Sarah Earle

Winthrop University

2011, March 20th

The Church and the Beasts: An Examination of Fantastic Imagery Found on Liturgical

Objects

Liturgical objects are any religious items used in mass, and these objects are

considered the “treasure” of the early churches. Often times these items are decorated

with gems, covered in gold tempura, or accented in gold leaf. Liturgical objects are very

rich in design and it is easy to see how they would become “treasures” of the church. This

will be a comparison between the Romanesque Liturgical collection at the Metropolitan

Museum of Art in New York and the Spanish Colonial Liturgical collection at the Mint

Museum on Randolph.

Liturgical objects can be placed into two groups: Primary and Secondary. Primary

objects are used in the Eucharist, items such as the vessels to hold the host: the chalice, or

the paten, the plate to hold the bread (the body of Christ). Secondary liturgical objects are

simply the other items used in the celebration of mass not used in the Eucharist: incense

holders and burners, the situla (an elaborately decorated bucket to hold holy water in

medieval churches), the candlesticks, and the bishop‟s crosier (the ornate crook of the

bishop‟s staff).

Margaret English Frazier discusses some of these medieval church treasuries in an

art bulletin titled “Medieval Church Treasuries”. She begins by describing the history of

the Christian Eucharist: “(It) derived from the gospel accounts of the Last

Supper…according to the Gospel of Saint Matthew, (chapter 14, verse 22) „Christ took

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bread, blessed and broke it and gave it to his disciples saying: Take ye and eat. This is my

body. And taking the chalice, he gave thanks, and gave it to his disciples saying: Drink ye

all of this. For this is my blood of the new testament…” (Frazier 9) This supper became

the model and through several centuries of change became the Eucharist in Christian

mass today. An important part of this ritual is the vessels: the chalice for the wine, the

paten for the bread.

Frazier goes on to describe chalices and the changes these vessels went through

as the Christian services changed. The basic form used for Christian chalices is a cup

raised on a stem that is decorated with molding, called a knop, and set on a sturdy base.

“But within this standard, medieval chalices display many variations” (Frazier 10). A

chalice of the thirteenth century from the Abbey of Saint Trudpert (Fig-1) possesses

decoration of Old and New Testament imagery. It differs from chalices of an earlier date

because the bowl is shallower and the stem taller. Beginning in the ninth century,

communion was considered more sacred, thus fewer Christians partook of the service,

with the exception of major feast days like Christmas and Easter. The priest took

Communion for the congregation, thus a smaller chalice was desired. The cup‟s paten is

also quite small because it is made to fit on top of the chalice. The fistula, or the straw

with which the wine was drunk, is also reduced in size. The fistula is an important

liturgical object because “it prevents any possibility that even a drop of wine, or the

Blood of Christ, be accidentally spilled” (Frazier 11).

Another important principle object is the ornately decorated covers of the gospel

books, which we know as the first four chapters of the New Testament. The four gospels

contain the accounts of Christ‟s birth, teachings, miracles, death, and resurrection. They

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are one of the most important texts of the Christian religion. “So important was the

gospel book, that it was the only object allowed on the altar in the Early Christian

Church” (Frazier 13). The gospel book is carried in procession to the altar at the

beginning of Mass, to the pulpit by the deacon who is to read from it, and then at the end

of Mass carried to the treasury, or a place of safe keeping.

Such an important manuscript deserves a precious binding. The symbols of the

four evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) are a popular book decoration because in

Christian tradition they are the authors attributed with the creation of the Gospels in the

New Testament. This ivory carved, ninth century, German or North Italian cover (Fig-3)

is a depiction of the four evangelists surrounding the Lamb of God at the center. One

sees, “Half figures of the four beasts of the Apocalypse, which give glory, honor, and

thanks to God according to the book of Revelation, framed by the arms of a cross”

(Frazier 16).

Matthew, the author of the first gospel account is symbolized by a winged man, or

angel. His gospel starts with Jesus‟ genealogy from Abraham and represents Christ‟s

human nature. Mark, the author of the second gospel account, is symbolized by a winged

lion because he begins his account of the gospel with John the Baptist preaching “like a

lion roaring”. Luke, the author of the third gospel, is symbolized by a winged ox or bull.

A figure of sacrifice, service and strength. Luke‟s account begins with the duties of

Zacharias in the temple and represents Jesus‟ sacrifice in his passion and crucifixion.

John, the author of the fourth gospel account is symbolized by the eagle, a figure believed

to be able to fly straight into the sun, or the heavens. John‟s account describes events of

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another world and a higher symbology than the other three synoptic gospels. It focuses on

Jesus‟ ascension and divine nature.

This 12th

century Spanish fresco once decorated the apse, or the semi-circular area

behind the altar, of Santa Maria Del Mur. The depiction of Christ in Majesty at the center

dominates, the frame, but he is surrounded by the winged symbols of the four evangelists.

We see Matthew and Mark on the left hand side and John above Luke on the right hand

side. Often times in art, depictions of Matthew and John are placed above all else in

images, because their synoptic gospels are considered the most spiritual therefore they

reside closest to heaven.

Another form of popular symbolism would be in the depiction of the figures Peter

and Paul, Christ‟s apostles to the Jews and the Gentiles. The Metropolitan collection also

contains two silver relief plaques, originally partially gilt, of the Byzantine sixth century

(Fig-2), which could have been used as covers for a gospel book. The plaques depict

Peter and Paul standing under decorated arches with peacocks, a symbol for resurrection,

on top of these arches. “The vine scrolls growing from the center of the lower border end

at the top in a cross. Birds perch on branches, from which hang birdcages, which perhaps

symbolize the soul constrained by unbelief” (Frazier 16). On these plaques Paul reads

from an open book and Peter holds a cross staff. Some gospel book covers can be

covered in gems and jewels, and most are decorated with gold leaf trim or gilt in gold, in

Medieval art the more an object shines, the more it reflects light, the more sacred it is,

and the closer the relationship with God. Gospel Books, being an object of importance

retelling the stories of Christ‟s life, needed to be ornately decorated to reflect God.

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Secondary liturgical objects are any of the other vessels necessary for mass but

maybe not necessarily used by the priest or not used during Eucharist. As previously

discussed light is an important aspect of medieval Christian services. “Christ described

himself as the Light of the World” (Frazier 28). At the time that Gothic architecture was

replacing that of the Romanesque, intricately decorated stained glass windows were being

implemented in the churches and without the invention of electric lights, artists were

becoming creative with other means of artificial light. Large candlesticks stood on the

floor, lighting the nave and the aisles of the churches along with oil lamps and “crowns of

light”. While smaller candelabras, in later centuries, were actually placed on the altar for

additional light. “The Early Christian, Byzantine and medieval collections include a

number of lamps of different shapes and sizes that are slightly more modest than the

grand lighting schemes” (Frazier 28). One of the pieces, a very interesting portable light

in the shape of a griffin (Fig-4 top), would be suspended by a chain or placed on a lamp

stand for viewing pleasure and additional light. Medieval artists were interested in the

depiction of beasts or fantastic creatures in art even though they did not quite relate to the

church. Therefore, to adapt this lamp to the church, a cross bearing the symbol for Christ,

was added to its side so that it fit in better with the Christian aesthetic.

Another practice often used in mass that requires a vessel is the burning of

incense. “The burning of incense in Christian use surely evolved from that of the

Romans, who employed it in the cult of the dead and burned it on the altars of gods such

as Bacchus” (Frazier 21). Incense is burned to stimulate the sense of smell. The service of

mass is intended to appeal to each of the five senses. The experience can be seen in the

grandiose art works or the light reflecting through the stained glass windows. It can be

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tasted in the communion. It can be felt in the hard wood of the pew, or the cold tile of the

floor. It can be heard in the choirs, the chanting of the monks, or the gospels of the lord.

Thus the final sense can be stimulated by the burning of the incense.

The following collection of censers date between the Romanesque and Gothic

periods. The standard medieval design of a bowl raised on a base with a perforated lid

(through which the smoke can escape) is depicted in Fig-5 (left). The gothic incense lid,

of the mid twelfth century and gilt bronze (Fig-5 right), is the depiction of a heavenly

Jerusalem according to Margaret English Frazier. Artists, no longer interested in the

traditional rinceau and animal motif, were becoming very creative with their designs.

“The lid imitates the architecture of a church within city walls” (Frazier 21). The smoke

would have escaped through the windows of the church and the final effect would have

been very neat.

Aquamanilia, hand-washing vessels, are interesting objects because they can be

both secular and religious. Peter Barnet of the department of medieval art at the

Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote an article describing the history and function of the

aquamanilia in the archives.

Aquamanile derives from the Latin words aqua, for water, and manus, for hand.

In Mass, the priest will wash his hands twice: once before donning his vestments and then

once again in preparation for the Eucharist. Therefore the aquamanile serves a practical

purpose in holding the water but also as an interesting and elaborate altar decoration. In a

secular setting, in the households of nobility, feasts began and ended with hand washing.

At a time when silverware was not part of the elaborate table décor, hand washing was

imperative, thus the aquamanile appears yet again as a decoration with a function.

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The most popular form of vessel is the shape of the lion. Barnet claims that one

third of the surviving examples of aquamanilia found are of the lion (Medieval

Aquamanilia 2). This could be because of the symbolism associated with the lion. He can

be interpreted as a symbol of Christ, or the personification of chivalric behavior. In fact

most of the aquamanilia in the archives are bronze lions created between 1200 and 1350

in Northern Germany. The next most popular form of vessel is the dragon, conveying

power and strength. The dragon vessels would probably be used in a more secular setting

(a dragon to represent the family‟s power in the community perhaps?) while the lion

would be more practical in a religious setting because of its symbolic connotations.

At a much later date, of the eighteenth century, one can still find items of the

Eucharist decorated with delicate floral and ornate animal motifs. The final objects I will

be discussing are of the Spanish Colonial permanent collection here at The Mint Museum

Randolph.

An incense burner from Peru of the eighteenth century is an excellent example of

a secondary liturgical object, as discussed before, it is not used during Eucharist but

remains important to the church because in the Spanish Catholic church it is believed that

the smoke symbolically carries prayers upwards to heaven. This silver incense burner is

interesting because, as previously viewed in the Romanesque arts, one sees animal

iconography in the church. Here, as the stem of the incense burner one sees a bird with its

wings spread. The species is unknown, though it could be an eagle referencing back to

the fourth gospel account written by John. Perched a top the lid in a more swan-like

position is another bird, graceful and refined. This burner is more like the previous

censers of Medieval Design because it appears more as a chalice, with a stem and cup

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and relates to the beastly motifs of the Romanesque, opposed to the popular architectural

designs of the gothic movement.

The Holy Water Basin, also of Peru, is an excellent example of the ornate floral

motifs that were very popular for the Spanish in the late eighteenth century. The bowl is

comprised of one large scalloped seashell, while the backsplash is an intricate floral

bouquet in repoussé, (meaning the metal was worked from behind).

The next secondary object of interest is a silver altarpiece of Mexico of the 18th

century. In later centuries church altars were often covered with silver plaques,

ornaments, or candlesticks to form a glittering and impressive structure. Much like the

previous examples in the Romanesque arts of Germany and France, in the Spanish

Colonial artworks in Mexico and the Americas the shine and the sparkle of these pieces

related to god and his holy light. These riches, the gold, silver, and gems, also illustrate

the great wealth of the church in the embellishments of the altars and gospel books. In the

instance of the Spanish Colonial Catholics, the new world (the Americas) provided Spain

and its colonies with incredible amounts of these treasures, which were in turn placed in

the church to show their thanks and give back to God.

Thus liturgical objects are the very ornately crafted, highly decorated, and rich

vessels considered to be the “treasures” of the church. With gold, silver, or jewel accents

it is easy to see how these objects can become cherished. Through its many rites and

practices the church requires objects to test the senses and capture the eye and though

they vary in purpose each object is important to the priest, the congregation and to the

celebration of the Eucharist through cherished ritual.

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Bibliography

Barnet, Peter. “Medieval Aquamanilia”. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New

York: the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aqua/hd_aqua.htm (september

2009)

The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin

New Series, Vol. 43, No. 3, Medieval Church Treasuries (Winter, 1985-1986), pp.

1+8-56

Published by: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

http://0-www.jstor.org.library.winthrop.edu/stable/3269069

H a y e s , H o l l y . " S y m b o l s o f t h e F o u r E v a n g e l i s t s i n C h r i s t i a n

A r t . " S a c r e d D e s t i n a t i o n s . 2 0 0 5 . W e b . 1 M a r 2 0 1 1 .

< h t t p : / / w w w . s a c r e d - d e s t i n a t i o n s . c o m / r e f e r e n c e / s y m b o l s -

o f - f o u r - e v a n g e l i s t s > .

Just, Felix. "Symbols of the Four evangelists ." CatholicResources.org. 1999-2009. Web.

1 Mar 2011. <http://catholic-resources.org/Art/Evangelists_Symbols.htm>.

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Fig-1

Fig-2

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Fig-3

Fig-4 (Top)

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Fig-5 (Left/Right)

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