it with scien-tific knowledge.

It has also been noted that the hands-on methodologyleads to very positive skills transfer. As they become usedto thinking in a logical sequence—observation, formula-quence—observation, formula-tion of a hypothesis, experimentation, conclusion—chil-dren have proved capable of re-using this skill in areasother than science.

Science teaching in schools had declined because peo-ple believed that the time spent teaching it was subtractedfrom that spent on fundamental skills (speaking, reading,writing and counting). Hands-on Science has provided anopportunity to bypass this contradiction by offering amethod of teaching science that leads to the acquisition offundamental mother tongue and mathematical skills.

Supervised personal projects

One important innovation is the introduction of super-vised personal projects (TPE), which aim at giving teach-ing a direction by helping pupils to understand they helping pupils to understand theultimate purpose of what they are learning. TPE intends todevelop the ability to work in groups, to extract relevantinformation from documentation, to complete an originalproject and to present the results. TPEs will be used as ofnext September.

All pupils will thus be given opportunities to learn bydifferent means, through motivating and rewarding activ-ities. This personal project should find its expression in aconcrete product (such as setting up a little weather sta-tion). The content of the projects must be connected to thecurriculum and chosen in accordance with a list of themespublished each year.

TPEs will call on the schools’ capacity for initiativeEs will call on the schools’ capacity for initiativeand the resources of the teaching staff. TPEs are being im-plemented this year for the first time in four schools perregion (académie). Many teachers and headmasters fear ashortage of rooms, books, documents and a lack of expe-ks, documents and a lack of expe-rience in teaching this new activity.

An enduring problem

In the first two years of collège, three scientific or techno-logical subjects are taught: biology-geology, physics-

80

chemistry and technology. Physics and chemistry aretaught only the second year. An integrated and coherentteaching and learning of science has yet to be constructed.

6. Future perspectives

A new curriculum is underway, with the main idea ‘less is‘less ismore’. It insists more on skills than knowledge. Two orig-inal features will emerge soon: one is related to the teach-ing and learning of science at the elementary school, theother is intended to develop new abilities in pupils.

III. CONCLUSIONLUSION

Science and technology teaching takes place at all levelsof schooling, but to widely differing degrees. It is intendedthat everyone should have such teaching up to the age of16. The teaching takes account of the need to educate fu-6. The teaching takes account of the need to educate fu-ture citizens.

There is constant emphasis on scientific questioningand increasing progression from the concrete to the ab-stract. Practical work by pupils themselves is an expensiverequirement, but one the teaching system strives to satisfyat all levels. Information and communication technologieshave become essential in modern science teaching.

Changes in the curriculum are evidence that the educa-tion system is constantly adapting to developments in sci-ence and society. The setting in which such changes,initiated by the minister on the basis of continuous assess-ment of the education system, are introduced is one of ex-tensive collaboration among the various constituenciesinvolved.

Notes

1. The discussion here is limited to the case of general and technolog-ical lycées.

2. The description here will be confined to the common core, withoutsecond-class options.

81

82

FIGURE 1. The French education systemGURE 1. The French education system

83

I. STRUCTURE OF THE HUNGARIANEDUCATION SYSTEM

Some special features of the Hungarian education systemome special features of the Hungarian education systemare worth mentioning:� There is a parallel adult education system (mainly of-

fered on a part-time basis), which allows learners asecond chance to attain higher levels of education;

� There is a separate system of special education for thephysically and mentally handicapped with a well-de-veloped teacher-training system; and

� Secondary education is offered in different types ofschools from Grade IX. In the first eight grades pupilsX. In the first eight grades pupilsfollow a similar curriculum in every school—even inthe Gymnasia, which are rather selective.

Mandatory school entry age is after the child’s sixth birth-day (the ideal age being nearer 7 than 6 at the beginning7 than 6 at the beginningof the school year). However, over 80% of children attendkindergarten from age 3.3.1

Compulsory education lasts until age 16. It has been ex-tended to 18 for those who started school after 1998. In 1996,68.5% of young people aged 15–19 were enrolled at school.% of young people aged 15–19 were enrolled at school.This percentage is rather low according to the Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development’s standards,Development’s standards,but the ratio of early school leavers is decreasing.

There is a final examination at the end of upper sec-ondary education, the so-called ‘Érettségi’ (Matura). Pass-). Pass-ing this examination is a criterion of entering tertiaryeducation. Two main curriculum streams prepare for theÉrettségi: the academic secondary school and the vocationalsecondary school. Although there are differences in electivesubjects, the basic subjects and requirements are the same.bjects, the basic subjects and requirements are the same.About 60% of the age cohort pass the Érettségi examination.

Secondary level vocational training takes place in vo-cational schools and vocational secondary schools. Pre-vocational education starts typically in Grade IX, but as of1998 onwards, vocational training starts only in Grade XIwards, vocational training starts only in Grade XIin vocational schools and Grade XIII in vocational sec-ondary schools. A growing number of institutions are spe-cializing in vocational training, which is a relatively newfeature of the education system.

Higher education has become rather diversified in thepast ten years. Besides the traditional university and col-Besides the traditional university and col-lege courses, a growing number of post-secondary courseshave been offered. The length of first degree universitycourses vary from nine to twelve semesters (medical stud-ies being the longest); college courses vary from six toeight semesters.

Estimated population (1996)996)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1996)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

10,049,000(1)

4.6

—

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1994)Pupil/teacher ratio (1994)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters (1992)

507,23844,58511:1

103104102

3

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

1,112,149

989699

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995)

24

Estimated adult literacy rate (2000)

—Total—Male—Female

999999

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-ure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionCO, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theInformation and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations.

Judit Kádár-Fülöp

84

II. ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE EDUCATIONTIAL FEATURES OF THE EDUCATIONREFORM OF THE 1990s

The 1990s marked an important change in Hungarian ed-he 1990s marked an important change in Hungarian ed-ucation policy. With the radical political changes theformer monolithic State-directed system has graduallygiven way to a market-driven system with substantial lo-cal and institutional autonomy. Educational legislation re-Educational legislation re-sponded to the dramatic social and political challengesHungary faced during the past decade (see Table 1). A dy-namic adaptation behaviour can be observed in all seg-ments of the educational infrastructures. Major challengesMajor challengeshave included the following:� a decreasing size of age cohorts;� structural change in the Hungarian economy;� large-scale privatization of industry and agriculture

and its effects on the labour market;� the infusion of foreign capital and multinational firms;� higher and different demands for skills and knowledge

in the labour market (shortage of low-level positions);

� new demands for skills and training formerly used in avery limited way (e.g. information technology and infor-mation and communication technology skills, foreign, foreignlanguage skills, training in law and business, etc.);

� brain-drain and labour migration, uneven develop-ment of regions;

� public demand for more choice in programmes andmore education in general;

� public demand for parental and student freedom of se-lecting schools and programmes.

The education policy’s reponse was a sharp turn towardsdecentralization of planning and implementation respon-sibilities, both in the area of curriculum decisions and ineducational administration. Budget resources are mainlyplanned and distributed by the central government (about70% of financing comes from the State budget), but the0% of financing comes from the State budget), but thebasis for financing is a per capita normative provisiontransferred to education providers such as local govern-ments and other (government-dependent) school provid-ers like churches and foundations.

TABLE 1. Legislation related to decentralizing education policyBLE 1. Legislation related to decentralizing education policy

1990 Municipalities became owners of primary and secondary schools and were given the responsibility forhools and were given the responsibility forprimary and secondary education

1993 Acts on Public Education, Higher Education, and Vocational Education. Redefinition of responsibilities inVocational Education. Redefinition of responsibilities indecision-making concerning planning, implementation and evaluation of education with respect to con-tent, organization and budgeting. Typically, planning and implementation responsibilities were decen-tralized, whereas evaluation procedures remained centralized, but somewhat underdeveloped

First publication of the National Vocational Qualification list and qualification criteriaAccreditation procedures in higher education

19966 Publication of the National Core CurriculumPublication of Érettségi (secondary final examination) qualification requirementsqualification requirementsPublication of higher vocational qualification criteriaExtension of general education to Grade X (formerly Grade VIII), thereby postponing vocational trainingIII), thereby postponing vocational trainingAmendment on county responsibilities for student placement in secondary educationAmendment on post-secondary education in the Act on Higher Education

1999 Amendment on ‘frame curricula’ for the main types of secondary educationAmendment on the reorganization of institutions of higher education

III. DECISION-MAKING CONCERNINGEDUCATIONAL CONTENT

Two important features distinguish education policy ofmportant features distinguish education policy ofthe 1990s from that of the previous decades:� a sharing of responsibilities for content and curriculum

among the central government, the school and the lo-cal educational authorities;

� a shift from State-controlled and centralized textbookproduction to a market-driven textbook industry withquality and quality monitoring by the State.

Curriculum policy of the 1990s had to take into consider-ation the new demands of an open society and a rapidlychanging labour market that has strong local differencesinfluenced by local industry and uneven regional devel-opment. There has been pressure on both the central andThere has been pressure on both the central andlocal governments to introduce a larger variety ofcurricula. The demand for foreign languages and infor-mation technology has been particularly high, very oftenat the expense of science and mathematics teaching. Ageneral demand for more elective subjects in generaleducation as well as a demand for longer general

education and the postponement of vocational training canbe observed as a lasting tendency.

To meet these challenges, the government initiated atwo-tier curriculum control system, which consists of aNational Core Curriculum describing the common core ofteaching and learning objectives for the first ten years ofschool education in ten study areas (mother tongue, math-(mother tongue, math-ematics, foreign languages, science, man and society,Earth and environment sciences, arts, physical educationand sports, information technology and practical studies).The National Core Curriculum has become the commonbasis for curriculum development in all streams of prima-ry and secondary education. Schools were required to de-quired to de-velop their local curricula on the basis of the NationalCore Curriculum. This task involved the allocation of timefor subjects, the translation of content and objectives intosubjects, the formulation of local goals and objectives,and the sequencing of learning content.

The National Institute of Public Education wasEducation wascommissioned to set up a ‘curriculum bank’. The generalprinciple was that curricula should be reviewed for compat-

85

� raising awareness of the local school authorities thatthe school's programme is related to its budget require-ments;

� forcing the local administration to negotiate with boththe schools and political forces to reach consensusabout educational needs within the local school sys-tem;

� making schools learn content planning.The curriculum information system speeded up and, tocertain extent, monitored change both in the implementa-xtent, monitored change both in the implementa-tion of the National Core Curriculum and in the behaviourof the textbook market. Since there were many initiativesin curriculum development and textbook writing, the Pro-fil curriculum writing instrument acted as a kind of tech-nical standard for planners as well as a kind of disciplinarydevice for those who were inclined to consider the curric-ulum as a ‘table of contents’ rather than a plan with the de-scription of aims, objectives, activities, required resourcesquired resourcesand methods of assessment.

The implementation of the two-tier curriculum controlsystem was not easily managed and certainly had undesir-able side effects as well. Without an effective nationalevaluation and advisory system the schools were left totheir own resources. In many cases the local school au-thority or the school itself contracted consultants to helpthem plan. Time was too short and the budget too small,however, to do more than just formally fulfil the require-ments of submitting an acceptable programme documentto the local authority for approval. If a school had no cleargoals and realistic objectives, the exercise remained cheaplip service. Often schools found the objectives and theOften schools found the objectives and thespecific contents described in the National Core Curricu-lum insufficient. To introduce more facts and raw knowl-edge objectives was a typical reaction of schools that triedto ‘show off’ with their ‘high standards’. In general, theIn general, theaverage number of classes per week grew, whereas thetime for elective subjects shrank. Since the Education Actlimits the government-paid teaching hours, the schoolshad to observe these constraints (unless they could nego-tiate for extra hours locally). As a result, many schoolsxtra hours locally). As a result, many schoolsgave up some of their previously offered extracurricularactivities to have more space for regular classes. The bur-den on students grew.

It is too early to tell what effect the local curricula havehad on pupils' progress. It is expected that differences be-tween schools will grow. To keep deviations from thenorm within control, the 1999 amendment to the Educa-Educa-tion Act made the ministry responsible for defining thetime table for up to 90% of the teaching time. This is a newswing of the pendulum, which should certainly be consid-ered as a reaction to the two-tier content control. To whatextent this will affect the implementation of the NationalNationalCore Curriculum or change it is unclear at this point.

In vocational education curriculum control has re-mained centralized throughout the 1990s, whereas newproviders (among them many private organizations) en-tered the education market. The list of nationally acknowl-The list of nationally acknowl-edged vocational qualifications (National VocationalQualification List) was first issued in 1993 and has been1993 and has beenmaintained ever since. Training and examination require-ments have been published for each qualification. Thesedescribe the syllabus including the amount of time to beassigned to each theoretical and practical subject, appren-

ibility with the National Core Curriculum and for format,National Core Curriculum and for format,but few other pedagogical criteria of admission were used.A special software (Profil) was developed to manage thecurriculum information system. It was designed to:� standardize the way curricula are described;ze the way curricula are described;� build a ‘curriculum bank’ of available programmes;� support curriculum evaluation;� support modular planning of educational content;� print curricula in a decent document format.Reviews and summaries of the curricula were publishedby independent reviewers. On the whole, however, thegeneral idea was a kind of marketing rather than control.The rapidly developing private textbook industry was alsoencouraged to develop and publish curricula with theirtextbooks and via the curriculum information system.

Some 500 professionally developed curricula were500 professionally developed curricula werepublished via the Profil curriculum bank in 1997–98. Thecurricula included varied in quality and level of detail.quality and level of detail.Some were the result of a long development process thatbegan in the 1980s. Some of them had a complete set oftextbooks and teacher books, other were just naïve sylla-just naïve sylla-buses. This mechanism to describe the curriculum made iteasy to detect planning deficiencies. There was also an In-ternet publication created from the Profil database thatschools could use to obtain a printed curriculum docu-ment. One publisher specialized in developing printedsupport material for schools who wanted to build their cur-riculum from modules. The electronic information systemwas organized in such a way that schools without compu-ter facilities could find a service point within a two-hourradius. These service points were trained to serve theschools by helping them browse the database, by givingadvice on how to select from the programmes, and byprinting out the elements they choose.

The schools could use the published curricula un-changed or adapt them to their own needs. Schools wereSchools werefree to develop their own curricula as well, as long as theymet the requirements of the National Core Curriculum.

Implementation of the National Core Curriculumstarted in 1998. Its reception has been assessed in severalbeen assessed in severalstudies. These show that the National Core Curriculumand the new task of developing local curricula werereceived with mixed feelings in the schools. The freedomto choose programmes and textbooks, as well as thepossibility to develop or adapt a programme werewelcomed. However, more than two-thirds of the schoolsHowever, more than two-thirds of the schoolsfound local curriculum development an extra burden forwhich they were unprepared. Schools complained thatthe extra planning work remained unpaid or underpaid.Although the National Core Curriculum gave someCore Curriculum gave someguidance concerning time allocation, the greatest diffi-culty was experienced in setting the timetable forsubjects. Despite these challenges, the resultingownership had a beneficial effect on teachers' attitudestoward the curriculum. More than half of the schoolsfound that the curriculum development process enhancedcommunication and group work between teachers ofdifferent subjects. It was also found laudable that schoolshad access to programme and textbook information.

The curriculum reform impacted local education poli-cy in many ways by:� raising awareness of the school's responsibility for its

own programme;

86

V. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYENCE AND TECHNOLOGYIN THE CURRICULUM AND AT SCHOOL

Until 1945, the German model of classical secondary ed-1945, the German model of classical secondary ed-ucation and the practical Volksschule reigned in Hungary.After the Second World War, when the former 4+8 struc-Second World War, when the former 4+8 struc-ture was changed to an 8+4 structure with the first eightyears becoming uniform and compulsory for all pupils,science education became central to the curriculum forboth practical and ideological reasons. Besides recogniz-ing the need for better science education for all, this studyarea was also thought to support the teachings of ‘dialecticmaterialism’. It is characteristic of those times that in 19481948religion as a subject was removed from the curriculum andthe time was reallocated to science subjects (Kádár-Fülöpöp& Báthory, 1990).

Since the teaching of science enjoyed relative inde-pendence from straightforward political manipulation, de-ward political manipulation, de-velopments in the science curricula, teaching methodologyand teacher training were almost uninterrupted and fol-lowed Central European traditions. A circle of outstandingHungarian scientists and curriculum specialists (Szent-Györgyi, Szentágothai, Varga, Kontra and G. Marx toname a few) proved influential enough to lobby and workved influential enough to lobby and workfor science and mathematics education between 1946 and1976, even in the worst political periods. The results be-came first obvious in the 1970s, when Hungarian eighth0s, when Hungarian eighthgraders in the first IEA science study proved to be highachievers compared to their age cohorts in other countries.Technology (technika) is a relatively new subject (estab-ka) is a relatively new subject (estab-lished in the 1970s) in the upper grades of the generalschool. Its content has been an issue for many years. InGrades I–IV, ‘technika’ replaced the subject ‘manualskills’ in the 1970s, absorbing some of the methods of thelatter. In Grades V–VIII, technika was meant to some ex-x-tent as an introduction to ‘industrial procedures’. At thesame time, the manual skills approach was maintained bycurriculum specialists. In the 1970s many schools set up aspecial lab for teaching technology. Since it was a costlySince it was a costlyacquisition, schools relied upon friendly firms in theneighbourhood. As a consequence, the content of ‘techni-ka’ became the first ‘local curriculum’, strongly influ-enced by local opportunities and innovative efforts. The1978 curriculum reform tried to standardize the ‘technika’978 curriculum reform tried to standardize the ‘technika’curriculum with the result that it became more theoreticalthan most teachers desired. In the 1990s the time allocatedto ‘technika’ came to be used for informatics and compu-ter literacy, whereas in the National Core Curriculum theCore Curriculum thesubject ‘home economy and practical skills’ is separatefrom ‘information technology’.

VI. THE FEATURES OF SCIENCE CURRICULAFEATURES OF SCIENCE CURRICULAIN HUNGARY

Curriculum policy is a crucial issue in influencing the se-m policy is a crucial issue in influencing the se-lectivity of the education system. Curriculum content andits method of implementation affect the reduction of drop-out through motivational channels as well as through thecommunication of values and requirements. Curriculumpolicy is, of course, a political issue (and a hot one!) forthis very reason. Surely the symptoms shown in Hungari-an science achievement have explanations in the curricu-lum as well.

ticeship type of training and major requirements to be metbe metat the qualification examinations.

The ‘Érettségi’ national examination requirementswere published for twenty general subjects and about thesame number of pre-vocational subjects in 1996.996.

To summarize the major changes in curriculum policyduring the 1990s, it can be said that there has been a shiftfrom direct State control of educational content throughthe curriculum and the textbooks towards the monitoringks towards the monitoringof change through a national standard (National Curricu-lum) and the publication of output criteria (qualificationstandards and examinations) (see Tables 2 and 3).3).

IV. SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT OF HUNGARIANSTUDENTS IN THE PAST THIRTY YEARSDENTS IN THE PAST THIRTY YEARS

Hungary has participated in international achievementd in international achievementstudies since 1970. We have had a national assessmentsystem of student achievement since 1986. From the re-sults of these and deeper research the following importantpoints can be stated.be stated.

Hungarian students used to be at the top of the inter-national league table in Grade VIII. The gain betweenGrade IV and Grade VIII was (and still is) very substan-tial. In secondary education the yield of the system is dis-appointing. In 1970 Hungarian students in the final grade1970 Hungarian students in the final gradeof academic secondary education ranked lower thanGrade VIII students (Comber & Keeves, 1973). In 1983(Comber & Keeves, 1973). In 1983on the International Association for the Evaluation of Ed-uation of Ed-ucational Achievement’s (IEA) Second International Sci-ence Study (SISS), Grade VIII pupils still led the leaguetable (Postlethwaite & Wiley, 1991). In the most recentble (Postlethwaite & Wiley, 1991). In the most recentIEA Science Study (TIMMS) Hungarian eighth gradersdy (TIMMS) Hungarian eighth gradersperformed above the international average (Beaton et al.,1996996b) but were not at the top. On the other hand, theyfell below the international average in the final grade ofsecondary education, despite the fact that the populationin school covers only 65% of the eligible age cohort. Bycontrast, pupils in Sweden, the Netherlands, Norway,Sweden, the Netherlands, Norway,Canada, Iceland, New Zealand, Switzerland and Austriawith a higher percentage of the age cohort achieved sig-nificantly higher than the international average (Mullis etMullis etal., 1998). The tendency of declining achievement is con-firmed by national assessments since 1986 (Vári, TuskaVári, Tuska& Krolop, 1999).

Báthory, Krollop and Vári (1999) discovered thatgroups of countries show similarities with respect to thechange in achievement standards towards the end of Inter-national Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)Levels 1, 2, and 3. Hungary, the Czech Republic and the2, and 3. Hungary, the Czech Republic and theUnited States show a pattern of growth between Levels 1Levels 1and 2, and a sharp decline at Level 3. By contrast,Icelandic, Norwegian and New Zealand students performbelow the international average on ISCED Levels 1 and 2,and above the international average at Level 3. Slovenianand Austrian students show a general 'above average' per-per-formance at all three levels, whereas Canadian and Dutchstudents show a sharp and constant development through-out. It is remarkable that the grouping is the same in bothmathematics and sciences and also that the coverage indexis higher in the countries that are high performers in the fi-nal stage of secondary education (Báthory, Krollop &áthory, Krollop &Vári, 1999).

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TABLE 2. Levels of decision-making and support structures (before 1990)vels of decision-making and support structures (before 1990)

Activity National level Regional/county level/county level Community level

School level

Planning Curriculum (syllabus) devel-opment (including aims and objectives, time allo-cation, and content description)

Projects for translating new content into curricula

Textbook developmentxtbook development

Implementation Textbook productionTeacher trainingIn-service teacher training:

‘training of trainers’National mathematics/science

competitionsEducational research

Teacher adviser network (from 1985)1985)

In-service teacher train-ing (from 1985)

Regional mathematics/science competitions (from 1985)

Teaching

Evaluation Development and mainte-d mainte-nance of the national examination system

International assessment of educational achievement in key subjects (from 1970 onwards)

National assessment of educa-tional achievement in key subjects

Educational statistics

Ad hoc assessments ordered by the school or a local authority

Supervision of schools (until 1985)85)

drew mainly upon these studies. Despite these changes,the weight of science in the timetable did not increasemuch. At the same time the subject content became moretheoretical both at the lower and the upper secondary lev-els. Because of time pressure and a general overload ofcontent in the science curricula (especially in physics and(especially in physics andchemistry), basic objectives like ‘understanding the ex-perimental nature of the scientific approach to reality’could not be attained for lack of equipment and shortageof time for student experiments in most schools. Theshortage of in-service teacher training caused problemstoo. All in all, teachers who were expected to transmit newAll in all, teachers who were expected to transmit newknowledge and implement new methods in many caseswere unable to cope with the new content themselves! Asa result in many schools half-truths were taught, whichwere rigorously required to be learnt.

An equally serious problem has been the ‘ivory tower’nature of science teaching with respect to the practicalproblems and technology. In the closed society that Hun-gary was between 1948 and 1990, science education1948 and 1990, science educationserved the education of scientists on one hand and believ-ers in the scientific ideology on the other. Both aims couldbe met without bothering too much about how to teach theuse of science in technology or the relations of science andtechnology. The situation changed somewhat with theNational Core Curriculum. Yet, it is a tradition difficult toCore Curriculum. Yet, it is a tradition difficult toovercome in the Hungarian education system and it is trueof both mathematics and science teaching. Besides thearistocratic attitude of the teaching profession there might

A general (and traditional) feature of Hungarian sci-ence curricula is that no integrated science subjects existjects existfrom Grade VI onwards. By comparison, twenty-one outof the thirty-nine TIMMS countries teach an integratedgratedscience subject in Grade VIII (Beaton et al., 1996b). Theearly separation of biology, chemistry and physics resultsf biology, chemistry and physics resultsin the cultivation of specific ‘languages’ for each of thesesubjects. Since teacher education follows the same rule,the knowledge areas have become very segregated with agrowing theoretical tendency and a fight for hours in thetimetable. The experiences of several large-scale curricu-lum reforms show that this fight always results in contentoverload in all competing subjects. Several studies haveshown that practical and experimental studies have beenthe weak side of Hungarian science education. On the oth-On the oth-er hand, mathematization fits the theoretical approach andthis is another specific aspect of science education in aca-demic secondary schools. Biology is an exception: themethodology of biology education has a long tradition ofan empirical approach to teaching.

Issues of science teaching and science curricula weretaken up in the White Paper on Education published by theWhite Paper on Education published by theHungarian Academy of Sciences in 1970. Eminent scien-970. Eminent scien-tists advocated teaching basic scientific principles and sci-entific thinking at all levels of education. As a follow-upof this ‘academic movement’, a series of curriculum inno-vations and teaching experiments were initiated and spon-sored by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and they the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and theMinistry of Education. The curriculum reform of 1978

88

be other reasons: experiential science learning is a costlyexercise because it is time and resource consuming. More-over, teachers must be trained in methods fostering grouplearning, for dealing with 'discipline problems' in an activ-ity class, etc. This is a weak side of teacher training for thereasons similar to those in schools: experimental teachingis resource demanding.

The traditions of mathematics teaching may have animpact on science teaching as well. Most physics teachersare also mathematics teachers. Mathematics as a scienceand the methodology of mathematics teaching is also the-ory-oriented rather than pragmatic. The TIMMS resultsS resultsshow that among the mathematics content areas that areused most in science (proportionality, data representation,analysis and probability), Hungarian pupils perform morepoorly than in ‘pure mathematics’ areas like fractions andnumber sense, geometry and algebra (Postlethwaite & Wi-Wi-ley, 1991).

Bibliography

Báthory, Z.; Krollop, J.; Vári, P. 1999. The effect offfect ofTIMMS on the Hungarian education. (Unpublishedblishedmanuscript.)

Beaton, A.E., et al. 1996a. Mathematics achievement inthe middle school years. Boston College, MA, TIMMSTIMMSInternational Study Center.

——. 1996b. Science achievement in the middle schoolyears. Boston College, MA, TIMMS InternationalStudy Center..

Comber, L.C.; Keeves, J.P. 1973. Science education inKeeves, J.P. 1973. Science education innineteen countries. Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell.Wiksell.(International studies in evaluation I.)

Kádár-Fülöp, J.; Báthory, Z. 1990. y, Z. 1990. Educational researchin an enlarged free Europepe. (Paper presented at theconference ‘Ricerca e politica educativa in prospettivaEuropea’ held at Centro Europeo dell' Educazione,Villa Falconieri, Frascati, Rome, 3–6 April.)

Mullis, V.S.I., et al. 1998. Mathematics and scienceachievement in the final year of secondary education.Boston College, MA, TIMMS International StudyCollege, MA, TIMMS International StudyCenter.

Nagy, M., ed. 1998. Education in Hungary 1997. Buda-pest, National Institute of Public Education.f Public Education.

Postlethwaite, T.N.; Wiley, D.E. 1991. Science achieve-ment in twenty-one countries.wenty-one countries. Oxford, Pergamon Press.rd, Pergamon Press.

Vári, P. 1999. Monitor '97 — A tanulók tudásának felmérése.Budapest, National Institute of Public Education.

Vári, P.; Tuska, Á.; Krolop, J. 1999. ka, Á.; Krolop, J. 1999. Change of emphasishange of emphasisin the mathematics assessment in Hungary. (Unpub-lished manuscript.)

Note

1. Pre-school education has an excellent tradition in Hungary datingback to the early nineteenth century. Theresa Brunswick, a closefriend of Ludwig van Beethoven, is considered as the founder ofHungarian kindergarten education. ‘Curricula’ were developed forkindergarten education in the 1960s and 1970s, and were successful-ly implemented. Kindergarten teachers have been trained at the ter-tiary level of education since 1970.

89

TABLE 3. Levels of decision-making and support structures (2000)

Activityvity National level Regional/county level Community level School level

Planning National Curriculum (attain-ment targets and core content at Key Stages)

Curricula for each ISCED ISCED level and major stream

Projects for translating new content into curricula

Curriculum information sys-tem

Selective support of textbook k development

Approval of school curricula

Adapting and adopting the curriculum

Selection of textbooks

Implementation Textbook information sys-tem

Teacher training (qualifica-tion criteria)

In-service teacher training (accreditation of pro-grammes)

National mathematics/sci-ence competition

Funding of educational research

Teacher adviser net-work

In-service teacher training (short courses)

Regional mathemat-ics/science com-petitions

Methodological support for local innovation

Teacher adviser network

Support of local innovation

Implementation of the local cur-riculum

TeachingSelf-development

Evaluation Development and mainte-nance of the national examination systemystem

International assessment of educational achievement in key subjects (from 1970)

National assessment of edu-cational achievement in key subjects

Educational statisticsTextbook approval (text-

book evaluation)Teacher adviser registration

system

Ad hoc assessments ordered by the school or a local authority

Evaluation of the local school system

Evaluation of the school curricu-lum and its implementa-tion

Evaluation of textbooks

Self-evaluation

90

I. BACKGROUND OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION LOGY EDUCATION

The Harari report, published in 1993 by the committee ap-t, published in 1993 by the committee ap-pointed by the Ministry of Education to examine the stateof science, mathematics and technology instruction in theState of Israel, under the leadership of professor Harari,Harari,president of the Weizman Institute, cites the overall objec-tives of the national project:We call upon the Government of Israel to announce a na-tional programme for strengthening, deepening and im-proving the study of mathematics, natural science andtechnology in all sections of the education system, in or-der to prepare the next generation of Israeli citizens forlife in a scientific-technological era.

We recommend a long list of measures and activitieswhich will be spread over the next five years, so that by1998, the jubilee anniversary of the state of Israel, we willreach substantial achievements in this area.

The success of the programme will enable us to enterthe twenty-first century equipped with the necessary toolsfor a safer and a better tomorrow.

II. GOALS OF TEACHING SCIENCEOALS OF TEACHING SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY

There are several goals of teaching science and technolo-oals of teaching science and technolo-gy. First, students should know and understand facts, con-cepts, laws and principles that every citizen will need.These courses develop creative and critical thinking, aswell as understanding of research methods and enhancingproblem-solving skills. Greater comprehension of the im-portance of science and technology knowledge helps pu-pils make decisions regarding national and internationalissues. Science and technology teaching is aimed at recog-nizing the possibilities and limitations of both disciplineswhen applying them to problem-solving. These coursesdevelop smart consumer thinking and behaviour by usinga decision-making process when selecting a product or asystem. Science and technology courses prepare the indi-vidual to take care of the environment. Perhaps most im-portantly, these courses encourage the development ofboth individual and team learning skills as well as developgood work habits.

III. THE SYLLABUS CHARACTERISTICS

Science and technology should be integrated, while em-y should be integrated, while em-phasizing the uniqueness of each subject. There are vari-

Estimated population (1996)6)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1994)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

5,664,000(1)

7.6

11(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1993)Pupil/teacher ratio (1990)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—MaleMale—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters

631,91648,01015(3)

41——

—

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)(1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

541,737

888987

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995)

41

Estimated adult literacy rate(2000)

—Total—Male—Female

969894

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-figure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999,O, 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of they Analysis of theUnited Nations, (2) World data on education, Paris,UNESCO, 2000, and (3) 3) World education report 2000port 2000,Paris, UNESCO, 2000.

Moshe Ilan

91

ous ways to do this—different models should be evaluatednt models should be evaluatedto show the range of possibilities. The unique componentsof each subject will be emphasized in the school curricu-lum. Science and technology teachers choose their curric-ulum from the subjects given in the syllabus and decidehow to integrate them. In order to teach an integrated sub-ject well, team teaching is essential.

IV.V. RATIONAL

The rational and the educational principles of the pro-gramme are based on two components. First, the studentbased on two components. First, the studentshould acquire the relevant knowledge, skills and attitudesin a variety of key technologies and science principles inorder to be able to tackle human needs and problems. Sec-ondly the student should be able to follow a full process ofproblem-solving within a technological and scientific en-vironment.

V. THE NATIONAL CURRICULUMFOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

The programme ‘Science in a Technological Society’rogramme ‘Science in a Technological Society’(MABAT) was developed to enhance scientific and tech-fic and tech-nological literacy for all, starting at the elementary level.The curriculum development stage has been completed,and the implementation of MABAT is now in progressthroughout Israel.

Some of the topics covered by the programme are en-ergy, information, communication, computers, ecology,industry as a human organization, and space technology.zation, and space technology.An important part of MABAT is devoted to the significantimpact of technological progress on the individual and so-ciety. MABAT is taught three hours a week in the sixxyears of elementary school, thus totalling 540 hours of in-struction.

VI. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN JUNIOR HIGHAND TECHNOLOGY IN JUNIOR HIGHSCHOOL (GRADES VII–IX)X)

According to the new programme, students receive 540hours of instruction in seven main subjects, as describedin Table 1.1.

VII. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYIN HIGH SCHOOL (GRADES X–XII)

The four main principles taught in science and technologyhe four main principles taught in science and technologyin senior high school are outlined in Table 2. Each of theprinciples is addressed in four subject areas (material sci-ences, life sciences, Earth sciences, and technology). Thisis the curriculum for those not specializing in science.

TABLE 1. Junior high school scienceBLE 1. Junior high school science and technology topics

Main subjects Hours

Materials: structure, function and processes 105

Energy and interaction 90

Technological systems and products 90

Information and communication 30

Earth and the universe 45

Phenomena, structures and processes inliving creatures (with special emphasis onthe human body)

150

Ecology 30

Total 540

92

93

I. SCHOOL SYSTEM IN THE NETHERLANDS

The basic structure of the Dutch education system is asbasic structure of the Dutch education system is asfollows. Primary education is given to children of 4 to 11years old. At the age of 12 children enter secondary edu-cation. Since 1993 pupils then follow a similar curriculum3 pupils then follow a similar curriculumin two to four years (basic secondary education), but inmost schools they are divided in up to four streams: onepre-vocational (VBO) and three general streams, calledMAVO (junior secondary), HAVO (senior general sec-ondary) and VWO (pre-university). In upper secondaryschool, students either work towards final examinations inhool, students either work towards final examinations inVBO and MAVO (one year), HAVO (two years) or VWOHAVO (two years) or VWO(three years), enter senior secondary vocational schools(MBO, two to four years) or participate in an apprentice-ur years) or participate in an apprentice-ship system (one to four years).

II. SCIENCE IN THE NATIONAL CURRICULUMONAL CURRICULUM

Recommended number and duration of lessons (primaryand secondary education)

Primary schools are free to decide how to organize thedecide how to organize thetimetable and how much time to spend on science. Butthese schools are required to have a timetable; inspectorscompare those and give comments if only little time isdevoted to a subject. In most secondary schools lessonstake fifty minutes, although a trend towards forty-fiveminute-lessons exists. Especially in upper secondaryEspecially in upper secondaryscience teaching, some double lessons are timetabled toallow for more extensive practical work; this is a choicemade by the schools. Based on a three-year basiceducation curriculum, the government recommends a totalnumber of lessons for mathematics, science, technologyand health subjects: but schools are free to increase ordecrease these numbers. In senior secondary schools, aminimum timetable is prescribed. Schools tend to adda few lessons to this minimum.

Which sciences to be taught—separate or integrated—including technology?

In primary education integrated science (with an emphasison biology, physics, physical geography) is part of the) is part of thesubject ‘world studies’. Some technological aspects areincluded. Like other subjects, the class teacher teachesscience. In basic secondary education the curriculum con-tains the subjects physics/chemistry, biology, home eco-nomics (including health), information science andtechnology. These subjects are taught by specialists, usu-

Estimated population (1996)

Public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product (1996)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

15,575,000000(1)

5.1

12(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1996)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio (1992)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—FemaleFemale

Estimated percentage of repea-ters (1980)

1,230,98784,90016:1

108109107

3

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1996)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

1,415,712

132134129

Third-level enrolment ratio (1996)

47

Estimated adult literacy rate —

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-ch case the figure given is the last year avail-able.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO 1999,CO 1999, with the exceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theInformation and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations, and (2) World data on education,Paris, UNESCO, 2000.CO, 2000.

H.M.C. Eijkelhof and P.A. VoogtP.A. Voogt

94

ally trained at college level. In all senior secondarystreams the subjects physics, chemistry and biology aretaught as optional courses. Technology is at present not aseparate subject in senior general secondary streams. Sub-Sub-jects are taught by university-trained specialists.

Realistic data on above

Evaluation studies have shown that primary schools ingeneral do little on physics and focus mainly on biologyand physical geography contents. The main reasons forthis one-sided approach to science teaching in primaryschools are: (i) teachers are not well trained to teach phys-ics topics and therefore feel insecure, (ii) most primarytextbooks have underdeveloped sections on physics, andks have underdeveloped sections on physics, and(iii) hardly any external support is available for physicsteaching, in contrast with support given by various exter-nal agencies (local school biological centres and environ-mental support services) to biology and environmentaleducation. Secondary schools tend to stick to the recom-mended number of lessons, but it strongly depends on theschool administration (science minded or not) and the ne-gotiating abilities of the science teachers. Large variationsexist, especially in basic secondary education.

Recommended learning activities

In primary schools, observations, making drawings, dis-covery activities and investigations are recommended, butthe latter two are in practice not very common. In the basicsecondary science curricula, practical work is stronglyrecommended; also recommended are: studying sciencein daily life contexts, making use of the computer, devel-oping general skills (such as communication and decisionmaking) and relating science to a variety of vocations. Insenior biology, physics and chemistry curricula, practicalskills are required and examined in a school-based practi-quired and examined in a school-based practi-cal examination.

Field studies are not recommended as such in seniorphysics and chemistry curricula. In biology lessons, fieldstudies are more common. The need of such studies de-creased due to the fact that taxonomy of plants and ani-mals is no longer part of the curriculum, but increased dueto the new topic of ecology. Field studies as a whole areunder pressure as ecological studies in the field are moredifficult than taxonomic activities (and not all teachers arefamiliar with the former ones) and because of the percep-tion of many teachers that the biology curriculum is over-loaded.

Attention to the history of science was recommendedby the physics curriculum committee, but is not part ofany of the science syllabuses.

The topic ‘science in industry’ is included in the seniorchemistry syllabus, but is not mentioned in the physicssyllabus. In the biology syllabus agriculture and biotech-nology are mentioned as two of the four context areas: thisis an excellent opportunity to deal with industrial matters.The aspect ‘controversy in scientific history’ is not em-phasized in any of the science syllabuses.

National mandatory tests and examinations

In primary education, the Dutch Institute for Testing andEvaluation (CITO) constructs national progress and ad-mission tests for mathematics and language. Schools are

free to use them: many do, but some schools use their ownbut some schools use their owntests. Secondary schools use the results of any of thesetests, in combination with the advice of the primaryschoolteacher and the wishes of the parents to decideabout the admission of the pupil. At the end of basic sec-ondary education, national tests are obligatory, but theform in which they are given is left to the schools.

National written final examinations are obligatory forupper general secondary science courses. VWO-studentsWO-studentshave to sit exams in at least seven subjects. The only ob-ligatory subjects are Dutch and one foreign language (stu-dents nearly always opt for English). Passing the exampt for English). Passing the exammeans a general entrance qualification to all Dutch uni-versities. Universities could only demand that one or twosubjects have been part of the examination for entrance tojects have been part of the examination for entrance tospecific studies, but a pass in these subjects is not re-quired. The most demanded subjects are mathematics andphysics, so by choosing both, a student keeps nearly alloptions for university studies open.

The examination papers at VWO-level consist mainlyO-level consist mainlyof open questions. Students’ papers are marked by theirteacher and monitored by a teacher from another school.Only the biology papers still have multiple choice ques-tions (50%). Multiple-choice questions are more common%). Multiple-choice questions are more commonat VBO, MAVO and HAVO-levels. In all science exami-xami-nation papers there is a trend towards questions in experi-mental or daily-life contexts.

New trends and reforms underway

In the area of primary science, it is generally felt thatteachers are not sufficiently trained for teaching this sub-ject. Another topic of public debate is the many demandsfrom outside on teachers in the primary school. All kindsof specific interest groups produce materials for primaryeducation in those fields.

Assessment by CITO has shown that the level of per-TO has shown that the level of per-formance in primary science is too low, especially in thephysics part. The Inspectorate fears that this is particularlynegative for girls. It also fears that political pressure to paymore attention to environmental education may result inan even more one-sided teaching of science in primaryschool. A new government steering committee was estab-lished recently to promote technology teaching in primaryschools.

In the two science curricula (biology and physics/chemistry) emphasis is given to skills, applications (con-kills, applications (con-texts), practical work, role of the computer (physics/chemistry), health education (biology), environmental as-pects, science in jobs and the connections with other sub-jects. This shift of emphasis is supported by manyteachers and is reflected in nearly all new textbooks. Atpresent, it is not clear how to prepare students well forsenior secondary schools. The demands set by the Nation-Nation-al Curriculum are seen as too low for the more able stu-dents and some additions seem to be required to entersenior science courses and senior secondary vocationalschools successfully. Most books overcome this by offer-ing more depth than required by the curriculum. Anothercritique is of a more pragmatic nature: some schools lack: some schools lacklaboratory assistance and therefore have difficulties tocomply with the aims as regards practical work. The gen-eral feeling in schools seems to be that students have towork harder because of the many subjects.

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A problem raised in discussions on science teaching inupper secondary schools is that syllabuses tend to becometoo full because of an increasing number of demands onthe science curricula: practical work, applications, envi-ronmental aspects, technology, computers, modern devel-opments of science, skills, etc. Another argument,especially put forward by people from outside science ed-ucation, is that science syllabuses have become too diffi-cult and too much oriented towards studying science atuniversity level. As a result, too many students have noscience in their diploma subjects, which means that edu-cated citizens lack an acceptable level of scientificliteracy.

III. HOW IS SCIENCE DELIVERED?

Organization and authority

The central government is responsible for monitoring theovernment is responsible for monitoring thequality of education in all schools. By the terms of theconstitution, groups of citizens are free to start new prima-ry and secondary schools if they bring together a mini-mum number of pupils and can guarantee a sufficientquality of teaching. Schools are also free to decide how at-tainment targets are reached and autonomous in all teach-ing matters (within the bounds of the law).

Municipal authorities or school boards governschools. Private schools are mainly set up by RomanPrivate schools are mainly set up by RomanCatholic or Protestant authorities, but in many of the pri-vate schools the Christian character plays a minor role andparents’ choice is more based on the general image of theschool and its distance from home than on its religiousidentity.

Nearly all secondary schools have separate depart-ments for physics, chemistry, biology and technology.One of the teachers acts as co-ordinator of the department,but in general this person has no special status and re-ceives no additional emoluments.

The government does not approve textbooks. It is upto the schools to decide which books to use.

Resources and funding

The central government finances all public and almost allprivate schools. Since 1991, financial power has beenshifted towards the school authorities.

For the age range 4-16, education is free. Parents only6, education is free. Parents onlypay the school a small—often voluntary—annual parentcontribution, which is low for public schools and slightlyhigher at private schools. For pupils above 16, parentshave to pay a school fee.

Each school has a budget for laboratory furnishings,apparatus and libraries. Budgets vary between schools.Chemistry departments tend to have the largest budgets,followed by physics and biology. In case of innovationson a national scale, additional money is provided. Recent-ly, for instance, there were decisions to equip technologyclassrooms or to buy computers and software.

In primary schools, the school owns books. In second-ary schools, parents buy textbooks or rent those booksfrom the school. The schools provide worksheets, butsometimes additional money has to be paid for them bythe parents.

Methods of teaching

Homework is very common in secondary schools but thisactivity is under pressure nowadays as many students aredeeply involved in other activities, such as jobs, sports andentertainment. Many schools have difficulties dealingwith this problem, partly because the concept of co-operative learning has not been implemented on a largescale. A growing number of lower secondary schools tryto limit students’ work to class time or to organize prepa-ration periods in the afternoon at school.

The use of computers has been emphasized during thelast decade. All schools have computer rooms. In anumber of curricula, notably mathematics and physics,working with computers is obligatory, as it has been de-cided at the national level to integrate computer skills asmuch as possible into the various subjects and not to havea special subject on this matter. In practice, there are widevariations in the way and the intensity with which comput-ers are used in the classroom.

In senior physics education student-led research isnow part of the curriculum; also in biology a strong trendtowards open investigations is noted. Another strong trendin biology education is teaching how to deal with textualand non-textual information. Factual recall becomes lessFactual recall becomes lessimportant. Various types of biological data have to beused in problem solving (e.g. in examination questions).

Sources of pedagogic innovationpedagogic innovation

Pedagogic innovation in science teaching is stimulated byseveral sources:� curriculum development projects, often based at uni-

versities or at the National Institute for CurriculumNational Institute for CurriculumDevelopment (SLO); during the last two decades somewo decades somelarge projects have been financed by the government,especially in primary science (NOB, SLO), physics(PLON, University of Utrecht), chemistry (CMLS,PLON, University of Utrecht), chemistry (CMLS,SLO), biology (SPIN, Free University of Amsterdam;gy (SPIN, Free University of Amsterdam;PBB, SLO), environmental science (NME-VO, Uni-O), environmental science (NME-VO, Uni-versity of Utrecht and SLO) and computer scienceLO) and computer science(University of Amsterdam);

� in-service training by college and university teacher-training centres;

� national implementation programmes, often carriedout by research centres (APS, KPC and CPS); suchS, KPC and CPS); suchprogrammes are presently in operation for the imple-mentation of the new national curricula for basic sec-ondary education, e.g. for physics/chemistry in co-operation between APS, SLO, CITO and other teacherLO, CITO and other teachertraining colleges;

� school biology and environmental education support-centres;

� teachers organizations take initiatives for projects,jects,publish materials and organize local and nationalmeetings; the largest one is the Dutch Association forScience Education (NVON) with over 4,000 mem-ON) with over 4,000 mem-bers; smaller ones focus on specific innovations, suchas the PLON-Association and the DBK-AssociationDBK-Associationfor physics;

� science education research; the largest research groupis based at the University of Utrecht focusing on thekey areas, such as curriculum structure and conceptualchange in physics, chemistry and biology; smaller re-

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search groups operate at some other universities (Uni-versity of Amsterdam, Free University of Amsterdam,University of Groningen, Technical University ofEindhoven);

� annual 24-hour conferences on physics, chemistryand biology education; the physics conference has atradition of almost thirty years and attracts annuallymore than 400 participants; in general the annualconferences are becoming increasingly morepopular events to present and discuss ideas andexperiences related to pedagogic and curriculuminnovations;

� the publishers who provide new textbooks (althoughthe market for very innovative curriculum materials islimited).

IV. GOING BEYOND SCHOOL

Use of out-of-school resources

As part of science teaching, classes occasionally visit sci-ience teaching, classes occasionally visit sci-ence museums, for instance NINT (Amsterdam), Museon(The Hague), Boerhaave (Leiden) and Technology Muse-Boerhaave (Leiden) and Technology Muse-um (Delft). In 1996, a new National Centre for Science996, a new National Centre for Scienceand Technology (IMPULS) opened in Amsterdam withLS) opened in Amsterdam withsupport of government and industry. Special facilities forschool classes are planned.

At two places (Rotterdam and ‘s-Hertogenbosch)bosch)‘technology discovery centres’ are being run for childrenbetween 4 and 14 years old. These centres attract schoolclasses and families, and organize special programmes forbirthday parties and primary schoolteachers.

Some science programmes are broadcast by the NOTOT(educational TV). In addition, each working day a 15-minute programme (Klokhuis) is televized in which a sci-s) is televized in which a sci-entific or technical topic is explained in an original way.For adults, a limited number of education programmes aredevoted to science (TELEAC). In general, science pro-LEAC). In general, science pro-grammes on TV are few in numbers and only somey someschools tape these programmes for use in lessons. Radioprogrammes on science do not exist.

Another use of out-of-school resources is formed bythree magazines that publish exercises related to Dutchnewspaper articles for use in physics (Exaktueel), chemis-ktueel), chemis-try (Chemie Aktueel) or biology lessons (Bio-aktueel) inupper secondary schools.

Several field centres offer daily and weekly pro-grammes for biology and geography classes. Field trips toField trips tonature reserves are common only for biology lessons (forone or more days), but this type of activity has recentlycome under some pressure due to changes in the seniorsecondary curriculum changes. In primary education, themajority of teachers do not go on field trips as part of sci-ence lessons, but field trips are slowly becoming morepopular as a result of the emphasis on environmental edu-cation.

In the Netherlands, the second week of October is byOctober is bytradition ‘Science Week’. Each year this week has a spe-cific theme, for instance ‘Surviving’ or ‘Colour’. On theColour’. On thefirst Sunday of this week, many laboratories open theirdoors to the public for visits, lectures and hands-on activ-ities (especially for young people).

Public science-based issues within lessons

The use of public science-based issues has become morecommon in science teaching since 1975. Popular topics1975. Popular topicsare the energy problems (nuclear, renewable energy), en-vironmental issues (greenhouse effect, ozone depletion,pollution), health and biotechnology.

In biology education, topics such as evolution, abor-tion and euthanasia are controversial; they are part of thesenior biology curriculum but are not examined in the na-xamined in the na-tional examination papers, only in school examinations toallow schools to teach those topics according to the edu-cational philosophy of the schools.

Emphasis in public science-based issues is given to thesubject lessons, but these issues are sometimes dealt within school projects, in which science teachers co-operatewith colleagues responsible for other subjects.

Science clubs and cultural associations

National Olympiads are organized annually for biology,chemistry, physics, mathematics and computer program-ming. The first round is held at schools and the second (fi-The first round is held at schools and the second (fi-nal) round, mostly at a university. The national winnersparticipate in the International Olympiad contests. Only afew schools have science clubs and school-based sciencefairs are not common.

V. TRAINING AND STATUSAINING AND STATUSOF SCIENCE TEACHERS

Initial training

Primary teachers are educated in primary teacher-eachers are educated in primary teacher-training colleges and usually do not specialize in par-ticular fields. Each college has its own broad curricu-lum. Not much time is reserved for science training.Recently, a primary science teacher-training book waspublished, which may result in more appropriate at-tention to this subject.

Science teachers for basic secondary education andfor some senior secondary schools (VBO, MAVO andMBO) are trained in secondary teacher-training colleges.They have to specialize in one subject and are officiallyonly allowed to teach that specific subject. This isstrange, in view of the fact that physics and chemistryare now combined in the new national curriculum forbasic secondary education. There is a trend at some col-leges to give students a broader base in the first twoyears, for instance with courses in chemistry, biologyand physics.

Science teachers for the senior secondary schools—HAVO and VWO—are trained in a postgraduate year atVO and VWO—are trained in a postgraduate year atuniversities. Half of the time is spent on teaching practicein one or two schools.

Decision-making authority for the aboveking authority for the above

There is no national curriculum for training science teach-ers; curriculum decisions are taken at the institute level.ken at the institute level.Committees that visit all institutions periodically monitorthe quality of the teacher training (at college and universi-ty level). The recommendations of these committees havepolicy implications at the national level.

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In-service training

Some colleges now offer courses for junior science teach-ers to qualify as senior science teachers. The governmentpromotes co-operation between colleges and universitiesin this field, but so far this has not been very successful.Participation in a very limited number of in-service activ-ities is required for regular salary increments.

Most initial training institutes organize in-serviceze in-servicecourses for science teachers, for instance as regards newexamination topics. However, the trend is that subject-bound in-service courses are less popular amongst teach-ers, in favour of more general courses (e.g. study skills,class management and pupil guidance). Increasingly pop-ular are annual one- or two-day conferences for specificsubject teachers: chemistry, biology and physics, whichalso count as in-service training (INSET).NSET).

Budgets for INSET are presently being transferredfrom the colleges and universities towards schools, which, whichhas resulted in more competition between institutions inthe field of INSET and in less emphasis on subject-orient-ed INSET. Schools tend to use the money for INSET formore general educational issues, such as training for studyskills and class management.

V. THE DYNAMICS OF CHANGE IN SCIENCEEDUCATION

Tradition

In The Netherlands there has been a long tradition of divi-he Netherlands there has been a long tradition of divi-sion as regards secondary education:� a division between State schools, Roman Catholic

schools and Protestant schools;� a division between vocational (VBO) and severalVBO) and several

types of general educational streams (MAVO, HAVO,VWO) for pupils from the age of 12 onwards;WO) for pupils from the age of 12 onwards;

� a division between the cultures of primary and second-ary school;

� a division between the cultures of secondary schoolsand tertiary institutes;

� a division between the sciences as taught in secondaryschools.

Recent developments show that some of these bounda-ries are becoming less sharp. Many parents choose theMany parents choose theschool that they consider being the best for their chil-dren, irrespective of its religious identity. Larger sec-ondary schools are being formed, sometimes combiningCatholic and Protestant schools. For basic secondary ed-ucation, students now follow the same curriculum.Some methods common to primary schools (group(groupwork, working in themes, differentiation) have beentaken over by secondary schools. Physics and chemis-try have been merged into one subject in basic second-ary education and a general science subject is nowcompulsory in senior secondary education. However, itwill take some time before the traditional divisions be-come less evident in regular educational practice. Forinstance, interest in the connection between the curricu-la of primary and secondary schools is rather small, incontrast with the increasing interest in the connectionbetween the curricula of upper secondary and higher ed-ucation.

Autonomy of schools

A strong trend is that primary and secondary schools areoffered more autonomy in decisions about budgets andpersonnel. Such autonomy offers the school the possibili-ty for a large number of policy choices and for developingits own identity. However, in secondary schools this trendis not always favourable for science teaching. The empha-sis is on the school as a whole and the subjects tend to be-come less important. This is apparent in the trend to allowmore (less expensive) junior science teachers to teach sen-xpensive) junior science teachers to teach sen-ior science classes, the lower priority given to subject-bound in-service training and the extension of tasks of sci-ence laboratory assistants. The influence of national bod-ies is decreasing. This raises questions about the quality ofscience teaching in future. At the national level, counter-measures should be considered, such as greater support toscience teachers by universities and professional organi-zations, and visiting schemes of experts to monitor thequality of teaching in schools.

Primary schools

In many primary schools, the teaching of science is notsatisfactory, although some good work has been done andis being done to improve the situation, especially in theproduction of teaching materials. Probably the most im-portant reason is the poor training of the teachers. Manyof them only had science education in their first years insecondary schools and the time available to study sciencein the teacher-training colleges is limited. Some educa-Some educa-tionists strongly believe in the usefulness of heavily guid-ed teaching materials, which could be used by any teacherwithout much preparation, but it is doubtful that this ap-proach will really lead to ‘proper’ science teaching at thislevel. A weak base for improvement is also that scienceeducation research in the Netherlands has not been carriedout in primary schools, which is contrary to the situationin mathematics where research has played a very impor-tant role in innovation of arithmetic teaching at the prima-ry level. Unless some teachers specialize in scienceteaching at the primary school and unless science educa-tion research takes teaching at primary schools seriously,there is not much hope for real improvement.

General secondary schools

At secondary school level a rapid change in scienceteaching is taking place. In all science subjects morejects moreattention is given to relating science to the worldoutside school (‘science in context’), to practical work,to the use of computers, to open investigations and tomodern developments in the disciplines. This does notmean that all problems have been solved: for instance,in teaching science in context the role of preconceptionsis underestimated, the importance of practical work bystudents as such is often overemphasized, the realpotential of computers has not been explored fully, theguidance of open investigation is not yet mastered bymany teachers and it has been difficult to find satis-factory ways of teaching the new topics. But, at leastthere have been moves supported by many teachers tomake science teaching more attractive and educationallyworthwhile for students.

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There has been pressure from outside the educationsystem to do so, for instance driven by the fear that sci-ence and technology studies will decrease in popularityand alarm at the low number of girls taking physics and,to a lesser extent, chemistry. Many secondary studentsview the sciences as difficult subjects. This perception issupported by the difficulty of the examinations, thecrowded syllabuses, the academic nature of some text-books and the teaching styles of some teachers, who werethemselves educated in the past in an academic way andwho have had only little pre-service teacher training atuniversities.

External influences

In the last decade primary and secondary education havebeen subjected to pressure from a variety of external forc-

es to pay attention to elements which are not part of tradi-tional subjects, such as environmental education,technology education, peace education, computer studies,etc. Supported with external funds, teaching materialshave been published.

In accordance with local tradition, industry has notshown much interest in science teaching in general sec-ondary schools. Involvement in vocational education ismuch higher. Recently, industry has begun to focus its at-tention more on secondary education. One sphere of inter-est is the promotion of a positive attitude towardstechnology and technology related occupations. This isstrongly encouraged by the Ministry of Economic Affairs.Ministry of Economic Affairs.Other spheres of interest are chemistry education (Associ-ation of Chemical Industries) and biotechnology educa-gy educa-tion (Association of Biotechnology Industries).

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Compulsory education in England is divided into four keystages: Key Stage 1 (ages 5–7); Key Stage 2 (ages 7–11);7); Key Stage 2 (ages 7–11);Key Stage 3 (ages 11–14); and Key Stage 4 (ages 14–16).Τhere are three core subjects in compulsory education:lsory education:mathematics, science and English. The science curricu-lum covers physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy andthe Earth sciences. In recent years, the science curriculumhas undergone modifications in 1989, 1991, 1995 and2000. Technology is a separate subject.000. Technology is a separate subject.

The aims of the science curriculum are to stimulateand excite pupils’ curiosity about phenomena and eventstaking place in the world around them. It also satisfies thiscuriosity by providing them with knowledge. Because sci-Because sci-ence links direct practical experience with ideas, it can en-gage learners at many levels. Scientific method is aboutdeveloping and evaluating explanations through experi-mental evidence and modelling. This is a spur to criticaland creative thought. Through science, pupils understandhow major scientific ideas contribute to technologicalchange—impacting on industry, business and medicine,and improving the quality of life for all. Pupils recognizePupils recognizethe cultural significance of science and trace its world-wide development. They learn to question and discuss sci-ence-based issues that may affect their own lives, thedirection of society, the environment and the future of theworld.

There is a statutory document—the National Curricu-lum—that specifies the content and processes of the sci-ence curriculum through four programmes of study:scientific enquiry; life and living processes; materials;and physical processes. The expected learning outcomesxpected learning outcomesare specified through as many as eight levels of attain-ment. Although the National Curriculum is written cen-trally by a government body, schools are required towrite programmes of study to implement it. RegionalRegionalstructures provide support to schools in executing thecurriculum, while government inspectors monitor imple-mentation. Table 1 describes the roles of the central, re-gional and local levels of curriculum development inEngland.

The teaching of science at the primary level must takeplace for at least one hour per week. At secondary school,At secondary school,it must take up 12–15% of curriculum time for the 11–14age group and 15–20% for pupils aged 14–16. During pri-During pri-mary education, science lessons normally take place in theregular classroom, whereas for secondary pupils special-ized science laboratories are provided, with a capacity ofup to thirty pupils.

Estimated population (1996)6)

Public expenditure on educa-tion as a percentage of gross national product (1995)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

58,144,000000(1)

5.3

12(2)

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1996)Teachers (1996)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—MaleMale—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters

5,328,219283,49219:1

116115116

—

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1996)(1996)

Gross enrolment ratio (1996)—Total—Male—Female

6,548,786

129120139

Third-level enrolment ratio (1996)

52

Estimated adult literacy rate —

Note: in each case the figure given is the last year avail-able. This figure for the total population covers thewhole United Kingdom.Sources: All data taken from UNESCO statistical year-book, 1999, Paris, UNESCO, 1999, with the exceptionceptionof (1) Population Division, Department for Economicand Social Information and Policy Analysis of theUnited Nations; and (2) World data on education,Paris, UNESCO, 2000.

Jonathan Osborne

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There are national tests at age 7, 11 and 14, of which4, of whichthe results for ages 11 and 14 are made known to the press.The terminal examination takes place at age 16 and isaligned with the National Curriculum. The results are alsopublished in the national press. Following compulsory ed-Following compulsory ed-ucation after age 16, pupils may continue to study fivechosen subjects at secondary school for one year, at whichtime each subject is examined. Three of these subjectsmay then be studied for a further year, after which there isanother terminal examination determining entrance tohigher education.

Support for science teaching is provided through advi-sory schemes written and distributed by the central gov-ernment for working with pupils aged 7–11 and 11–14.7–11 and 11–14.Limited advice is also offered on professional develop-ment. Commercial publishers produce a wide range oftextbooks and support materials, and teaching materialsare also supplied by industrial and charitable organiza-tions. Further benefits are derived from an active andFurther benefits are derived from an active andhealthy science teacher organization and a network of re-gional advisers.

Among the successes of recent reforms, it should benoted that all sciences are taught to all pupils until the ageof 16, particularly through the incorporation of science inthe primary programme. Problems remain, however, inensuring continuity from primary to secondary education.It is also to be deplored that the general public has a pro-found distrust of science, fearing that unbridled researchwill one day result in an irreversible scientific calamity.

This attitude can account for a certain reluctance on thepart of secondary students to pursue a scientific career,which may explain today’s shortage of science teachers.

A further problem is a failure to assess practical scien-tific skills. This is probably because it is expensive to doso and the measurement procedures are sometimes lack-ing. If practical scientific skills are important, they shouldbe assessed—for if they do not form part of assessmentprocedures, science teachers immediately conclude thatthey are not important.

Statistics show that the number of 16-year-old6-year-oldstudents choosing to specialize in scientific studies hasdeclined steadily since the mid-1980s from 30% of thecohort to less than 20% by 1993. To arrest this decline, itTo arrest this decline, itis recognized that something must be done to improveteaching about science. Among the measures adopted isthe introduction of more contemporary science into thecurriculum—such as ‘science and technology insociety’—and more student-centred approaches. It is alsoproposed to change the assessment system in order toreflect the aims of the science curriculum.

Other recent developments include an increase in out-of-school and informal sources of science teaching, suchas science centres that provide ‘hands-on’ activities forchildren. Many resources are produced by industrial spon-sors, but these are often the result of little market researchket researchand are therefore poorly used in schools. The growth ofscience on the Internet and a profusion of science-relatedtelevision programmes are encouraging trends.

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I. INTRODUCTION

What is happening in various countries with regard to theous countries with regard to theconcept of ‘basic scientific knowledge’, in particular in theNetherlands and other European countries? To what extentare countries developing common core curricula, accord-ing to which countries would progress towards similar con-tents? What is happening in Europe and what are theWhat is happening in Europe and what are thedifferences that remain between countries about what istaught and how it is taught, in connection with their respec-tive cultural backgrounds?

What are the implications of these new trends on themanagement of the education system, both at the centraland the school levels (training of teachers, reorganizationof space, use of new facilities, creation of task-based teams,etc.)?)?

The essential characteristics of the changes in the edu-cational context are globalization and the development ofinformation and communication technology (ICT). Fromthese trends arise changing needs and educational goals,especially for science education in primary and secondaryschools.

While in this paper I cannot discuss all of these complexquestions, I try to address the main trends and issues.

There is a need for more coherent competencies ratherthan separate chunks of knowledge and skills. Explicitand tacit knowledge and experiences, skills in using them,and their connected attitudes are getting a higher priority.I will compare the developments in these trends, usingdifferent examples from curricula in the Netherlands andNetherlands andother European countries. The differences in culturalbackground will become visible in these comparisons.

Although learning fundamental concepts andprinciples is more important than ever, learning the ever-increasing amount of applications, details and specificprinciples of the science disciplines has been replaced bylearning to use the fundamentals in the situation the pupilslive in and in the roles that are relevant for their futurelives as citizens and professional workers. Integration ofIntegration ofscience and technology competencies through problem-based learning, project-based learning and the use of casestudies, or in general learning and working towards aoutcome or product of the educational activity, is gener-ating a strong interest and becoming a basic feature ofnewly developed curricula. Assessment systems andcriteria are being adapted to this trend, to guide thelearning and teaching processes and to make validassessment possible.

Competencies that are central in these innovations are:using knowledge of science and technology in one’s futurelife as a citizen and professional worker; being able tosearch for relevant information; investigating and criticallyexamining the information; communicating what isxamining the information; communicating what islearned; and designing and developing new outcomes andproducts with this information (Eijkelhof & Kapteijn,2000; Vos & Reiding, 1999). Vos & Reiding, 1999).

The tasks and roles of the teacher shift in the direc-tion of coaching the learning process and developingcontext-specific learning activities and tasks. The teacheras presenter of knowledge is becoming less prominent.ming less prominent.The infrastructure needed for educational activities ischanging: more space and facilities for self-directedlearning activities, facilities for using the Internet andother ICT-tools. Task-based team learning supported byICT will define to a large extent the learning activities,where the teacher is the coach, the designer of tasks andactivities, and assessor of the learning results. But cer-tainly organizing the learning process of fundamentalconcepts and principles remains a major component injor component inthe new curricula.

In this paper I cannot give a concise overview of sci-ence education in Europe. Too many countries with toomany different school systems and curricula make thisimpossible (see e.g. Coughlan, 1999; Black & Atkin,1999; Black & Atkin,1996). Moreover the situation changes every year,which makes it difficult to give detailed informationdifficult to give detailed informationabout the realized curricula. Many ideas exist about theintended curricula, but it is impossible to be certainabout the status of the plans until the implementation isfar enough along to tell something about their realiza-tion. I will try, however, to present the principle devel-opments that have taken place, perspectives on theirimplementation and the difficulties that have been en-countered. I will illustrate these with a number of exam-ples from the Netherlands and other European countries.European countries.Other papers in this collection will provide more infor-mation about details of different countries (UNESCO,2000).000).

This paper concentrates on six of the general trends orprinciples that influence the concept of basic scientificknowledge and the development of new programmes.Through their influence they play an important role in theeducational innovations of curricula in this field. These sixtrends are:� from teaching towards learning;

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� from individual learning towards co-operative learn-ing;

� from subject knowledge towards intellectual compe-ject knowledge towards intellectual compe-tencies;

� from separate subjects towards integration of subjects;� integration of ITC in all areas; and� professional development of teachers.

II. GENERAL TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENTNERAL TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENTOF SCIENCE PROGRAMMES

1. From teaching towards learning

The learning process of the student is receiving increasinge learning process of the student is receiving increasingpriority in the planning of activities, time tables, sequenceof subjects, etc., because learning is seen as the key processand the student is seen as the one who regulates this proc-ess. The teacher’s role develops more in the direction ofthe coach of the learning process, and less as a (verbal) pro-vider of information. Learning activities of students (morethan just listening and reading) are the key points of the newcurricula.

A recent example of the implementation of this trendor principle is the change of the upper secondary school inthe Netherlands to the concept of a ‘Study House’ (Pilot,1998; Netherlands, 19998; Netherlands, 1999b). In all programmes, more timeis devoted to activities that learners themselves organizesuch as working on exercises, working alone or in teamson tasks to produce a report on a subject using books, gen-eral literature from a library, CD-ROMs or the Internet. Iny, CD-ROMs or the Internet. Inscience this might also involve experimental work in phys-ics, biology or chemistry, under the supervision of teachersbiology or chemistry, under the supervision of teachersor laboratory assistants. Competencies in simple researchor design work is one of the programme’s aims. These com-petencies have to be demonstrated in an oral or written re-port (e.g. a poster or a web site). The subject of these tasksmay originate from the teacher but also from the students(with the agreement of the teacher). Students work on thesetasks in different places in the school, such as in the libraryor in a room where a teacher is available for questions andquestions andcoaching, but does no lecturing. But also in normal class-room sessions the trend is to implement more activities bythe students themselves, mainly using study materials thathave been redesigned for this purpose.

This change is not easy. Many teachers are accustomedto predominately presenting information orally, and hav-ing continuous interaction with the learners. Neither is iteasy for the students—some of them have difficulties in or-ganizing their own learning process as they are used to les-zing their own learning process as they are used to les-sons where the teacher organizes the instruction in detail.The planning of the time needed for these tasks and learn-ing activities is sometimes a problem, because students arecomplaining that they are overloaded with work: new taskshave been added, old subjects have not been reduced, andthe sequence of tasks causes problems because too muchhas to be delivered at one period in the calendar.

But the trend from teaching towards learning is verystrong and many innovations in science curricula concen-trate on self-organized and self-directed learning activi-ties.

2. From individual learning towards co-operativelearning

Students now spend more time in learning situations wherethey work together in teams. Less time is devoted to indi-Less time is devoted to indi-vidual learning in a classroom, individual preparation ofpapers or individual laboratory work. The main reasons forthis are the need for graduates to be able to work co-oper-atively in their future jobs and the effectiveness of studentlearning in teams. And certainly also the availability ofteacher time for coaching individual learning activities (asa consequence of the first trend) is a reason for the impor-quence of the first trend) is a reason for the impor-tance of this principle.

Co-operative learning has been used in science curric-ula for many years, specifically in laboratory work whereshortage of places and apparatus has always been a prob-lem. But nowadays you see more teams where studentshave different roles and tasks in a project or in problem-based learning. An example of this is the course Productsxample of this is the course Productsin Chemistry (Aalsvoort, 2000), based on the concept oflearning chemistry because you need it as a citizen, for life,work and for further education. For example, students areasked to produce a report on a chemical preservative infood through comparative analysis of home-made productsand industrial products, and consider the effects on thequality of food. They play the roles of quality manager,production manager, chemical analyst, member of a con-sumer organization of, journalist, etc. In the team they havetheir own responsibilities to find and study information, tonegotiate the report and to produce their view on the prob-lems. But they also have to be able to defend the whole re-But they also have to be able to defend the whole re-port in their examination.

Co-operative learning is also used more than before inexercises: problem-solving, tasks in experimenting, work-ing on a computer simulation programme, etc. Students’interaction, informal feedback and help always have beenimportant in learning science, but nowadays these interac-tions are more planned by the teachers and the writers ofstudy materials.

Co-operative learning is not easy, but it is a very rele-vant method and an important skill to develop. Findingtime for it is the main problem for students, but most ofthem find it very stimulating. For teachers the main prob-lems arise in organizing the planning, the reflection onzing the planning, the reflection onprocess and results, and certainly the assessment of learn-ing results.

Co-operative learning is a principle that is getting moreattention in the development of new programmes, in teach-er-training courses, in quality assurance activities and inthe actual curricula (but it is difficult to say how strong thechange is at this moment).

3. From subject knowledge towards intellectualcompetencies

Development of competencies to learn independently us-ing books, articles and papers (instead of learning fromteacher presentations), and the development of skills tosolve problems in a systematic method, to work in teamsand communicate, are seen as more important than before.Subject knowledge is important, but more as a vehicle tobe used in the application in productive tasks.

In the past decades new subjects have been added to theprogrammes as the disciplines developed more knowledge,

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theories, tools and products. In chemistry we saw new sub-jects like biochemistry, analytical chemistry, chemicaltechnology, applications in food, pharmaceutics and newmaterials; then information technology was added as wellas doing research, making a design, etc. This developmentThis developmenthas led to a sediment-like curriculum, where too much hasbeen added and too little has been deleted (Vos & Pilot,2000). The concept of basic scientific knowledge is seenf basic scientific knowledge is seenfrom a discipline-oriented view. The available time forlearning is not greater than it used to be—it has decreasedin most cases because other subjects have been added tothe curricula. This has given rise to overloaded pro-grammes that are more superficial in the subjects covered,certainly when you consider the results of learning at theexamination or one year afterwards.

An important consideration is the following. Many ofthe programmes aimed at the pre-university or pre-collegetraining of future scientists. The programmes at the uppersecondary level were influenced by university staff andcurricula (Berkel et al., 2000). But only a very small per-(Berkel et al., 2000). But only a very small per-centage of the students were really going to university orcollege to study one of the science disciplines. And formany of the other disciplines where science is consideredas a prerequisite the science programmes of secondaryschool were seen more as a selection mechanism (‘thoseare the bright students we need’), than that the specific sub-bright students we need’), than that the specific sub-jects taught were needed in further training.

For the teachers at secondary school their subject areais very much connected with their status. Being a scienceteacher means that you teach an important and difficult dis-cipline, which also has an important place at the universityand is connected with subjects in the university curricula(Berkel et al., 2000). Moving away from the discipline-ori-000). Moving away from the discipline-ori-ented university curricula is a difficult and emotionalchange for these teachers, their identification with their dis-cipline is at stake. But as far as I can see these changes areincreasingly accepted by many teachers and policy-makers(Fensham, 1999). Fensham, 1999).

Developments in the direction of competence-basedlearning, problem-based learning and project-orientedlearning together with assessment methods based on studentportfolios and dossiers, and reflection on learning resultsand learning processes facilitate this change. In higher ed-ucation these innovations started in disciplines like (para)medical and technology areas and gained status through im-y areas and gained status through im-plementation in well-known universities. In the Nether-lands we now see a partial but difficult introduction of theseconcepts in secondary school science programmes.

The challenge for the development of these new pro-grammes is to identify key competencies relevant for stu-dents at the end of their science study at secondaryschool—for example, communicating about science appli-cations in their life as a citizen or in later work as a manageror a lawyer. What competencies do they need, what keyWhat competencies do they need, what keyconcepts and principles will be relevant a number of yearsafter they have left school? Understanding the relation be-tween the concentration of components and toxicity mightbe relevant, the differences in properties between the sur-face of a material and its components might be another ex-ample. We can see from learning results that such issuesare not included in most programmes today. So other con-cepts should be included in the programme and, at the same

time, many of the present concepts and facts should beeliminated. The sequence of introducing the subjectsThe sequence of introducing the subjectsshould be different to fit into the relevant competencies andto build a useful network of concepts for the students. Re-ducing the amount of detail from the existing programmesand turning around the sequence of reasoning are the mostdifficult tasks for teachers and developers of new study ma-terials.

4. From separate subjects towards integrationof subjectsf subjects

Curricula that consisted of a large number of different sub-jects learnt in separate courses made it difficult for studentsto integrate their knowledge later on in other courses andin their future work. New curricula have more learning ac-tivities aimed at integration of knowledge and skills incompetence-based learning, problem-based learning orproject-oriented courses.

Basic disciplines are important in our thinking: math-ematics, physics, chemistry, biology, economics—theseare the starting points of learning and instruction. But moreand more, the borders between these disciplines have be-come a problem and important developments are interdis-ciplinary. When analyzing from a broader perspective, theWhen analyzing from a broader perspective, theaims of primary and secondary school science can also startfrom themes like energy, food and health. The relevantconcepts and principles for insight in these themes are com-ing from different disciplines. Students should use theseconcepts and principles in an integrated way.

It is certainly too early to have curricula fully built onsuch themes, but development in that direction is certainlyvisible in a number of cases. The combination of themesand more fundamental knowledge is a difficult one; the de-sign of programmes where this combination is adequate isquate isnot easy—teachers find it difficult to teach in unfamiliardisciplines and themes and to loosen their ties with theirown basic field and the status that comes with this identi-fication. Also students and their parents are uncertain be-cause of the tradition of thinking in disciplines rather thaninterdisciplinary themes.

Examples of developments towards integration basedon a combination of fundamental knowledge and generalthemes can be found in Denmark and the Netherlands, butNetherlands, butcertainly this innovation process is a difficult one. Learningactivities where two or more disciplines have to be com-bined by students in project work is one way that seems tobe fruitful, another is basing learning activities on prob-lems that originate in the context of students’ daily lives,future roles in society or further learning. An interestingAn interestingprogramme design is a series of learning units where acombination is made of project work that requires integra-tion of different subjects and disciplines, and traditional in-struction on basic science subjects that are needed for thisparticular project work.

To illustrate, consider a group project on Vitamin C inpotatoes: basic knowledge of organic chemistry, reactiony, reactionprocesses and analytical methods is combined with thetheme ‘food’ and competencies in the field of research andcommunication. After an introduction to the project taskand theme, students work on the fundamental concepts andprinciples, including a test. In the second part of the modulemore time is available for project work, additional learning

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on the theme and the competencies mentioned. ExperienceExperiencewith this programme design in higher education has beenvery positive and has led to its introduction in secondaryschool. It fits very well in the concept of the ‘Study House’as mentioned before. In section III I will discuss in moredetail the design of such a module.

This kind of curriculum design makes it easy, possi-kind of curriculum design makes it easy, possi-ble and quite natural to integrate out-of-school activitiesin to the learning process, not as marginal or add-on ac-tivities, but as a relevant and even needed input in theproject from non-school criteria, products and values. Ex-amples of these are information and measuring facilitiesin universities and colleges, input from consumer organi-zations and laboratories, information and feedback fromenvironmental organizations, professional bodies and in-dustry.

In this curriculum design the concept of basic scientificknowledge is influenced by the competencies we aim at inthe project, by the integration of the subjects and the dis-ciplines, and (even more important) by the intended learn-(even more important) by the intended learn-ing process of the students.

5. Integration of information and communicationtechnology in all areas

ICT has become such an important element in daily life andin all disciplines that it must become an important elementof all curricula and school activities. The widespread opin-ion is that the use of ICT tools for communication, aca-demic and vocational tasks should be integrated in thecurricula. For different subjects this means different learn-jects this means different learn-ing activities and different tools (e.g. formula manipulationin mathematics, computer-assisted cases and games in eco-nomics, using digital sources on CD-ROMs and the Inter-net for history and languages, communicating throughcomputer programmes that facilitate group work and usingwork and usingdigital or electronic learning environments in all subjects).

These developments sometimes go very fast, some-times with great deception. Political pressure results inlarge programmes to provide computers and Internet con-nections (with many problems in up-scaling facilities andorganization in schools), and there are many problems infinding adequate didactical designs and materials for in-corporating these developments in to the regular pro-gramme. Sometimes publishers and designers of learningSometimes publishers and designers of learningmaterials hesitate, other times they are too early in the mar-ket (with the additional problem of hardware and softwarethat quickly becomes outdated).

Mainly based on the experiences of higher education,I see the most frequent use, the most worthwhile imple-mentation and the most successful innovation process inthe use of general tools, such as word processors and pres-entation tools, the use of e-mail and digital sources on CD-CD-ROM or the Internet, and the use of subject-based tools andinformation sources (like mathematical tools, tools formeasuring and handling data in physical, chemical and bi-physical, chemical and bi-ological experiments, and subject-based sources of infor-mation on the Internet). Less successful are computer-based learning programmes like exercises, tests and evensimulations because they require expensive, specificallydesigned software, important changes in didactical and or-ganizational models of teaching and, in the opinion of

teachers and students, they do not have enough added valueto compensate for the bottlenecks in their implementation.

The most significant obstacle is the professional devel-opment of teachers to use ICT in a way that is relevant forthe learning process.

6. The professional development of teachers

Teaching is a professional activity that needs professionaland trained teachers: how to give instruction, to coach stu-dents in their learning, to assess in an efficient and validway the learning results, how to develop and coach exer-cises, cases and project work for the students? With the newWith the newdevelopments in subjects and programmes, professionaldevelopment is a major bottleneck in all countries. Thechanges in curriculum are very fast compared with the nor-mal cycles in schools; major changes in the learning lineof students will take many years because students are goingthrough these programmes over many years, the changesin textbooks take many years, changes in examinations andaims of the programmes take many years. The learning andprofessional development of large numbers of teacherstakes time, the motivation of teachers to take part in theseinnovations is sometimes very low, and many teachers feeloverloaded in their normal work. In general, education hassuffered from many years of financial cut-backs, leadingto a situation where facilities and motivation for such largeand uncertain innovation processes are very low.

III. A SYNTHESIS

From the trends discussed here, we can reformulate theconcept of ‘basic scientific knowledge’ as the concept ofbasic scientific knowledge’ as the concept of‘basic scientific competencies’: knowledge, skills and at-titudes as one integrated set of abilities that are to be learnedto do authentic tasks in the real world. The analysis of whatthis means should start by analyzing what competenciesare needed for relevant tasks. For upper secondary schoolsin Europe in many cases the most important tasks will bethose for studying in higher education, for professional ac-tivities and for citizenship. We differentiate among threeWe differentiate among threegroups of studies:� non-science studies (a large group of students);� science-related studies;� science studies.Relevant tasks should be consistent with their assessmenttasks, such as the final examination at the end of secondaryschool, to make the analysis valid and relevant. For a thor-For a thor-ough analysis, a set of representative cases or projects isneeded. This analysis will result in a list or map of two setsof scientific knowledge: basic and theme-related knowl-edge. These include:� fundamental concepts;� fundamental principles (qualitative and quantitative););� methods, systematic approaches, heuristics for apply-

ing concepts and principles;� theme-related concepts, principles and methods.‘Fundamental’ means that these concepts, principles andmethods are useful in many projects and tasks. These willbe more abstract than the theme- or project-related con-cepts, principles and methods that will be primarily con-nected with a specific theme or project. To illustrate thatthe distinction between these two groups of scientificknowledge does not mean a separation, we refer to Figure 1.

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The definition of ‘basic’ competencies is dependenton the context, time, country and the local situation.xt, time, country and the local situation.Basic means that it is basic from the point of view ofthe students, their learning aims and goals, their futuresituation of learning and working. The analysis by thecurriculum developer should start from the cases,themes, problems and projects that are to be masteredby the student by the end (assessment) of their studies.That needs a thorough analysis of a set of well-chosencases.

The criteria for integration should be formulated withthe position and situation of the student in mind, the stu-dent that will use the knowledge in his or her future activ-ities. Figure 2 is an example of a concept map, whichFigure 2 is an example of a concept map, whichshows the possibilities to relate this task to groups of con-cepts and principles from chemistry and other disciplines.This example is drawn from a recent project of Dutch stu-dents in upper secondary school.

A curriculum design that is consistent with this con-cept includes modules or units where distinction and inte-gration of these two groups of competencies areconnected in a way that is visible in Figure 3. It is basedon the previously mentioned experiences with this designin higher education in Denmark and the Netherlands. Ak and the Netherlands. Aprototype has been developed for experiments in second-ary school chemistry classes.

In Figure 3 the weeks of the programme are noted onthe x axis, and the percentage of learning time that studentswork on the specified activities and tasks within the pro-gramme on the y axis. The module may take six to twelveThe module may take six to twelveweeks; the curriculum as a whole consists of many modules,

e.g. three to six in a year, depending on the duration of themodule.

In the first part of the module the learning activitiesstart with an introduction to the theme and the tasks of theproject. The teams are composed. Students receive an ori-entation on the subjects and skills that are important in thetheme, and the organization of the module, including thetasks that will be important in the assessment.

In the second part of the module only a small percent-age of time is available for project work because the ma-jority is spent in learning activities on the fundamentalcompetencies: concepts, principles and methods, and inexercises to learn the relevant skills for using these. Thesecompetencies should be well connected with and neces-sary for the work on the theme or project, but also form acoherent part of the whole set of fundamental competen-cies that are needed in the framework of the curriculum asa whole. This second part of the module is completed byan assessment of these competencies. Learning and in-Learning and in-structional activities, study materials and assessment aredesigned in a more or less conventional form.

In the third part of the module theme- or project-relatedcompetencies are central in learning and instruction, butmore time is available for project work. Independentlearning can be used in many of these activities, althoughsome presentations of subjects and guidance by teachers iscertainly needed.

In the fourth part of the module the theme or projectwork gets full attention and students prepare for the finalpresentation of their results and products (e.g. posters, writ-ten reports, oral presentations) and the assessment of the

FIGUREGURE 1. Fundamental and theme-related concepts, principles and methods—distinction but no separation

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learning results, including the theme- or project-relatedcompetencies.

The task of the teacher in such modules will be to a cer-k of the teacher in such modules will be to a cer-tain extent different from before, and that makes trainingand professional development important. Realization ofthe new curriculum is impossible without the motivationand competencies of the teachers. Involvement of teachersfrom the beginning of the innovation process is needed, and

certainly preferable to training after the development of theprogramme and its learning materials. Teachers shouldalso be developers of the new programme (they have to dothe last part of the development—the fine-tuning in theirclasses). Combination of work on development of the newCombination of work on development of the newprogramme and the learning by teachers about the new pro-gramme should be the starting point of the activities. Themain issues are:

FIGUREGURE 2. Example of a concept map showing the relation of a task to a group of concepts and principles from chemistry and other disciplines

FIGURE 3.IGURE 3. Sketch of a curriculum module (A = assessment)

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� Teachers should be involved in the design of the mod-ules, specifically in the design of theme materials forprojects;

� Design activities by teams of teachers also should helpteachers to understand the characteristics of team work;

� Exchange of experiences with the coaching of studentsand assessing learning results should have high priorityin teacher networks (learning from colleagues););

� Discussions on the background of this curriculum de-sign should make it possible to discuss the assumptions,the beliefs and presuppositions of developers andteachers.

In this last section I tried to give some impressions on thework that is going on, the ideas behind it, the problems weface and the activities we are planning. Discussion aboutthe problems of science education is needed, but discussionon ideas for designs and new programmes that fit in the de-velopments in disciplines, schools and the working and liv-ing situations of the children and future citizens is alsoneeded.

References

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I. THE GENERAL CONCEPTION

Scientific and technological education for the entire pu-logical education for the entire pu-pil population is a need based on the premise that ‘sci-ence and technology are a part of the general educationrequired today, and will be even more necessary in thefuture, for any person capable of contributing to society’.This quotation is from a 1993 report of a Supreme Com-mittee on Scientific and Technological Education, head-Education, head-ed by Prof. Haim Harari, President of the WeizmannInstitute of Science. The report has these important con-clusions.

First, science and mathematics are interrelated, andaffect one another in a variety of unexpected ways. Math-Math-ematics and science are the basis for all technological in-novations. The boundaries between biology andbiotechnology, computer science and electronics, physicsand most technological fields are artificial and outdated.Fields such as environmental science, energy and agricul-ture cannot be defined as either science or technology,having elements of both. In the past, technology was con-sidered more of a skill, and work in a technological fielddid not directly or to a great extent involve science. To-day, every technological occupation demands an interdis-ciplinary scientific background.

Second, a broad-based approach is required if im-provements are to be made in teaching mathematics, sci-ence and technology. Good results can only be producedthrough an integration of curricula, textbooks, laboratoryaids, educational software, well-educated and appropri-ately trained teachers, well-equipped and properly main-quipped and properly main-tained laboratories, sufficient classroom hours, and aguidance and support system for teachers.

Third, teaching science and technology, according tothe interdisciplinary approach, will expose the pupils toscientific and technological content, and will present thesocial contexts, while stressing their interconnections.These connections are expressed both at the level of theapplication of principles as well as that of defining hu-man-social needs and problem solving with the aim of im-proving the quality of life. Science and technology will betaught while giving precedence to the needs of the learneras a citizen of the future.

The curriculum for science and technology is based onthe Science, Technology, Society (STS) approach, whichintegrates science, technology and social studies. Thiscurriculum exposes the pupils to content (from the disci-plines of life science, materials science, Earth sciences

and technology), inherent in which are natural interactionsbetween the scientific and technological fields within thenecessary social context, with stress on relevancy to dailylife at the personal, national and environmental levels. AllAllof this is aimed at cultivating a citizen who will have theinformation and skills enabling him or her to deal with arapidly changing reality.

Yet, it is worthwhile to emphasize that alongsideteaching with an interdisciplinary approach, care must betaken to maintain the validity of the characteristics of thedisciplines, both the scientific and technological ones, byrefraining from making forced connections.

The following principles will be given expressionwithin the framework of the science and technologicalstudies:

� learning about phenomena in the world around the pu-pil;

� developing critical modes of thinking, creative-inven-tive thinking, understanding of research and problem-solving methods;

� developing the ability to characterize and understandcomplex systems in science and technology;

� understanding the reciprocities among the fields ofscience and technology and society, which includes:– becoming familiar with the nearby physical and

technological environment, understanding its com-ponents, and the links between them;

– being introduced to examples of knowledge as ap-plied to various fields, such as industry, agricultureand health;

– understanding the value of scientific and techno-logical knowledge for the purpose of forging atti-tudes on topics of national and internationalimportance;

– recognizing the possibilities and limitations of sci-ence and technology in solving problems related tothe environment, man and society, while takinginto consideration aspects of ethics, values, eco-nomics and aesthetics;

� becoming aware of the historical development of con-cepts and its implications for the development of sci-ence, technology and society;

� understanding current theories but with an awarenessof their limitations in explaining phenomena, whichincludes:

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– development of skills related to self-study, such asthe ability to use the library and computerizedcommunications or the ability to follow up infor-mation in journals;

– development of the ability to prepare summaries,edit tables, graphs and so on;

– acquiring skills related to research and develop-ment (including use of computerized tools) such asdata gathering, executing simple experiments,reaching conclusions, description and reporting;

– development of the ability for observation and theskills for working in the laboratory and in the field(measurements, use of instruments and plantguides);

– imparting the skills for teamwork: paying atten-tion, expressing oneself, taking personal and groupresponsibility for carrying out the task;

– developing good habits of work, cleanliness, preci-sion and so on;

� understanding the place, uniqueness and interventionof man in nature and the environment;

� developing an awareness of intelligent consumerisminvolving decision-making processes that includeweighing the choices for a product or a system, on thebasis of examination and evaluation;

� recognizing the value of work and productivity for theindividual, the economy, industry and society;

� becoming acquainted with nature in the country withits regions, landscapes, physical infrastructure, floraand fauna;

� developing a willingness to foster the values of natureand preservation of the environment;

� developing the interest and desire to expand and deep-en one’s knowledge in fields of science and technolo-gy.

II. THE CURRICULUM FOR ELEMENTARYSCHOOL

The main topics for elementary grades are: matter and en-ain topics for elementary grades are: matter and en-ergy; the man-made world; information and communica-tions; the Earth and the universe; the world of organisms;man, his behaviour, health and quality of life; and ecolog-ical systems and quality of the environment (see Table 1).

Each of the main topics contains specifications of top-ics or subtopics on a number of central ideas representingimportant principles related to the core material (and de-rived from it), which give proper expression to the rele-vant area-related characteristics as well as to their contexton different interdisciplinary levels. For each main topicFor each main topicthere must be (for each age group) activities of a laborato-ry-experimental nature or workshop type and activitiesoutside the classroom such as field trips.

The science and technology curriculum constitutes aspiral development of curricula for the science and tech-nology studies ranging from kindergarten throughGrade XII, with the emphasis on continuous passageXII, with the emphasis on continuous passagethrough the different age units (kindergarten-elementaryschool, junior high school, senior high school).

The spiral nature of the study of the subject is ex-pressed through the building up of knowledge, capabili-ties, skills, values and behaviours apt for the perpetual

development that characterizes each school-level in thezes each school-level in thecognitive, motor and emotional spheres. All of these willbe treated in the curricula throughout the years of studywithin the framework of the content called for in this top-ic, as the teaching progresses from the level of being basedon concrete phenomena and processes exemplifying prin-ciples, through to focusing on qualitative aspects, throughto the integration of causal and quantitative aspects con-nected to processes and systems.

The results of numerous studies dealing with pupils’ability for conceptualization and the extent of their inter-est served as the basis for the selection of the curriculumand the planning of the stages of instruction in accordancewith the pupils’ cognitive ability.

Each topic is concentrated around main ideas. Themain ideas represent the important principles expandedthrough the various main topics, some of them being ideasstressing aspects of the disciplines relevant to science andtechnology and others being ideas underscoring the inter-disciplinary connections.

The main ideas will assist the teachers on the follow-ing points::� defining the main aims of teaching any main topic

with its various aspects;� fostering interdisciplinary approaches relying upon

characteristics of the discipline;� planning teaching, both from the aspect of content

(such as combining the detailed syllabus for the differ-ent main topics for a given age level) as well as fromthe developmental aspect, as required by the demandsof the subject and by the pupils’ development at differ-ent ages.

For example, the main ideas for the topic ‘Materials andMaterials andenergy’ are the following:� biotic and abiotic objects are made of materials found

in nature;� materials may be characterized and sorted according

to their origin, their features and the way they are used;� man has developed means of measurement to charac-

terize materials and to identify them;� characterizing materials requires carrying out activi-

ties such as measurement, observation, comparisonand classification;

� materials may be used for certain aims according totheir characteristics;

� some materials are natural resources, others are man-made;

� humans produce, process and create materials in re-sponse to various needs, such as food, clothing andmedicine. These processes involve defining the need,searching for solutions, planning the optimal solution,carrying it out and assessing it.

III. THE CURRICULUM FOR JUNIORHE CURRICULUM FOR JUNIORHIGH SCHOOL

The selected goals are as follows:d goals are as follows:� knowing and understanding facts, concepts, laws and

principles that every citizen will need in science andtechnology;

� recognizing phenomenon from the world around us;

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TABLE 1. Organization of content specification for Grades I–VI

Main topics and skills Emphasis for class

I–II III–IV V–VI

Materials and energy Introduction to basic concepts, changes of materials and ways to use them.

Identification of the interaction between matter and energy and familiarity with the changes in matter resulting from it and the use of them.

Introduction to the interactive processes between matter and energy and the ways they are exploited by people.

The man-made world Exposure to basic concepts in a technological process (necessary for the solution). Identification of the components of a technological process.

Integration of scientific- technological knowledge in a technological process. Familiarity with technological processes in product design. Identification of mutual influences of developments in the fields of science, technology and society from the dawn of civilization.zation.

Understanding the stages in the process of industrial production (from raw material to finished product). Becoming familiar with technological systems. Technological solutions to limit the negative influences involved in man-made developments.

Information and com-munication

Exposure to basic xposure to basic concepts related to information and how to handle it.

Becoming familiar with the components and processes relating to information and communication.

Becoming familiar with systems for information and communications in modern times.

Earth and the universe Exposure to basic concepts, their description and presentation.

Description and follow-up of processes occurring on Earth and in space and technologies related to them.

Becoming familiar with long-term phenomena on Earth and in the universe and technologies related to them.

The world of living creatures

Becoming familiar with the characteristics of living creatures. Becoming familiar with the differences between animals and plants.

Deeper study of the characteristics of life, the link between living creatures and their environment and their adaptation to it and the link between humans and other living creatures, conditions of growth and conditions of maintaining them.

Becoming familiar with phenomena, systems and basic processes of living creatures.

Humans, behaviour, health and quality of life

Initial development of awareness of the topic of health and the need to promote it and maintain it.

Becoming familiar with basic systems and structures in health and illness. Fostering behaviour promoting health and its maintenance.

Understanding the components, systems and processes in the human body when healthy and when ill. Fostering behaviour for a healthy way of life and good quality of life.

Ecological systems and quality of the envi-ronment

Becoming familiar with basic concepts related to the environment.

Becoming familiar with factors influencing the environment. Attention to man’s uniqueness and his impact on the environment. Fostering behaviour towards the preservation of the environment.

Becoming familiar with the interactions among various environmental factors.Analysis of the influence of man’s involvement with the environment. Discussion on Discussion on activities and behaviours related to fostering quality of the environment.

Skills Cognitive and active skills will be integrated within the entire body of content according to the pupils’ development at the different ages.

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TABLE 2. Division of study topics and hours of instruction in Grades VII–IXVII–IX

Main topics Hours of instruction Grades VII and/or VIII

Hours of instruction in Grade IX

Total number of hours in Grades VII–IX

Materials: structure, features and processes 90

Chemical reactions 15 105

Energy and interaction Basic concepts: forces, movement, electricity and

energy 45

Energy, radiation waves 45 90

Technological systems and products

Technological systems, products

60

Complex systems

30 90

Information and communications 30 30

The Earth and the universe 30 155 45

Phenomena, structures and processes in organisms

Water supply 20Reproduction 30Transportation 20Senses 20

Nutrition 30Heredity 30

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Ecosystems 15 15 30

Total 360 180 540

TABLEBLE 3. Example of integration of scientific, technological and social aspects

Topics/subtopics Scientific aspect Technological aspect Social aspect

Force and change Force can cause change: in velocity (Newton’s second y (Newton’s second law) and in shape—mass (interia, momentum)

For example nautical rocket, elevator, traffic control

Social implications of increasing man’s ability, motion, forces and sport

Energybasic concepts

Energy, work and heat, dif-ferentiation between force and energy (including the historical aspect of the devel-opment of the concepts), types of energy (chemistry potential-gravitational, kinetic, electrical, atomic), output and efficiency, means of measurement and units of measurement

Energy in technological systems, engines and output of instruments

Technological development in the exploitation of energy over the course of history and its influence on humanity

MatterMechanisms for the transfer of energy

Characteristics of waves (wavelength, amplitude, fre-quency, cyclical waves, standing wave), sound wave: intensity, propagation

For example, ultrasound, the laser in medicine and communication

Noise and health, medicine in the age of advance technology (early diagnosis, treatment)

Radiation and matter

Electromagnetic radiation, light (basic geometric optics; interaction with matter; refection, refraction, absorption)

Instruments and fibre optics

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� developing creative and critical thinking to understandthe research method and problem-solving;

� understanding the relationship among science, tech-nology and society;

� understanding the importance of the knowledge of sci-ence and technology when taking positions in assess-ing national and international issues;

� knowing the possibilities and limitations of scienceand technology when using them in problem-solving;

� developing awareness in the wise consumer by usingdecision-making processes when selecting a productor a system;

� developing a readiness to take care of the environment.The contents, the ideas and the skills are very similar

to the elementary grades. The curriculum still has a spiraldevelopment. The concepts are presented in a deeper wayand the level of understanding is higher.

Each topic and subtopic focus, as far as possible, onthe integration of aspects and content from the spheres ofscience, technology and society, as shown by the examplepresented in Table 3.

The curriculum draws a net of inter-connections andinteractions between different subtopics. Table 4 showsconnections to the main topic of materials: structure, fea-tures and processes.

Core curriculum and supplementary materialsScience and technology is a required subject for all pupilsin Grades VII–IX, to be taught for a minimum of 540Grades VII–IX, to be taught for a minimum of 540hours per pupil in the three years of junior high school.junior high school.

The curriculum is taught in heterogeneous groups, butattention is to be paid to those pupils who find the materialdifficult, and those who are capable of grappling withchallenges demanding greater understanding. The core ofthe basic material must be acquired by all pupils, branch-

ing out from there to reinforce the basics or to offer ex-panded, in-depth learning.

Determination of the core material has significanceand implications for both the quality of teaching and forplanning the time allotted to the core curriculum and to thecontent beyond it (enrichment material). To avoid super-ficial, mediocre learning, the core material was deter-mined after weighing considerations related to the mainideas of the topics studied, with special effort placed onincorporating a mix of teaching methods that allow pupilsto grapple with the topics according to their ability. Selec-Selec-tion of the core curriculum was based on a number of con-siderations:� the importance of the contents in terms of teaching

goals;� the extent to which such content is necessary to ad-

vance the teaching-learning process;� the relation to content in other subjects;� difficulties in understanding concepts; and� the teaching of the curriculum in a spiral fashion that

is built upon elementary school studies.When teaching a topic, time must be allotted to achieve in-structional goals in terms of the core material and at thesame time use must be made of instruction methods thatincorporate varied learning tasks. Some of the tasksshould reinforce the core curriculum, and some shouldadd greater depth to the learning and extend it to includeadditional contents.

Numerous studies on the abilities of junior high schoolstudents (Grades VII–IX) to conceptualize served as the(Grades VII–IX) to conceptualize served as thebasis for selecting the curriculum and planning the stagesof instruction in keeping with pupils’ cognitive abilities.The presentation of the curriculum expresses a teachingprogression from basing studies on concrete phenomenaand processes that exemplify principles to focusing on

TABLELE 4. Examples of related topics/subtopics

Topics/subtopics Examples of related topics/subtopics

Characterization and sorting of materials From the need to the finished productAtmosphereHydrosphereGeosphere and landscape formsFood and its importanceProcesses in ecosystemsHumans and their intervention in the environment

Structure of matter and its features EnergyElectricity and magnetismWaves, radiation and matterAstronomyHydrosphereGeosphere and landscape forms

Processes of change in matter EnergyWaves, radiation and matterFrom the need to the finished productuctAtmosphereHydrosphereGeosphere and landscape formsProcesses in the cellNutrition and energy in organismsEcosystemsHumans and their intervention in the environment

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qualitative aspects and gradual incorporation of causaland qualitative aspects and factors.

Thus, when planning the stages of teaching/learning, adistinct effort should be made to follow up the learningprocesses, to locate different content and means, to incor-porate varied teaching methods, and to introduce thepupils to them, according to their ability and sphere of in-terest.

The nature of the combined subject, which encouragesa range of possibilities for optional choices, makes it nec-essary to set guidelines to insure the exposure of the entirestudent population to the fundamental studies vital inGrades VII–IX. This educational component will dependupon factors such as the direction of future specializationof the students in senior high school and beyond, the typeof school (six-year comprehensive, three-year junior high(six-year comprehensive, three-year junior highschool, elementary school with grades seven and eight),and the school’s teaching staff.

IV.THE CURRICULUM FOR SENIOR HIGHE CURRICULUM FOR SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL

In senior high school, there are some students who are ma-gh school, there are some students who are ma-joring in a scientific subject like biology, chemistry, phys-ics or in a technological subject. For all the others we haveconstructed a new subject, ‘Science and technology inmodern society’. This subject was constructed in mod-ules, and its task is to provide a fitting education for thoseyoung people who do not intend to specialize in a scientif-ic subject. The essence of this subject is not the scope ofthe material studied nor in covering all the units in scienceand technology, but rather that the learning experience bea meaningful one through which the student will acquirequiresome of the instruments and scientific-technologicalmodes of thinking.

The framework is intended to insure that students willconsider science a part of culture; that they will have theknowledge, ability and desire to identify, understandand—to the extent necessary—to decide on social-publicissues containing a scientific or technological compo-nent, and that they will also be able to evaluate the devel-oping human dimension of a product of science ortechnology.

In light of this, and on the basis of the common, broadknowledge defined as required in senior high school, noparticular additional information was determined to be avital component. Alternately, it was decided to emphasizea number of ideas perceived as important, ideas reflectingdifferent disciplines in science and technology, and tostress methods of learning that will enable the students togain experiences in modes of thinking, learning abilities,or types of activity that occur in scientific and/or techno-/or techno-logical endeavours. The selected experiences are the typethat are likely to bring the students closer to understandingthe methods of producing scientific knowledge and reach-ing a consensus on it, or to recognizing the methods of op-eration, the construction of a model or production intechnology, or to see they are a condition for achievingthese aims.

Therefore, for senior high school there is no list ofcontent that the graduates must know, nor a hierarchic

curriculum of accumulated knowledge. Moreover, thecurriculum space proposed allows for the construction ofdifferent tracks, on the condition that they answer to theformulated curriculum goals.

1. What are these goals?

1. Development of recognition of science and technolo-gy as part of human civilization and development ofawareness of the interactions between science technol-ogy and society.

2. Development of curiosity and interest in scientifictechnological topics and issues, particularly those onthe public agenda and/or relating to the life of the indi-vidual and his environment.

3. Development of an awareness of the manner in whichscientific and technological knowledge are built upand understanding of their development.

4. Development of the ability to relate in an intelligent,critical manner to information.

5. Development of an awareness that solutions to scien-tific and technological questions are based on knowl-questions are based on knowl-edge that has been earned and on logical modes ofthought.

6. Development of knowledge and understanding aboutthe reciprocity between man and his near and far envi-ronment.

7. Development of an awareness that the laws of natureare common to different areas of science and technol-ogy.

2. A group of goals deal with thought, learningand skillskills

1. The students will be able to give explanations based onxplanations based onscientific knowledge for phenomena of nature andtechnological developments.

2. The students will recognize different thinking strate-gies, characteristic to science or technology, and theywill know how to identify them in their activities.

3. The students will be able to read a popular scientificarticle and explain the contents.

4. The students will be able to differentiate between factsand suppositions, between causes and results, betweenobservations and conclusions.

5. The students will be able to understand an experi-ment’s set-up and its limitations and will gain experi-’s set-up and its limitations and will gain experi-ence with a guided laboratory assignment.

6. The students will be able to understand the histori-cal course of an idea/scientific concept’s develop-ment.

7. The students will be able to explain different formsfor the presentation of information (literal, graphic,schematic, formulas) and the connection betweenthem.

8. The students will become familiar with different typesof information sources (printed, electronic, processed,primary, journalistic and other) and will be able to lo-journalistic and other) and will be able to lo-cate information in them, edit and use it.

9. The students will gain experience in teamwork.10. The students will be required to demonstrate knowl-

edge and support opinions both in writing and orally.y.

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3. Content map, description of the special orientationof science and technology in society

The content map given in Table 5 allows for the label‘tracks’, which relate to different disciplines while refer-ring to common ideas or principles. A topic selected as fit-ting a substructure will be anchored in a sphere or spheresof knowledge (columns in the table) and will clarify the) and will clarify thescientific/technological idea(s) chosen (rows). From thisschematic description one sees that discussion of ethical(personal or social) or historical/philosophical mattersmay be expected in any of the tracks.

The map also makes it possible to determine what isnot included within the bounds of Science and Technolo-gy in Society and what will not be taught within the frame-work of the new subject. It also allows one to examine thelength of a continuum of studies to see how the learnerswill touch upon each one of the disciplines and upon theideas selected.

Science and Technology in Society is a new subject ofstudy that is not based on a familiar structure of knowl-edge. No teachers have been trained to teach it, and thoseNo teachers have been trained to teach it, and thosewho are intended to study it come from the entire gamutof high school students in the country and are unified onlyin their having chosen to not specialize in a science or a

technological/engineering subject. For each one of thesereasons in itself, let alone all of them together, one mustapproach the various steps in instituting of Science andTechnology in Society as an experiment and to constructa fitting assessment system.

As a conclusion, the following issues deserve monitor-ing in the future:� Decision-making regarding the pace for instituting the

teaching of Science and Technology in Societythroughout the country;

� training of teachers (scope, quality, capabilities for aquality, capabilities for amodule/for a curriculum, countrywide distribution);

� examining preferred modules and identifying missingtopics;

� improving the schools’ ability to evaluate pupils’achievements;

� developing and using a range of learning materials;� evaluating school-created developments;� using in-service training, internal as well as regional,

to influence teachers’ work;� examining the influence of the possibilities opened by

Science and Technology in Society on the ‘those train-ing to specialize in it’.ze in it’.

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I. INTRODUCTION

Many types of organization may serve as non-school re-may serve as non-school re-sources for science education. The first that come to mindmay be museums, and universities are also important. In-dustries, foundations and many other organizations alsoplay significant roles. Research institutes such as the Eu-ropean Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) alsoCERN) alsohave special aspects to offer, and CERN as a large inter-national research institute has its own niche in the networkof non-school resources. Here I try to illustrate some ofme ofthe activities CERN offers to schoolchildren and theirteachers, in the hope of providing hints that may be usefulto Asian countries, and with the intention of offering col-laboration wherever the basis may exist.

CERN was founded in 1953 in a convention signed1953 in a convention signedunder the auspices of UNESCO by twelve Europeanby twelve Europeancountries. These have now become twenty MemberStates, including most Western European and severalCentral and Eastern European countries (Austria, Bel-gium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Fin-France, Fin-land, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands,Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain,Republic, Spain,Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom). Together,they send over 4,000 scientists and engineers to use the fa-000 scientists and engineers to use the fa-cilities at CERN, where they are joined by about 2,000from non-Member States. Several hundred each comeMember States. Several hundred each comefrom the Russian Federation and the United States, andthere are also large contingents from Japan, Canada, Indiaand Pakistan, as well as groups from China, the RepublicPakistan, as well as groups from China, the Republicof Korea and other Asian countries. The flux of visitingx of visitingscientists from around the world keeps CERN young. Thepeak of the age distribution is around 30, reflecting thebution is around 30, reflecting thelarge number of students who get their doctorates workingon CERN experiments. Most of these students subse-. Most of these students subse-quently go to work in industry, with a sizeable fraction go-ing into finance, as well as information technology. Thevisiting scientists’ age distribution has a long tail of olderpeople, mostly these students’ professors teaching at uni-versities in Europe and elsewhere. The hope of attractingthese students provides one motivation for CERN’s out-CERN’s out-reach activities.

On CERN’s public home page you can take a virtualtour of CERN.1 CERN is where the World Wide Web wasWorld Wide Web wasborn, out of the necessity to keep large international teamsof physics researchers in contact. This invention is nowrevolutionizing world society as many communities (uni-versities, students, consumers, businesses, etc.) discoverthat the solution to their problems may also alleviate

someone else’s. The Web is also a potentially powerfultool for school education, and which I will describe in alater section. Education is also featured prominently onEducation is also featured prominently onour home page, right after our ‘core business’ of physicsresearch, indicating the significance we attach to it.

Many of the activities I discuss here are explained indetail on our website, including our visits service, pro-grammes for colleges (middle schools), interactive mate-rial on the Web from our own science museum—Web from our own science museum—Microcosm, information about our summer programmefor high-school teachers, and information about teachingresources in different European countries.2 Before detail-ing these efforts, however, I first remind you about theyou about themandate of CERN, as laid down by its governing Councilrepresenting the twenty Member State governments. State governments.

II. THE MANDATE OF CERN

This is fundamental research into the nature of matter, itshis is fundamental research into the nature of matter, itscomponents and their interactions. The ‘story’ we have totell is that matter is made of atoms that each contain elec-trons orbiting a nucleus, which is made of protons andneutrons, whose components are quarks. Our job is to ex-plore the properties of electrons, quarks and related sub-nuclear ‘elementary’ particles. The word ‘nuclear’ in thetitle of CERN is a historical anachronism: we now exploreCERN is a historical anachronism: we now explorea couple of levels below nuclei, and prefer to call our-selves the European Laboratory for Particle Physics.

Most of our experiments involve accelerating particlesto high energies and colliding them, converting their ener-gy into new particles, some of them as heavy as a medi-um-sized nucleus. According to the basic laws of quantumphysics, the higher the energy, the finer the size resolutionof the particle collider, considered as an overgrown micro-scope.

Since the basic laws of engineering require a high-energy accelerator to be very large, our largest is almostcircular, with a radius of 5 km and a circumference ofkm and a circumference of27 km. The accelerator is housed in a tunnel about 100 munderground, with only the occasional building visible onthe surface.

The experiments are conducted in underground cav-erns large enough to accommodate the CERN administra-CERN administra-tion building, by groups consisting of hundreds ofphysicists and engineers from dozens of countries aroundthe world. The experimental apparatus consists of onion-like layers surrounding the particle collision point, eachke layers surrounding the particle collision point, eachlayer specialized in the detection of a different type of par-

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ticle. Together, the data they produce enable physicists toanalyse the collisions, search for new particles and try tounderstand the forces between them.

III. OUTREACHUTREACH

First and foremost, in my opinion, outreach is a moral ob-b-ligation for a research institution such as CERN. We aredependent on public funding and when the piper is paid,he should play the tune. The primary motivation of themary motivation of thefunding agencies is (or should be) cultural: it is to carryforward humanity’s impulse to understand the universearound us, and of which we are a part. In the words of arecent editorial in the Financial Times (‘Search for thewords quarks and opera’): ‘If you regard science as a formof culture, an important contribution to the intellectual en-richment of humanity, then high-energy physics is the sci-entific equivalent of grand opera’.3

Just as the Three Tenors bring opera arias to a widepublic, it is surely good that CERN should strive to bringCERN should strive to bring‘particle arias’ to its paymasters. This moral obligation in-evitably becomes a political duty: the British fundingagency Particle Physics and Astronomy Research CouncilParticle Physics and Astronomy Research Council(PPARC) expects physicists to propose outreach activitiesin tandem with their research conferences. In the words ofthe Financial Times again: ‘Governments should subsi-Governments should subsi-dise high energy physics in the same way as they do theopera—on the understanding that [...] it is made accessibleto as wide a public as possible’. This pressure is height-ened by the widespread anxiety in Europe about growingscience illiteracy. This is reflected in alienation from, andscepticism about, science among the general public, andthe falling numbers of students opting for physics at uni-versity. Thus outreach also becomes a practical necessityfor organizations such as CERN, in the hope of attractingCERN, in the hope of attractingmore students.

These important arguments have long been under-stood at CERN, and have recently gained new recognitionin the appointment of a new director and the establishmentof a new division responsible for outreach and technologytransfer. I will review what CERN has been doing to reachI will review what CERN has been doing to reachout to schools, describe CERN’s current activities, andpreview new initiatives that CERN is planning.

One motivating thought is that the laws of physics areuniversal, the same for everybody and belonging to no-body. A corollary is that people in all countries shouldA corollary is that people in all countries shouldhave access to the knowledge and understanding obtainedby fundamental physics research. It also follows that thelaboratories of the world, such as CERN, should be openN, should be opento any qualified scientist from any country. Indeed, it isCERN policy to assign the use of its facilities solely on thebasis of merit. For example, both American and Russianxample, both American and Russianphysicists worked at CERN during the Cold War, andWar, andphysicists from both sides of the Taiwan Strait have beencollaborating at CERN for years. N for years.

Of particular interest to Asian countries may be the dis-play by laboratories such as CERN of the scientific methodin action. This may encourage the questioning spirit and itsge the questioning spirit and itsdisciplined exploitation. Also particularly relevant is therelation between science and economic development. Fun-damental science opens new possibilities, applied scienceand technology provide tools to exploit them. These tools

may benefit economic efficiency in unexpected ways—think of the World Wide Web, which is now revolutioniz-World Wide Web, which is now revolutioniz-ing the world’s business practices, as well as its social hab-its. However, I also have in mind an even broadersignificance. The scientific method embodies a world-view novel to many societies: question received wisdom,formulate hypotheses, devise tests, conduct experiments,observe their results, draw conclusions, understand thepresent and predict the future. Perhaps non-school resourc-Perhaps non-school resourc-es such as CERN can foster the questioning spirit in school-children, including the vast majority who do not pursuewho do not pursuescientific careers. They may learn to apply it in their dailylives. They may also develop a better feeling for the sci-entific process, and deal more confidently with the chal-lenges science offers their societies.

IV. EDUCATIONAL OUTREACH AT CERNCATIONAL OUTREACH AT CERN

Some of the aforementioned motivations played roles invations played roles inthe recent establishment of a division at CERN responsi-ble for Education and Technology Transfer.4 This has in-herited CERN’s previous outreach activities, includingthose offered to schools, and is currently developing newinitiatives.

CERN’s outreach network has representatives in allk has representatives in alltwenty of CERN’s Member States.5 Each nation has itsown web page with various listings, including sites whereus listings, including sites whereyou can access different national networks and learn moreabout particle physics in various Member State languag-es.6 For example, clicking on the United Kingdom pageKingdom pageone finds links to many resources, including material forschools, a computer package for high school students anda link to a school speakers bureau.7

One of the objectives of this outreach network is tomake material in one language available to other countriesfor translation into their languages. Much of it is in lan-guages other than English: for example, while preparing: for example, while preparingthis talk I dipped into a CD-ROM in Greek and an out-Greek and an out-reach talk in Polish.8 The web material is free, and any or-ganization is welcome to translate it into a local language.The model should be to establish a primary node in yourcountry, and a national network involving the universitiesand laboratories active in high-energy physics research. Inaddition to CERN’s outreach network, the primary nodeCERN’s outreach network, the primary nodeshould be connected to any national networks in other sci-entific fields, as well as to local networks of science teach-ers.

V. CERN’S VISITS SERVICE ISITS SERVICE

CERN welcomes about 40,000 visitors per year, of whomyear, of whomabout 70% come in school groups. Many of the others areschool-age children accompanied by adult family mem-bers. The Visits ServiceService9 arranges and structures visits. Atypical school visit comprises a short introduction toCERN provided by one of our (mainly volunteer) guides,) guides,followed by a visit to one of the giant experiments atCERN in its pit 100 m below ground. Also available areAlso available arevisits to our on-site museum, Microcosm, and a session ofhands-on experiments designed to illustrate some basicphysical principles.

There is a link providing information for teachers, andseveral specific itineraries have been designed. In particu-

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lar, our Visits Service has worked with the local FrenchVisits Service has worked with the local Frenchschool district (the Académie de Lyon) to propose pro-grammes tailored to school students in different agegroups. For example, we propose to ‘collèges’, for 14- and15-year-olds, a fifteen-minute introductory lecture and avisit to an experiment, followed by hands-on activities,whereas older students would be offered a longer, morescientific lecture.

Many features of the CERN Visits Service are quiteCERN Visits Service are quitespecific, but some general aspects could be adapted to di-verse environments. For example, a rubber plantation oran agricultural research station could offer visits pro-h station could offer visits pro-grammes to local rural schools, including an introductoryexplanation of its activity, a tour of its facilities, and somehands-on experience such as tapping a rubber tree or do-ing a simple biological or chemical experiment. Clearlythere may be practical obstacles (insurance for the stu-dents, reluctance of teachers), but some could surely beovercome if the host institution could be motivated byconsiderations of good citizenship and enlightened self-interest.

VI. MICROCOSM—CERN’S ON-SITE MUSEUMROCOSM—CERN’S ON-SITE MUSEUM

The Microcosm exhibition area is an essential call duringduringmost visits to CERN.10 It contains pieces of original ex-perimental apparatus with which major discoveries weremade, as well as exhibits introducing particle physics andysics andCERN, models and videos. It also has several interactivecomputer games, one illustrating physical phenomena atdifferent scale sizes, from particles to cosmology,11 andanother illustrating how particles may be accelerated.12

Both of these are also accessible over the Web and moreare under development. From time to time, Microcosmhas temporary exhibits organized together with other Eu-with other Eu-ropean scientific organizations or European science muse-ums, which are among CERN’s network partners.

Available in conjunction with school visits to Micro-junction with school visits to Micro-cosm are several worksheets at different levels, suitablefor different age ranges. These may be used by schoolchil-dren to demonstrate their knowledge and comprehensionof the material on display, for assessment either by them-selves or by their teachers. Associated with Microcosmthere is also a small shop where more or less educationalitems can be purchased. One of these is a comic book,available in several languages, which introduces basicphysics concepts in a playful way. Currently under devel-Currently under devel-opment is an educational, interactive CD-ROM.13 Startingwith an introduction to particle physics, going back to theback to theancient Greeks’ theories of atoms and the four basic ele-ments of earth, air, fire and water, it aims to show the userhow physicists distinguish between the different types ofsub-atomic building blocks currently observed at acceler-ators, and encourages the user to measure for him/herselfthe rate at which they appear in a simplified representationof data from a CERN experiment.RN experiment.

One of the key features of school visits to CERN, in-cluding Microcosm, is that the tour guides are largely vol-Microcosm, is that the tour guides are largely vol-unteers drawn from among the (mostly young) scientistsworking at CERN. The visits are typically in groups ofThe visits are typically in groups oftwelve to fifteen, enabling the schoolchildren to meet a‘real scientist’ and ask probing questions directly.

VII. HANDS-ON EXPERIMENTS ANDS-ON EXPERIMENTS

A suite of hands-on activities has been developed atvities has been developed atCERN. They are made available during school visits, andare a popular feature of open days at CERN.14 They arealso taken on the road for visits to local schools. Recentlythey were used as the core of a week-long summer campwere used as the core of a week-long summer campprogramme offered through the Geneva Department ofPublic Education.15 This was designed to mimic, as far aspossible, the experience of conducting research. WhileWhiledoing experiments, the participating groups of childrenwere asked to keep logbooks describing their methods andresults. They then presented their results at a ‘conference’on the final day, and the best presentations were awardedprizes.

The CERN hands-on efforts are networked with simi-RN hands-on efforts are networked with simi-lar programmes elsewhere, including the ‘Physics Van’school outreach programme run by the University ofversity ofIllinois Physics Department and the extensive ‘la main àla pâte’ programme in French schools.16 Many of these ef-forts are inspired by a pioneer programme in impover-ished Chicago schools. If they can be made to workChicago schools. If they can be made to workusefully there, surely they can also be extended even to ru-ral schools in developing countries, using materials thatare widely available. Among the most popular hands-onactivities offered by CERN are the effects of magnets onRN are the effects of magnets ontelevision sets (illustrating that many homes have a parti-cle accelerator in their living room), a bicycle wheel (withsand in the tyre) used to demonstrate the conservation ofangular momentum, and simple electric circuits.

CERN is now planning to develop these activitiesmore systematically, setting aside an area where they canbe conducted, and organizing a suite of activities whosematerials can be taken on tours of schools. The guidingken on tours of schools. The guidingprinciple would be a progression from activities illustrat-ing basic physical principles to more specialized activitiesrelated more directly to particle physics. We plan to doc-ument these hands-on activities in written and visual formand make the documentation available over the WorldWide Web. The idea is that interested groups in universi-ties and other educational organizations could copy,share, mix and match hands-on activities to their specificopportunities and needs.

VIII. HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERSIII. HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS

During 1998 and 1999, CERN initiated a summer internN initiated a summer internprogramme for high-school teachers.17 They were invitedto attend lectures we offer to university students as part ofa Summer Camp programme, as well as lectures and dis-cussions more attuned to the teachers’ needs. In additionto teachers from CERN Member States, we have also hadMember States, we have also hadparticipants from the United States paid by their NationalScience Foundation, and one from an international schoolin Thailand.

The high-school teachers programme has been effec-gh-school teachers programme has been effec-tive far beyond our expectations. The teachers have beenamazingly enthusiastic and active. They have comparedthe science curricula in their different countries, and put athorough comparison on the Web,18 with links to morecomplete sources of documentation from their homecountries. They have also compiled descriptions of exper-iments, both standard19 and more novel, suitable for

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carrying out in schools. Additionally, they list many help-ful books and resources on the Web in various languages.All in all, our high-school teachers are developing theirown very active international network.

Individual teachers also act as nodes in contact withtheir own national associations of high-school teachersand other networks. Many have been engaged in their ownoutreach activities, writing articles for newspapers, speak-ing at congresses, to parent groups, etc. There have alsoThere have alsobeen some unexpected synergies, for example one teacherhas been going over the CERN comic book and proposingways in which it could be restructured so as to be suitableas a teaching aid.

The high-school teachers themselves have come upwith ambitious plans for the future, yet nevertheless seemto lie within reach. One is to set up an array of cosmic-raydetectors in different high schools. An interactive CD-ROM and a textbook are also in preparation.

It is clear that only a very small fraction of Europeanhigh-school teachers will ever be able to participate di-will ever be able to participate di-rectly in this programme, even compared to those wholead school visits to CERN. To maximize the benefit to allfit to allconcerned, participants in the programme must be select-ed quite carefully, for the different perspectives they canbring and their interest in networking and communicationof their experiences. The documentation they prepareshould be available and of use to the vast majority ofteachers who never come to CERN. They can bring toERN. They can bring toCERN a uniquely active and critical view of its pro-grammes for schools.

IX. LECTURE SERIES AND WEBCASTS

Public lectures are a traditional tool for outreach. Lastectures are a traditional tool for outreach. Lastyear, for example, we gave a series of lectures for middleschools on the ‘Mysteries of the Universe’.20 Lectures arenot really appropriate for younger children, so we haveexperimented with question and answer sessions instead.For example, some years ago when we had a temporaryexhibit on loan from the London Science Museum aboutbit on loan from the London Science Museum aboutcosmology, we organized a couple of such sessions, called‘Big Bang Days’, in conjunction with a visit to the exhibitjunction with a visit to the exhibitand to a CERN experiment. Unfortunately, such opportu-nities are essentially limited to local schools, so CERN’s’sinternational mission impels it to investigate distant-deliv-ery methods.

A traditional technique is to make a video recording ofa lecture and then distribute it, and CERN maintains a vid-N maintains a vid-eo archive of these.21 Many schools routinely show videocassettes in class, but this technology is limited in its tech-nical possibilities, and I personally find it rather alienatingand top-down. A live lecture is much more interesting andinvolving, as you can ask questions and interact with thequestions and interact with thespeaker.

CERN is currently exploring the new webcasting tech-nology. This is potentially interesting for scientific semi-mi-nars and lectures, as well as for outreach activities. Itoffers new technical possibilities, and also the possibility(in principle) of interactivity, e.g. by asking questions viaelectronic mail. The Exploratorium in San Francisco,San Francisco,22 forexample, made a very successful webcast of a solareclipse in 1999. CERN had a webcast on antimatter onN had a webcast on antimatter on

10 May 2000, just as it started a new experimental pro-gramme on antimatter.23

Realistically, the utility of webcasting may at the mo-f webcasting may at the mo-ment be limited in some parts of the world because of net-work and hardware limitations, not to mention thedifferences in time zones. Some of the benefits of digitaltechnology may be reaped by putting lectures on CD-ROMs, as is now being done for the CERN summer lec-OMs, as is now being done for the CERN summer lec-tures to university students. Ultimately, the emergingy students. Ultimately, the emergingDVD standard may offer broader prospects, but thiswould require a further hardware upgrade.

X. A PROJECT UNDERWAY—PHYSICS ON STAGEA PROJECT UNDERWAY—PHYSICS ON STAGE

CERN was the prototype for many other European sci-was the prototype for many other European sci-ence laboratories founded subsequently, including the Eu-ropean Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), theEuropean Space Agency (ESA), the European SouthernSpace Agency (ESA), the European SouthernObservatory (ESO), the European Synchrotron RadiationFacility (ESRF) and the Joint European Torus (JET). Sub-Torus (JET). Sub-sets of these laboratories network together in variousways. One such joint project launched by CERN, ESA andd by CERN, ESA andESO is ‘Physics on Stage’, aimed at reducing physics illit-physics illit-eracy in Europe.24

This is one of the activities planned as part of the Eu-ropean Week for Science and Technology in Novemberber2000. The plan is to survey the pedagogical techniquesused to teach science in different European countries, andto identify, encourage and publicize new approaches.These could include novel hands-on activities, demonstra-tions, experiments, web applications and even theatre per-formances.

An example of the latter is ‘L’Oracle de Delphi’, amime show on the theme of antimatter which CERN pututon for several months this past winter.25 It took place in acorner of one of the underground pits where experimentsare constructed, in a Parisian ‘Café-Théâtre’ atmosphereof basic black and bare chairs. The run had to be extendedrepeatedly because of public demand, and further runs aty because of public demand, and further runs atCERN and elsewhere are planned. We found that it at-tracted a different population to CERN, one that was lessscience-oriented and perhaps more sceptical. It was not di-rected at schoolchildren, though my 12-year-old daughter2-year-old daughtercertainly enjoyed it. Its success is surely due to its playfulapproach to the communication of scientific ideas, whichprovides a new avenue for dialogue about science. Itwould be possible to adapt this concept to a formattailored better to schools.

After several months of national activities within the‘Physics on Stage’ project, there will be national competi-tions, and the winners will be presented in a special sym-posium at CERN. Ten special performances will be madeCERN. Ten special performances will be madeavailable to television and other media. One of the primeobjectives of ‘Physics on Stage’ will be to listen to whatysics on Stage’ will be to listen to whatteachers and schoolchildren have to say. The hope is thatit will create new networks as well as generate and com-municate new ideas.

XI. A PROJECT UNDER DISCUSSION—PRISMROJECT UNDER DISCUSSION—PRISM

CERN is now considering a new framework for its visitg a new framework for its visitprogrammes, the Microcosm exhibition and some hands-

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on activities. Experts believe that a science museum atCERN could hope to attract as many as 200,000 visitors ayear, bearing in mind its catchment area, its European sta-tus, and the number of school groups that fail to be accom-modated each year within the existing visit programme.xisting visit programme.The challenge will be to cater to such a large flux of visitorswithout diluting the present visit experience, disrupting thelaboratory or degenerating into a theme park. One of theproblems is that radiation concerns will preclude clamber-ing over future active experiments, as visitors do currently.

Ideas being mooted include a monorail to transportvisitors to different parts of the site, reassembly of presentexperimental detectors after they are discarded, and possi-bly a viewing area where one of the new experimental pitscan be seen, as well as an expanded exhibition area. An ex-ternal consultant from the Paris Science Museum at LaParis Science Museum at LaVillette (which has an extensive school programme) hasbeen retained, and the PRISM concept is now beingRISM concept is now beingdebated.26 If approved, the PRISM project would besupported by external funding.

XII. UTILITY FOR ASIA?

In describing the range of CERN’s activities directed to-of CERN’s activities directed to-wards schools, I have tried to highlight examples whereour experience may be relevant to Asian countries, possi-Asian countries, possi-bly in modified forms. I have laid emphasis on network-ing, both real via personal contacts and common interests,and virtual via the World Wide Web. Databases for ourEuropean networks are freely available over the Internet.

CERN already has scientific collaborations with manycountries in Asia, notably China, Japan, India and the Re-Asia, notably China, Japan, India and the Re-public of Korea. We are open to extend these collabora-tions to other Asian countries, and to the sphere ofoutreach activities, including schools in particular. We areg schools in particular. We areready to listen, advise and help whenever requested.

I do not believe that it is the role of non-school re-sources such as CERN to cram knowledge into school-m knowledge into school-children: rather, it is to communicate inspiration andenthusiasm. Within the general framework of perceivedneeds, I can see several ways in which CERN could makeN could makea specific contribution. One is the provision of ‘storiesabout science’ that integrate individual pieces of knowl-edge into narrative explanations of many overall featuresof the universe. Another is the demonstration of ‘ideasabout science’ in action. As a very large research centre,we can show how research is done, how discoveries aremade, how mistakes are made and corrected: in general,how the scientific method works in practice. Thirdly,Thirdly,since advanced information technology is our lifeblood(witness the World Wide Web), we may have a contribu-tion to make in expanding the variety of methods availablefor teaching science.

To close on a note of self-criticism: we at CERN haveCERN havetaken many initiatives, often in a typical experimentalapproach, but I am not sure of the extent to which we havebeen systematic in organizing our activities. We need to. We need tofocus more on the unique opportunities we can offer, andwe need to think more carefully about our target audiences.Even within the school community, there are many differ-

ent groups of children with different needs and aspira-tions—those who will never study science, but shouldbecome scientifically literate citizens, and those who maypursue some kind of technical career, as well as theminority who will become active scientists themselves. Weshould think more deeply how to tailor our activities tothese different communities.

Acknowledgements

I thank Robert Cailliau, Neil Calder, Paola Catapano,Robert Cailliau, Neil Calder, Paola Catapano,James Gillies, Hans Hoffmann, Guy Hentsch, Peter Jurcsó(in particular), Inga Karliner, Rolf Landua, MichelangeloMangano, Jaroslaw Polok, Emma Sanders and TonyEmma Sanders and TonyShave for help in preparing the talk on which this paper isbased, Jacques Hallak and Muriel Poisson for inviting meHallak and Muriel Poisson for inviting meto present it, and the participants in the workshop for theircomments and insights.

References

1. http://www.cern.ch/Public/2. http://www.cern.ch/microcosm/teachers/home3. http://www.globalarchive.ft.com/search-components/

index.jspx.jsp4. http://cern.web.cern.ch/CERN/Divisions/ETT/5. http://outreach.cern.ch/public/6. Click on http://outreach.cern.ch/public/SiteMap.htmlk on http://outreach.cern.ch/public/SiteMap.html

to find them all.7. http://hepweb.rl.ac.uk/ppUK/school-res.htm8. http://cmsdoc.cern.ch/cms/TRIDAS/html/TRIDAS/html/

outreach1.html9. http://www.cern.ch/visits/english/welcome1.html

10. http://www.cern.ch/microcosm/11. http://cern.web.cern.ch/CERN/Microcosm/P10/eng-b.cern.ch/CERN/Microcosm/P10/eng-

lish/welcome.html12. http://cern.web.cern.ch/CERN/Microcosm/12.

RF_cavity/ex.htmlF_cavity/ex.html13. http://delonline.cern.ch/~jacobson/edu/cd/support/

presentation.html14. Digital Video: http://webcast.cern.ch/Archive/Misc/webcast.cern.ch/Archive/Misc/

may2000/portesouvertes.rm15. http://bulletin.cern.ch/9936/art1/Text_E.html6/art1/Text_E.html16. http://van.hep.uiuc.edu/17. http://teachers.cern.ch/18. http://teachers.cern.ch/teaching/syllabus.htm19. http://teachers.cern.ch/schoolexpts/standard.htm20.0. Digital Video: http://webcast.cern.ch/Archive/Misc/

may2000/lendroit.rm21.1. http://weblib.cern.ch/Home/Library_Catalogue/Vide-

otapes/?p=22. http://www.exploratorium.edu/xploratorium.edu/23. http://www.cern.ch/livefromcern/antimatter/24. http://press.web.cern.ch/Press/Releases00/25.

PR02.00EPhysicsonStage.htmlEPhysicsonStage.html25. http://www.unige.ch/mimescope/delphi/wel-

comee.html26. http://www.cite-sciences.fr/francais/index-

LIGHT.htm

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I. INTRODUCTION

Although countries in the Asia-Pacific have given their ut-Pacific have given their ut-most efforts in continuously improving their science andtechnology education programmes, the reforms are ratherslow—especially in terms of curriculum structure andcontent, as well as the professional development of teach-ers. In some of our countries formal educational institu-tions succeed in coping with the advances in knowledge—but the learning in school alone rapidly becomes obsolete.In other countries, the frequent changes of governmentand political instability have affected the effective imple-mentation of educational reforms.

There are also discrepancies with regard to the intend-ed, implemented and attained curriculum. There is a gen-eral concern that little is included in the curriculum ofbasic school education that will allow the learners to ac-quire the knowledge, skills and values to prepare themfor life. The positive note is that the emerging trend is to-wards curriculum innovation and reforms—introducinglearner-centred content and strategies and systemicchanges responding to national development needs, goalsand entry into globalization. However, there is a largegap that needs to be filled—the need for capacity-build-ing—to have a ‘cadre’ of experts who can provide intel-lectual guidance and advisory support. There is also aneed to change society’s demand for education that onlyprepares students to pass examinations for entry intohigher education, rather than learn what is relevant and/or/orinteresting to their lives and in answer to the needs of thecommunity.

The August 1999 issue of Asiaweek identified twen-ty trends expected to shape the development of Asiancountries in the new millennium. Most of those identi-fied are attributed to the advances in science and tech-nology and the advent of new information andcommunication technology. These trends have to be an-alysed in the context of the region in order to formulateinnovative strategies towards reforming the educationsystem.

II. THE CONTEXT

The Asia-Pacific region is vast and diverse. Approximate-pproximate-ly 60% of the world’s population is on the continent, withfive of the world’s nine highly populated developingcountries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia andPakistan. The countries have diversity in geographic size,educational levels, political systems, socio-economic de-velopment, etc. Adult literacy levels range from 100% to

less than 50%. The majority of illiterates are women, girlsjority of illiterates are women, girlsand other marginalized groups (ethnic minorities, refu-gees, those living in remote rural areas, etc.).

For most developing and least developed countries,technical and financial support are needed to: ensure foodsecurity; conserve the physical/natural environment andsustain resources (water, energy, soil, air, etc.); preventthe spread of communicable diseases, HIV/AIDS andV/AIDS anddrug abuse; and support efforts to limit demographicstress and promote the sustainability of socio-economicdevelopment. All of these have implications on education-al reforms in general and science and technology educa-tion in particular.

III. COMMITMENTSOMMITMENTS

Many major conferences have been organized since 1990990to address this topic—and countries have committed to re-solve the different problems confronting humankind.Three international conferences that have direct bearingon the strengthening of science and technology educationshould be highlighted. 1. The World Conference on Education for All (Jomtien,Conference on Education for All (Jomtien,

1990) ‘Conference on Project 2000+: Scientific andTechnological Literacy’ recognized that good qualityhnological Literacy’ recognized that good qualitybasic education is fundamental to the strengthening ofhigher levels of education, and of scientific and tech-nological literacy and capacity, and is thus essential inthe development of self-sufficiency.

2. The International For All (Paris, 1993) forwardedAll (Paris, 1993) forwardeda declaration ‘calling governments, industry, thepublic-private sector and other interest groups, ed-ucation personnel, policy makers, UN agencies,kers, UN agencies,IGO’s and NGO’s to work together in partnershipto promote scientific and technological literacy forall.’

3. The World Conference on Science (Budapest, 1999)World Conference on Science (Budapest, 1999)adopted the Declaration on Science and the Use of Sci-entific Knowledge, which made clear that the transferge, which made clear that the transferof knowledge is a priority. The conference ‘reinforcedthe cooperation of national, regional and internationalorganizations and NGO’s and focusing on research anddevelopment, capacity building, more women in sci-ence and technology education, and to bring scienceand scientists closer to the people’.

IV. THE CURRICULUM REFORMS

The curriculum reforms that Member States have initiatedforms that Member States have initiatedhave some commonalties—that is, to make learning more

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relevant to the lives of the learners, their interests and theirneeds. Some countries call it ‘integrated core pro-grammes’—integrating societal issues in the school sub-jects—aiming for relevancy and social responsibility. Thedepth of the subject would depend on the context and thewould depend on the context and thesocio-economic and cultural variations of the localities.The re-orientation and re-organization of education, how-ever, still has to put into practice the guiding principle pro-posed by the International Commission on Education forthe Twenty-First Century (The Delors Report)—that is,(The Delors Report)—that is,‘learning throughout life’, building on the four pillars oflearning: learning to know, learning to do, learning to beand learning to live together.

The reforms in science and technology educationy educationshould get their inspiration from the four pillars of learn-ing. These efforts will also entail:� review of educational and national policies, looking at

the contextual dimension in terms of literacy/educa-tional levels, socio-cultural and economic situations,science and technology developments, and the re-quired infrastructure;

� development of teaching-learning materials and re-sources, especially supplementary materials, sincetextbooks take a longer time to develop. The new ma-terials will require motivational/innovative teaching-learning strategies developed by teachers themselves;

� assessment of learning and evaluation techniques, be-ing an integral part of teaching and learning, could bein the teaching-learning resources. Important areas tobe assessed could be societal needs, creativity and ini-tiative, problem-solving and decision-making skills,and other life skills. This could be a major change

from the standard practice of teacher evaluation of astudent’s academic progress—that is, paying more at-tention to what has been learned than to what has notbeen learned;

� strengthening of national capacities, professional de-velopment of teachers and educational providers. Thishas to take place on a continuous basis, in response torecognition of the changing needs of society. There isalso a need for rethinking the roles of different actorsin the provision of science and technology educationfor all;

� the key roles of non-school resources (scientific or-ganizations and research institutions, science muse-zations and research institutions, science muse-ums, science centres, planetariums, observatories,etc.) have to be recognized in building and strengthen-ing of expertise and provision of training;

� linkages, networking and partnership among individ-uals, schools and institutions—built from the conceptof community participation and ownership. This con-tributes to: a dynamic exchange of experiences and ex-pertise; better management of resources aiming atcost-effectiveness and efficiency; and academic ad-vancement through joint research activities.

* * *

As lifelong learners, we ‘learn/reflect/adapt’—and even-tually take action relevant to our own situation and theneeds of society. Promoting science and technology edu-Promoting science and technology edu-cation for all will move us towards a better quality of lifeand a sustainable future for all.

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I. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS:A LEARNING WORKSHOPWORKSHOP

As a preliminary statement, it has to be emphasized thatthe debates were characterized by lucidity, candidness,were characterized by lucidity, candidness,questioning and doubts. In fact, if all participants agreedon the fundamental importance of good quality teachingin science and technology in their respective countries inorder to face the huge challenges set by today’s societies,none of them held strong views on what was needed or onhow to go about achieving good quality teaching.

Some referred to a growing public distrust of scientificand technological expertise, parallel to the developmentof scientific and technological knowledge as well as to theexplosion of new technologies. European participants inparticular insisted on the progressive relativization of theconcept of science in the context of so-called ‘risk socie-ties’.

Throughout the debates, most participants questionedthe relevance both for employment and daily life of thescience teaching actually taking place in their respectivecountries. One of them even talked about the nine ‘falla-cies’ of scientific teaching, which he detailed as follows:the fallacy of miscellaneous information, the foundationalfallacy, the fallacy of a detached science, the fallacy ofcritical thinking, the fallacy of the scientific method, thefallacy of coverage, the fallacy of utility, the homogene-ous fallacy and the fallacy of a ‘value-free’ science.

Students’ lack of interest in science subjects, demon-jects, demon-strated by their flight from scientific domains, was fre-quently emphasized. It was mainly attributed to the publicauthorities using science, as soon as early school years, asa tool to select a small elite, destined to become highlyqualified specialists, rather than to attempt to attract theattention and interest of the young by teaching them thebasics that would help them become ‘scientifically liter-ate’. This lack of interest was also attributed to the partic-ular status of science in the job market and to the difficultyof finding a well-paid job in this area (Malaysia).).

All participants preferred to focus their presentationon proposed reforms and innovative experiments, such asthe French ‘Main à la pâte’ initiative or the Malaysian‘Smart School’ project, rather than on reforms that hadbeen implemented and success stories. They preferred toshare realistic strategies for change rather than ‘modernrecipes’ to be applied regardless of the difficulties that re-sult inevitably from adaptation during a reform process.

At the end of the debates it appeared that more ques-tions had been raised than answers provided, most ofwhich will be described below.

II. THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE EDUCATIONSCOPE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

The scope of science education varied greatly from onetion varied greatly from onecountry to another, with more or less emphasis placed onscientific content, methods (inquiry, problem-solving, co-operative learning, etc.), tools or values. China, for instance, distinguished among six differentdomains in science teaching, i.e.: the knowledge domain(ability to master important facts, major concepts andprinciples of science); the operational skills domain (abil-ity to use apparatus and instruments); the scientific proc-ess skills domain (ability to observe, measure, group,question, formulate hypotheses and experiment); the ap-plication domain (ability to apply concepts and skills innew situations); the creative domain (ability to formulatequestions, to give explanations and new ideas); and the at-titude domain (ability to develop a positive feeling to-wards science and studying science).

The United Kingdom put a stronger emphasis on thesocial value of science, by referring not only to the knowl-edge and understanding of the scientific content as well asthe scientific approach to inquiry, but also to science as a‘social enterprise’ – that is, the social practices of the com-munity.

Japan and Israel included technology in the scope ofscience education. Japan talked about the capacity of mak-ing use of computers and Israel spoke of problem-solvingwithin a ‘technological and scientific environment’,putting stress on the significant impact of technologicalprocess on the individual and society.

New Zealand called for a new definition of literacyand numeracy that would see science education as ‘a toolto understand the world in which we live’. Israel insistedon the necessity for primary school curriculum to enhancescientific and technological literacy for all, and Japan de-scribed the difficulty of promoting national scientific lit-eracy, given that after graduation, students seem to forgetthe scientific concepts that they are supposed to have ac-quired.

From this reflection on the importance of scientific lit-eracy emerged the necessity to modify the scope of sci-ence education according to the level of education

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concerned. While the need for scientific literacy at prima-ry level was recognized, the need for progressively spe-cialized science education beginning at the secondarylevel was also underlined. This would imply that the aims,This would imply that the aims,methods and approaches of science teaching should beadapted to primary, secondary and higher education,which is not always the case in countries whose schoolsystem is highly selective as early as primary level andthat choose to base their selection process on scientificsubjects.

III. USEFUL CONCEPTSL CONCEPTS

Two opposing concepts—knowledge and competen-cies—were raised several times by participants. China, fory participants. China, forinstance, declared that in the Chinese school system, un-due stress was put on knowledge, neglecting the develop-ment of the students’ ability to apply science knowledgeand skills in problem-solving; as a consequence, teacherswere failing to develop students’ scientific attitudes, val-ues, process skills and high-order thinking skills.

This emphasis on knowledge was associated by Indo-nesia with the importance given to content rather than toprocess in syllabus design. The rigidity of the syllabuscoupled with no (or insufficient) curriculum guidelines) curriculum guidelineswas described as limiting teachers’ creativity in teachingscience.

The concepts of integrated subjects and of interdisci-plinarity were frequently used for qualifying differentmatters. Japan gave examples of integrated subjects to betaught at various school level; at upper secondary level forinstance, ‘Integrated science A’ will be added to tradition-A’ will be added to tradition-al subjects as from 2002: it will consist in inquiring into‘the natural events with relation to our daily life like mat-ters and energy; centering the relation between scientifictechnology and human beings; and fostering the integrat-ed view of nature, and the ability and attitude to inquirenature’. It is planned that the organization of these inte-zation of these inte-grated subjects will be a function of the ability and inten-tion of teachers in each school. China also called for achange in its own system from subject division towardssubject integration. It intends to offer comprehensivecourses (such as humanities, comprehensive science,sports and health, etc.), in addition to traditional disci-plines (such as ideological and political studies, Chinese,Mathematics, foreign languages, etc.). As in the case ofAs in the case ofJapan, the balance between the two could be determinedaccording to the competence of teachers.

The concept of interdisciplinarity was conceived moreas an approach to organizing science education. Israel hasworked considerably on this concept, trying to design andimplement a Science, Technology and Society (STS))approach, aiming at teaching science and technology in anintegrated way, emphasizing their relation with society atlarge. This approach relies on science and technologyteachers who choose their curriculum from the subjectsincluded in the syllabus (such as energy, information,communication, ecology, etc. for elementary schools) anddecide how to integrate them. Netherlands follows a quitesimilar scheme at senior secondary level. At this level,At this level,science teaching starts from themes such as energy, food,health and other issues; the relevant concepts andprinciples for gaining insight into these themes are drawn

from different disciplines. The overall objective is forstudents to get used to drawing on concepts in an integratedway. Traditional subjects such as physics, chemistry andbiology are only taught as optional courses.

Participants made a distinction between the conceptsof ‘intended curriculum’, ‘implemented curriculum’ and‘attained curriculum’. France noted that the texts definingcurricula are interpreted differently by different teachers,and that the way pupils and students understand the teach-ing they receive varies considerably as a function of theindividuals concerned and the school environment. In oth-er words, one can observe significant disparities betweenwhat is set by official texts, what is taught at school leveland what is actually learned by children. This has impor-tant implications for all aspects of curriculum develop-ment, in particular the methods used for curriculum designand assessment.

IV. OPTIONS AND POLICIESV. OPTIONS AND POLICIES

The variety of conceptions about science teaching prevail-nceptions about science teaching prevail-ing in different countries and of methods being used to putthem into practice at school level clearly demonstrated thediversity of aims and missions of scientific and technolog-ical education worldwide, and of the values attached to it.A number of diverse options and policies as regards sci-ence and technology teaching were identified.

One choice is between decentralizing or not decentral-izing responsibilities regarding content and curriculumfrom the central government to local authorities and/or theschool. In the 1990s Hungary went from a state-controlled0s Hungary went from a state-controlledcurriculum to a school-based curriculum. Schools are nowrequired to develop their own teaching programme (allo-cation of time for subjects, translation of content and ob-jectives into subjects, formulation of local goals andobjectives, sequencing of learning content, etc.) on the ba-sis of the National Core Curriculum. The National Insti-National Core Curriculum. The National Insti-tute of Public Education has set up a Curriculum Bank tohelp standardize the way the curriculum is prescribed. AAprivate textbook industry has been expanding in parallel.A second decision to be made concerns the developmentor non-development of diversified approaches in scienceteaching, according to target groups and areas. This ques-tion appears particularly relevant in large countries, suchas China or India. In the case of China, a curriculum struc-ture adapted to regional differences, the main characteris-tics of schools and students’ individual particularities wasset up. Diversified approaches also appear particularly rel-Diversified approaches also appear particularly rel-evant in multi-ethnic countries, such as Indonesia. The2000 Indonesian school science curriculum reform willprovide national standards for basic competencies in sci-ence and technology, leaving each district responsible foradapting them to its own cultural characteristics.

A third choice concerns whether or not to link sciencek scienceand technology education to local development. Sri Lankarecommended that education for the creation and applica-tion of science and technology on an ‘industrial basis’ betaken into account, in particular in the case of developingcountries, in order to help them reorient and improve theproductivity of their economies.

A fourth choice involves the extent to which a coun-try’s financial capabilities determine its education policy.

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Sri Lanka, for instance, has decided to give a strong prior-ity to equal access to education, by providing free text-books at elementary and lower secondary school (up toand including Grade 11) – which represents a heavy finan-Grade 11) – which represents a heavy finan-cial investment for public authorities, but also a firm pol-icy engagement.

V. STRATEGIESATEGIES

Many countries have just undertaken or are about to un-dertake an in-depth reform of science and technologym of science and technologyteaching aimed at counteracting the lack of flexibility ofscience teaching, the segmentation of content, the lack ofpractical knowledge, the poor capacity of teachers to man-age change, inadequate textbooks, the isolation of sciencefrom its environment and unsatisfactory assessment ofscience learning. The strategies adopted can differ signif-icantly from country to country but the alternatives con-fronting public authorities when setting up the reformappear quite similar.

One of these alternatives is the weight to be attachedto scientific studies in teaching programmes. According toChina, the curriculum structure should be balanced bymeans of establishing reasonable subjects or areas ofstudy and their time allocation. Another alternative con-cerns selecting what constitutes the ‘basics of science’.While it is generally recognized that in the face of escalat-ing increases in scientific knowledge, comprehensivecourses should be avoided, how to be selective still needsto be explored. It was recommended that, as is the case inxplored. It was recommended that, as is the case inliterature courses, some ‘classics’ and ‘masterpieces’ inthe scientific field be identified as reference for the analy-sis. A third alternative concerns harmonizing scienceteaching at various levels: the problem here is to ensure acontinuity between primary, secondary and tertiary sci-ence and to determine when to start specialization (at up-per secondary, as suggested by China?).).

Among the most important factors for any strategy ofchange, the time factor was very often mentioned. As theexample of the reform undertaken in the Netherlandsshows, for all the steps of the reform to be accomplished(i.e. the adaptation of the curriculum, the training of teach-ers and the modification of teaching materials) and for allthe actors concerned to accept the reform (i.e. academics,parents and the society at large), a gradual approach is un-doubtedly indispensable but also difficult, as implementa-tion of the reform is linked not only to available resourcesbut also to social resistance to change. The relation be-The relation be-tween the scale of reform and the time required for its im-plementation needs to be clear but it is difficult to predict.

Ensuring teachers’ capacity to implement the reformalso poses a difficult problem. The Indonesian pre-servicetraining, for example, does not really impart the basiccompetencies needed by a successful teacher, i.e. a thor-ough understanding of the subject taught and well-devel-oped skills in promoting learning. Most institutionsMost institutionsresponsible for pre-service training are useful for improv-ing teachers' mastery of subject content, but less so whenit comes to improving practical school learning. Severalstrategies to improve the situation are being explored buthave to be further tested in different contexts. Some ofthese include starting teachers' specialization at a later

stage; teaching them the history of science; creating teach-ers’ guidebooks and providing teachers with support serv-ices (New Zealand); designing new ‘inquiry-based(New Zealand); designing new ‘inquiry-basedteaching materials’ that would allow for more flexible andcreative teaching methods (China); creating data banksthat can help them in their daily work (Hungary); mobiliz-p them in their daily work (Hungary); mobiliz-ing ‘agents of change’, such as universities or regional ad-visers, to guide them in the implementation of the reform;relying on a body of regional inspectors (France) or ofteachers' organizations (United Kingdom), to meet withUnited Kingdom), to meet withteachers in the schools and explain to them the aims ofthe reform, give them examples of courses, show themexamples of assessment, etc.; and providing teachers withfunds to conduct research on improving teaching methodsand materials, and thus contributing to their professionaldevelopment (Republic of Korea).

VI.I. METHODS AND PEDAGOGY—INNOVATIVEEXPERIMENTS

Both Asian and European countries have developed inno-th Asian and European countries have developed inno-vative experiments during recent years, either inside oroutside the school system, as regards the methods andpedagogy used in science and technology teaching.

China, through the Zeijang experience, tries to changetraditional pedagogic approaches, by insisting more onmastering than on understanding science. Malaysia hasdesigned a ‘model of scientific and thinking skills’, whichf scientific and thinking skills’, whichpermeates science lessons in various stages, ranging fromintroducing scientific and thinking skills explicitly, apply-ing these skills with guidance from teachers and, finally,using these skills to solve specific problems independent-ly. Sri Lanka has set up another model, called the‘Skigushi model’, which attempts to systematize the men-tal process through which a conclusion can be formulatedand is intended to develop the ability to think quickly andlogically.

Most countries are confronted with the difficulty ofarousing pupils' interest and curiosity in science and tech-nology matters. In that respect, China underlined the needIn that respect, China underlined the needfor teachers to emphasize the importance of the ‘wonderaspect of science’. The Republic of Korea and Japan em-phasized the role of play, and the United Kingdom calledUnited Kingdom calledfor the use of a ‘set of explanatory stories’. China and In-donesia described practices appealing to the local envi-ronment, such as the ‘banana project’, according to whichbananas are used to study biology, chemistry, economy,etc. Pupils can be asked to write ‘science papers’ in orderked to write ‘science papers’ in orderto help them draw precise conclusions from what they ob-served. The role of teachers in the latter case is crucial andquite different from that in traditional teaching settings:they have to ‘coach’ pupils and students throughout thelearning process and develop context-specific learning ac-tivities and tasks.

Hands-on learning projects are being implemented inFrench primary schools and by the European Organiza-European Organiza-tion for Nuclear Research (CERN) to try to raise the inter-est of the young. These projects aim at familiarizingchildren with science by carrying out experiments and,dren with science by carrying out experiments and,through this, gradually assimilating scientific conceptsand technological know-how. They have been developedin France at the initiative of Physics Nobel Prize winner

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Georges Charpak. Throughout their investigation, pupilsare encouraged to reason, argue and discuss ideas and re-sults in a very independent way. In the case of CERN,RN,hands-on activities are made available during school vis-its. Participating groups of children are asked to mimic theactivity of conducting research. CERN is planning torecord these hands-on activities in written and visual formwritten and visual formand make them widely available over the web.

Dutch schools follows a quite similar approach by pro-posing ‘problems-based’ and ‘projects-based’ scienceteaching. The idea is to replace learning the ever-increas-ing amount of specific principles and applications of sci-entific disciplines by learning to use the fundamentals inthe situation in which pupils live and that are relevant fortheir future life as citizens and workers. Learning andworking towards an outcome or product of educational ac-tivity helps raised the interest of the young. These meth-odological innovations have strong implications forcurriculum design as well as for the assessment criteriabeing utilized.

The use of non-school resources for science and tech-nology teaching was advocated as a complement to schoolcourses. In the Philippines, visits to science museums, toIn the Philippines, visits to science museums, tomanufacturing companies and to industrial sites takeplace. In India, science exhibitions, science clubs, activi-ties, debates, etc. are organized. In other countries, net-works are being created with the help of local partners tosupport school courses. China has established some ‘sci-entific circles’, for instance, and Japan ‘school-centrednetworks of science learning’. Part of the curriculum isdevoted to field-work and, for that purpose, local existingsocial facilities, such as museums or private companiesare used. Pupils use exhibits to show their research tasksto others. Learning is organized through networks: a net-work of the subjects to be taught, a network of school andout-of-school facilities, a museums-centred network, a na-ture observation network, etc.

Most of the innovative experiments described referredto science. The exception is the ‘Smart School’ project inMalaysia, which tries to capitalize on the introduction ofnew technologies in schools to create a stimulating teach-ing environment.

Various issues were raised concerning the innovativeapproaches presented above. Should they be seen as a sub-stitute for school education or only as an additional tool?Are they part of the learning process or simply exposureto science? Could they be easily implemented on a largerscale, in various contexts, or should their localized aspectsbe underpinned before trying to apply them elsewhere?

VII. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENTSII. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENTS

A key aspect in the reform of science and technologyreform of science and technologyteaching concerns new and innovative approaches in cur-riculum design, and the methods used to help the teachersfind the appropriate tools to implement the curriculum.

One of the issues raised is whether curriculum designshould start with disciplines or subjects, for each of thelevels concerned. In the case of Malaysia, the primary lev-el science curriculum is organized around five subjects,namely the living world, the physical world, the materialworld, earth and the universe, and the world of technolo-

gy. At upper secondary level, it is organized around disci-plines, i.e. science, biology, physics and chemistry. TheTheidentification of attractive subjects is not always that easy.

A second issue consists in identifying which disci-plines are the subject/object of integration. Disciplineswhich are the subject of integration are bound to use ele-ments and approaches borrowed from other disciplines;earth science for example, which appeals to physics,chemistry, biology, environmental science, etc., can be re-garded as a subject of integration. Disciplines that are ob-jects of integration are bound to be used by otherdisciplines; mathematics, for instance, as a science tool,can be considered as an object of integration.

A third issue has to do with identifying the relation be-tween different learning sequences and the aims of educa-quences and the aims of educa-tion. This is necessary to determine which courses arecompulsory and which elective, at various levels. In Thai-land for example, the secondary level curriculum distin-guishes between compulsory core, compulsory electiveand free elective courses. At lower secondary level, gen-eral science courses are offered as core compulsory andelective ones. At upper secondary level, students are di-vided into science and non-science stream. For the sciencestream students, physics, chemistry, biology and environ-mental science are offered as compulsory elective and freeelective courses. For the non-science stream, various unitson physical and biological science are offered.

A fourth issue is linked with the need to avoid over-loading curricula – which exercises a great pressure onpupils—and to avoid the ‘cumulation of knowledge’’which leads to ‘sediment-like curriculum’. The trend invarious countries is to reduce the time allotted to scienceteaching, either to give time to the development of ‘crea-tive activities’ (Republic of Korea), or as a result of the in-tegration of disciplines (Japan). In the latter case, HungaryHungarynoted that this may require fewer teachers.

A fifth issue concerns the ‘operationalizing’ of scien-tific contents, in other words in the methods to be used toput science into context and to encourage the understand-ing of society through science. In the Netherlands, at sec-ondary level, more attention is given to relating science tovel, more attention is given to relating science tothe world outside school as well as to practical work in allscience subjects. In Israel, the curriculum is being utilizedto develop awareness on wise consumer thinking and be-haviour by using the decision-making process when se-lecting a product or a system. It is also being utilized toprepare individuals to take care of the environment.

A final important point for the implementation of newapproaches in the field of science and technology teachingis the profile and management of training of teachers. Infact, it is difficult to ask them to teach things quite differ-ent and quite differently (to help them ‘coach’ the educa-tion process) to what they have learnt themselves(Indonesia talked about ‘new times, old players’). In vari-ous Asian countries, most in-service training in scienceeducation uses a ‘cascade model’, which helps to limit thecost of reform management and to train people in a shorttimeframe. Through this training model, a group of keyThrough this training model, a group of keypersonnel are trained (called ‘master-teachers’ in China);they in return train other users of the curriculum at region-al and then local levels. Indonesia considers that this top-down model has little value due to the heterogeneous con-

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ditions of Indonesian teachers, resources and cultures. InMalaysia, it has led to a dilution of knowledge and, conse-quently, to the misinterpretation of the curriculum; it wassuggested that a bottom-up community-based approachmight be more useful for science development.

VIII. ASSESSMENT AS TOOLS OF LEARNING,MONITORING, SELECTING, ETC.

Science assessment was presented as a key tool not onlypresented as a key tool not onlyfor evaluating and comparing pupils' educational resultsand, on this basis, for selecting a small elite, but also formonitoring the quality of learning, and above all, the suc-cess and the limits of implementation of a reform.

One of the difficulties consists in defining preciselywhat has to be assessed—which has strong implicationson what is being taught, as what is not considered relevantfor examination purposes is usually not considered rele-vant for learning. In Indonesia, assessment is focused oncontent; this results mainly in memorization and routineexercises, responsible for the failure of students to acquirereal understanding as well as adequate problem-solvingand critical thinking skills. In India, little importance is at-tached to the assessment of practical work, resulting in ut-ter neglect of practical work in school education. In theUnited Kingdom, the testing of practical skills has beenKingdom, the testing of practical skills has beenabandoned because of its high cost; this has resulted inteachers, who want their pupils to get the best possible re-sults, putting less emphasis on the practical aspects of sci-ence. France has succeeded in imposing experimentalscience in classes and its proper assessment, after decadesdevoted to convincing decision-makers that practicalwork is worth the money, sensitizing teachers of the inter-est of it, and leading schools to build laboratories and buyequipment.

The evolution of science learning (in particular the at-tempt to increase the emphasis on the mastering of knowl-edge) requires an evolution of the assessment methods) requires an evolution of the assessment methodsused. The Philippines established an examination systembased on learning competencies, which are assessed innational elementary and secondary achievement tests. It isapplied through school-based assessment, with progressreports in science achievement shared with parents andother stakeholders. The Netherlands developed portfoliosNetherlands developed portfoliosand dossiers with products produced by students and re-flection on learning results and learning processes. Francecreated a computer assessment resource bank in science.

The limitations of assessment are not always well un-derstood. To begin with, assessment does not give clue tothe attitude of the young towards science learning. InJapan for instance, according to the Third InternationalMathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the achieve-ments of Japanese children at Grades 4 and 8 are the sec-ond and third highest among the twenty-six and forty-oneghest among the twenty-six and forty-oneparticipating countries and territories; forty-eight per centof students think that science is important in their dailylife and twenty per cent want to get a job in the future re-lated to science. The way to assess attitudes, inquiry spiritand curiosity has still to be found. In China, assessmentfails to take into consideration multiple forms of intelli-gence and, consequently, the various potential of students,various potential of students,which leads to the academic failure of most students and

damage to their self-esteem. In Hungary, the lack of as-sessment skills among the teaching force limits any at-tempts to reform the system.

In various Asian states, the pressure of internationalcomparisons, such as TIMSS, compels public authoritiesSS, compels public authoritiesto formulate their education reform policy on the basis ofexpected results, which limits any evolution of the assess-ment systems and, consequently, of teaching.

There exists a wrong perception of what a good educa-tion is, through assessment: in seeking to make the impor-tant measurable, only the measurable has becomeimportant. There were not many suggestions made tochange the situation.

IX.X. BY WAY OF CONCLUSION, OUTSTANDINGAND UNDOCUMENTED QUESTIONSENTED QUESTIONS

The debates helped to raise a number of outstanding ques-mber of outstanding ques-tions that would need to be addressed in greater depth; afew of them are listed below:� How to define the ‘basics’ of science education? � To what extent are ‘basic competencies’ dependent on

context, time, country and local situation?� Even if it is admitted that part of the basics can differ

from country to country and evolve during time, whatcriteria should be used in order to determine preciselyin what they actually consist?

� How to define ‘science literacy’? Will a concentrationWill a concentrationon science literacy risk undermining the education ofthose who will become future scientists?

� How to address the lag between the ‘public views’ andthe ‘experts’ views’ on what is good in science educa-tion?

� Where and when to start specialization? At what age?At what age?For what cycle?

� How to select from among all the existing disciplinesthose that have necessarily to be taught? Is there a needto make a selection?

� How to choose the ‘stories’ needed to illustrate theconcepts being taught in a consistent way?

� What are the merits and drawbacks of the integrationof science and technology?

� How to proceed practically with the integration of sci-ence subjects both at national and at school level?

� How to prepare teachers for a radical change in thephilosophy of learning and teaching?

� How to make the truly important measurable?� How to articulate basic, secondary and higher educa-

tion? In particular, how to avoid the pervasive effectsof specialized science education at higher level for thewhole system?

By way of a forward-looking conclusion, two scenarioscan be imagined as regards the evolution of science edu-cation in the coming years: a ‘vicious scenario’ and a ‘vir-tuous scenario’.

According to the vicious scenario, the situation pre-vailing today in most countries would persist, leading tothe continuous deterioration of science education. Theconfusion on the mission statements of science educationwould persist. The lack of adequate teachers and the neg-ative selection process linked to the existing systems ofxisting systems ofassessment would continue to have a pervasive effect on

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the whole education system, except for ‘the fortunatefew’. It would maintain the process of flight out of scienceeducation streams.

According to the virtuous scenario, the mission state-ments of science education would be redrafted by level,after having carefully assessed the demand of the labourmarket through an appropriate communication strategy

and properly addressed the question of what makes a goodworker: good scientific literacy or specialized scienceteaching. The feasibility of alternative policies and strate-The feasibility of alternative policies and strate-gies would be tested. Carefully planned programmes ofimplementation would be adopted. The methods of as-sessment used would be adapted in order to measure the‘relevant’, rather than simply the ‘measurable’.

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Mrs Nantiya Boonklurb Assistant DirectorThe Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science andTechnology924, Sukhumvit Road4, Sukhumvit RoadBANGKOK 10110 ThailandndTel.: (662) 392.40.21Fax: (662) 381.0750E-mail: nboon@ipst.se.thpst.se.th

Mr John EllisConseiller, Relations avec les Etats non-membresChef, Division de la ThéorieCERNCase postale Meyrinyrin1211 GENEVA 23SwitzerlandTel.: (41 22) 767.61.11.67.61.11.Fax: (41 22) 767.65.55.E-mail: john.ellis@cern.ch

Mr. Masakazu Goto Senior ResearcherNational Institute for Educational Research tional Institute for Educational Research The Earth Section6-5-22, ShimomeguroMeguro-KuKuTOKYO 153-8681 JapanTel.: (81 3) 5721.5026Fax: (81 3) 3714.7073E-mail: mail: masakazu@nier.go.jp

Ms Lucille GregorioUNESCO-PROAPAP920, Sukhumvit RoadBANGKOK 1011010110ThailandTel.: (66-2) 391.0577.Fax: (66-2) 391.0866.E-mail: lc.gregorio@unesco-proap.org@unesco-proap.org

Mr Jacques Hallak Hallak Assistant Director-GeneralDirectorInternational Bureau of EducationCase postale 1991211 GENEVA 20NEVA 20SwitzerlandTel.: (41-22) 917.78.26.6.Fax: (41-22) 917.78.01.E-mail: j.hallak@unesco.orgg

Mr Moshe Ilan DirectorThe Israeli Curriculum CenterMinistry of EducationJERUSALEM 91911 SALEM 91911 IsraelTel.: (972 2) 560.1133.Fax: (972 2) 560.1054.E-mail: mail: toch-l@education.gov.ilMoshelan@netvision.net.il

Prof. C.L.V. Jayatilleke Director-GeneralNational Institute of EducationChairman of the National Education CommissionP.O. Box 21High Level RoadMAHARAGAMA Sri LankakaTel.: (941) 85.12.10Fax: (941) 85.13 00E-mail: libinfo@slt.lk

Ms Judit Kadar Fulop Fulop Ministry of EducationP.O. Box 18-84Szalay 10-1410-55 BUDAPEST UDAPEST HungaryTel./Fax : (36 1) 312.50825082E-mail: judit.kadar@om.gov.hu

Ms Frances KellySenior ManagerLearning and Evaluation Policy cy Ministry of EducationP.O. Box 1666WELLINGTON GTON New ZealandTel.: (644) 473.5544 Fax: (644) 471.4409E-mail: frances.kelly@minedu.govt.nz

Dr. Joo-hoon KimCurriculum and Evaluation Research DepartmentKorea Institute of Curriculum and EvaluationInstitute of Curriculum and Evaluation25-1 Samchung-dongJongro-guSEOUL 110-2300-230Republic of KoreaTel.: (822) 3704.3646Fax: (822) 3704.3570E-mail: mail: jhk321@kice.re.kr

ANNEX: List of contributorst of contributors

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Dr. Sharifah Maimunah binti Syed ZinZinDeputy Director Curriculum Development CentreMinistry of EducationEducationPersiaran Duta Off Jalan DutaKUALA LUMPUR 50606 0606 MalaysiaTel.: (603) 651.1522Fax: (603) 651.0861E-mail: smsyedzin@hotmail.comotmail.com

M. Pierre Malleus Inspecteur général de l’éducation nationaleMinistère de l’éducation nationale, de la recherche et de latechnologie107, rue de Grenelle75007 PARIS RIS FranceTel.: (33 1) 55.55.34.86.Fax: (33 1) 45 50 49 39E-mail: p.malleus@education.gouv.frus@education.gouv.fror p.malleus@ac-nancy-metz.fr

Ms Bella MarinasSupervising Education Programme SpecialistDepartment of Education, Culture and SportsSecondary Education Development and ImprovementProject3rd Floor, Bonifacio BuildingDECS Complex, Meralco AvenuevenuePASIG CITY 2600 PhilippinesTel.: (632) 635.98.22/2698.22/26Fax: (632) 636.51.73E-mail: belmari_99@yahoo.com

Mr Jonathan Osborne University of LondonKing’s College London School of EducationCornwall House, Waterloo RoadWaterloo RoadLONDON SE1 8WA United KingdommTel.: (44 171) 848.31.70.Fax: (44 171) 848.31.82.E-mail: Jonathan.osborne@kcl.ac.ukkcl.ac.uk

Dr. Albert Pilot ProfessorIVLOS Institute of EducationP.O. Box 8012773508 TC UtrechtNetherlandsTel.: (31 30) 253.34.00.Fax: (31 30) 253.27.41.E-mail: a.pilot@ivlos.uu.nl

Ms Muriel Poisson Assistant Programme SpecialistInternational Institute for Educational Planning7-9, rue Eugène Delacroix75116 PARIS 5116 PARIS FranceTel.: (33-1) 45.03.77.13.Fax: (33-1) 40.72.83.66.E-mail: mail: m.poisson@unesco.org

Prof. J.S. Rajput,put,DirectorNational Council for Educational Research and TrainingSri Aurobindo MargAurobindo MargNEW DELHI 110 016IndiaTel.: (91 11) 651.91.54 or 696.47.12Fax: (91 11) 68.68.419E-mail: crc@giasdl01.vsnl.net.in01.vsnl.net.in

Dr. Ella Yulaelawati HeadCurriculum Division and Educational FacilitiesCentre of Curriculum DevelopmentJalan Gunung Sahari No. 4Sahari No. 4JAKARTA IndonesiaTel.: (62 21) 3483.4862Fax: (62 21) 350.80.84E-mail: yulaela@cbn.net.id

SCIENCE EDUCATION FORCONTEMPORARY SOCIETY:

PROBLEMS, ISSUESAND DILEMMAS

FINAL REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON THE REFORM IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

AT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY LEVEL IN ASIA:COMPARATIVE REFERENCES TO EUROPE

Beijing, 27–31 March 2000

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATIONTHE CHINESE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNESCO