ANCIENTGREECEAPolitical,Social,andCulturalHistory

SarahB.PomeroyHunterCollegeandtheCityUniversityofNewYorkGraduateCenter

StanleyM.BursteinCaliforniaStateUniversity,LosAngeles

WalterDonlanUniversityofCalifornia,Irvine

JenniferTolbertRobertsCityCollegeandtheCityUniversityofNewYorkGraduateCenter

NewYorkOxfordOXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESS1999

iii

OxfordUniversityPress

OxfordNewYorkAthensAucklandBangkokBogotBuenosAiresCalcuttaCapeTownChennaiDaresSalaamDelhiFlorenceHongKongIstanbulKarachiKualaLumpurMadridMelbourneMexicoCityMumbaiNairobiParisSoPauloSingaporeTaipeiTokyoTorontoWarsawandassociatedcompaniesinBerlinIbadan

Copyright1999bySarahB.Pomeroy,StanleyM.Burstein,WalterDonlan,andJenniferTolbertRoberts

PublishedbyOxfordUniversityPress,Inc.198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NewYork10016

OxfordisaregisteredtrademarkofOxfordUniversityPress

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofOxfordUniversityPress.

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AncientGreece:apolitical,social,andculturalhistory/bySarahB.Pomeroy,StanleyM.Burstein,WalterDonlan,JenniferTolbertRoberts.

p.cm.

Includesindex.

ISBN0195097424(cloth).ISBN0195097432(pbk.)

1.GreeceCivilizationTo146B.C.2.Hellenism.I.Pomeroy,SarahB.

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iv

CONTENTS ListofMaps xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii TimeLine xix IEarlyGreeceandtheBronzeAge 1

TheLandofGreece 1 SourcesforEarlyGreekHistory 4 GreeceintheStoneAges 5 TheAncientCivilizationsoftheNearEast 6 GreeceintheEarlyBronzeAge(c.30002100BC) 8 GreeceintheMiddleBronzeAge(c.21001600BC) 9 TheDiscoveryofAegeanCivilization:Troy,Mycenae,

Knossos 11 MinoanSocietyandCulture(c.17001500BC) 12 TheMycenaeans 18 TheEarlyMycenaeans(c.16001400BC) 21 TheLaterMycenaeans(c.14001200BC) 22 TheEndoftheMycenaeanCivilization 37

IITheDarkAgeofGreeceandtheEighthCenturyRenaissance(c.1150700BC) 41 SourcesfortheDarkAge 42 DeclineandRecovery(c.1150900BC) 42 SocietyintheEarlyDarkAge 46

vii

Revival(c.900750BC) 50 HomerandOralPoetry 51 LateDarkAge(Homeric)Society 53

Community,Household,andEconomyintheLateDarkAge 66

TheEndoftheDarkAge(c.750700BC) 71 IIIArchaicGreece(c.700500BC) 82

SourcesfortheSeventhandSixthCenturies 83 TheFormationoftheCityState(Polis) 84 TheEthnos 86 GovernmentintheEarlyCityStates 87 TheColonizingMovement 90 EconomicandSocialDivisionsintheEarlyPoleis 95 Hesiod:TheViewfromBelow 99 TheHopliteArmy 103 TheArchaicAgeTyrants 106 ArtandArchitecture 109 LyricPoetry 116 PhilosophyandScience 121 RelationsBetweenStates 124 PanhellenicInstitutions 127

IVSparta 131 SourcesforSpartanHistoryandInstitutions 131 TheDarkAgeandtheArchaicPeriod 134 TheSpartanSystem 138 DemographyandtheSpartanEconomy 146 SpartanGovernment 149 SpartaandGreece 153 HistoricalChangeinSparta 154 TheSpartanMirage 155

SourcesforEarlyAthens 159 AthensfromtheBronzeAgetotheEarlyArchaicAge 160 TheReformsofSolon 164 PeisistratusandHisSons 169 TheReformsofCleisthenes 174

viii

TheRiseofPersia 178 TheWarsBetweenGreeceandPersia 181

VITheRivalriesoftheGreekCityStatesandtheGrowthofAthenianDemocracy 201 SourcesfortheDecadesAfterthePersianWars 202 TheAftermathofthePersianWarsandtheFoundationof

theDelianLeague 203 TheFirst(Undeclared)PeloponnesianWar(460445BC) 212

PericlesandtheGrowthofAthenianDemocracy 215 LiteratureandArt 219 OikosandPolis 233 TheGreekEconomy 240

VIIGreeceontheEveofthePeloponnesianWar 246 SourcesforGreeceontheEveoftheWar 246 GreeceAftertheThirtyYearsPeace 247 TheBreakdownofthePeace 250 ResourcesforWar 254 IntellectualLifeinFifthcenturyGreece 255 TheLiteratureoftheFifthCentury 260 CurrentsinGreekThoughtandEducation 267 ThePhysicalSpaceofthePolis:AthensontheEveofWar 274

VIIIThePeloponnesianWar 287 SourcesforGreeceDuringthePeloponnesianWar 287 TheArchidamianWar(431421BC) 289 BetweenPeaceandWar 303 TheInvasionofSicily(415413BC) 305 TheWarintheAegeanandtheOligarchicCoupatAthens

(413411BC) 311 FalloutfromtheLongWar 319 TheWarinRetrospect 326

IXTheCrisisofthePolisandtheAgeofShiftingHegemonies 330 SourcesforFourthcenturyGreece 331 PostwarGreeceandtheStruggleforHegemony 332

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LawandDemocracyinAthens 343 TheFourthcenturyPolis 349 PhilosophyandthePolis 353

XPhillipIIandtheRiseofMacedon 371 SourcesforMacedonianHistory 371 EarlyMacedonia 372 MacedonianSocietyandKingship 373 TheReignofPhilipII 377 MacedonianDominationofGreece 388

XIAlexandertheGreat 395 SourcesfortheReignofAlexander 398 ConsolidatingPower 399 FromIssustoEgypt:ConquestoftheEastern

Mediterranean(332331BC) 408 FromAlexandriatoPersepolis:TheKingofAsia(331330 410

BC) TheHighRoadtoIndia:AlexanderinCentralAsia414

IndiaandtheEndoftheDream 419 ReturntotheWest 422

XIIAlexandersSuccessorsandtheCosmopolis 427 ANewWorld 427 SourcesfortheHellenisticPeriod 429 TheStrugglefortheSuccession 431 TheRegencyofPerdiccas 432 ThePrimacyofAntigonustheOneEyed 436 BirthPangsoftheNewOrder(301276BC) 441 ThePlaceofthePolisintheCosmopolis 446 TheMacedonianKingdoms 450 HellenisticSociety 453 AlexandriaandHellenisticCulture 455 SocialRelationsintheHellenisticWorld 463

Epilogue 471 Glossary 476 ArtandIllustrationCredits 490 Index 494

x

LISTOFMAPSANDBATTLEPLANS GreeceandtheAegeanWorld xxviiixxix MycenaeansitesinthethirteenthcenturyBC 26 GreekColonization:750500BC 91 TheAgoraintheArchaicperiod,c.500BC,showingthe

earliestbuildings 115 Peloponnesus 135 Attica 177 ThePersianEmpireintheReignofDarius 183 ThePersianWars 195 TheAthenianEmpire 206 SicilyandsouthernItaly 248 AlliancesattheoutsetofthePeloponnesianWar 256257 TheatersofoperationduringthePeloponnesianWar 290 DiagramofSyracuseandEpipolae 308 MacedoniaanditsNeighbors 374 AlexandersCampaign 396397 PlanoftheBattleofIssus 406 PlanoftheBattleofGaugamela 413 TheGreekviewoftheinhabitedworld 419

TheHellenisticWorld 444445

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PREFACE

ThisbookisdesignedtosharewithreadersarichandcomplexvisionofancientGreecethathasbeenforgedbythecollaborationoffourscholarswithdifferentbackgroundsandvaryinginterests.WeundertookitbecauseofourfrustrationinthesearchforasinglevolumethatprovidedreaderswithacomprehensivehistoryofGreekcivilizationfromitsfirstbeginningsinthesecondmillenniumBCthroughtheHellenisticera.Ithasbeenmorethanaquarterofacenturysincethelastattempttotellthisstoryindepth;allrecenttextbookshaveeitherfocusedonpoliticalandmilitarydevelopmentsoromittedtheHellenisticera.Wehopethatwhatwehavewrittenwillbeusefulandwillgivepleasurebothtothegeneralreaderandtothestudentwhoisaskedtoreaditincollege.WehavestrivedforapaceandalengththataresuitableforacourselastingforasemesteroraquarterdevotedtothehistoryandcivilizationofGreecelongenoughtoprovidedepthanddetail,andshortenoughtoenabletheinstructortoassignprimarysourcesthatwillexpandthestudentsunderstandingofaworldthatisbothfamiliarandalien.Incorporatingthefruitsofthemostrecentscholarship,wehaveaimedforabalancebetweenpolitical,military,social,cultural,andeconomichistory.TheAthenianlawgiverSolon,whosoughttoreconcilethefeudingpoliticalpartiesofhisday,lamentedthatintryingtopleaseeverybodyheseemedtohavepleasednobody.WeareoptimisticthatwewillnotbedriventosuchlamentationsbythechallengeswefacedinourquesttointegratethevariousaspectsofGreekcivilization.

GreekculturewasforgedinthecrucibleoftheBronzeAgecivilizationsthatcroppedupinworldsasdiverseasunifiedEgyptandfragmentedMesopotamia.Absorbingkeyskillsfromthesehighlydevelopedneighborsmetallurgy,forexample,andwritingtheGreeksbuiltadistinctiveculturemarkedbyastonishingcreativity,versatility,andresilience.IntheendthisworlddissolvedasGreekcivilization,havingreachedfromFranceandItalyinthewesttoPakistanintheeast,mergedwithavarietyofotherculturesMacedonian,forexample,Syrian,Iran

xiii

ian,Egyptian,Roman,andfinallyByzantine.GreekbecamethecommonlanguagethroughouttheNearEastandwasthelanguageinwhichthetextscollectedinwhatwecalltheNewTestamentwerewritten.ThroughitsincorporationintotheRomanempireandthefusionofGreekandItalianelementsinmythologyandarchitecture,ahybridcultureknownasClassicalcametoholdanimportantplaceinthetraditionsofEuropeandtheAmericas.

BetweenthedeclineoftheBronzeAgeandthediffusionofGreekculturethroughouttheMediterraneanworld,Greekcivilizationattainedanextraordinaryrichnessmarkedbydiversitywithinunity.TheworldoftheHomericepicstheIliadandtheOdysseywasradicallydifferentfromthatofthefifthandfourthcenturies,yettheepicsremainedthetextsmostcommonlytaughtinschools,andAlexanderwasrumoredtohavecarriedacopyofHomersworkashetraveled,andlamentedthathehadnogreatpoettoimmortalizehimasHomerhadimmortalizedAchilles.Thoughreligioninspiredmuchofarchitecture,literature,andevenathleticcompetitions,whichwereheldtohonorthegods,Greekgovernmentandsocietyoftenseemedtofunctioninanentirelysecularmanner.Marriage,forexample,wasapurelysecularaffair,anddivorcewasnotbelievedtodistressthegodsatall.Thegodswerenowhereandeverywhere.Idealsofequalitywerepreachedbymenwhousuallyownedslavesandbelievedintheinferiorityofwomen.Stolid,warlikeSpartaandcultivated,intellectualAthensconsideredthemselvespolaropposites;ThucydidesencapsulatedmanyofthedifferencesseenfromtheAthenianpointofviewinthefuneralorationforthewardeadheputinthemouthoftheAthenianstatesmanPericles.Yetpeopleinbothcitieslivedbyagriculture,worshippedZeusandtheotherOlympiangods,subjectedwomentomen,believedfirmlyinslavery(providedtheywerenotslavesthemselves!),sacrificedanimals,consideredwaraconstantinhumanlife,preachedanethicofequityamongmalecitizens,cherishedathleticsanddelightedintheOlympicsandothercompetitions,enjoyedpraisingtheruleoflaw,consideredGreekssuperiortononGreeks,andacceptedasaxiomatictheprimacyofthestateovertheindividual.

ThehistoryoftheancientGreeksisoneofthemostimprobablesuccessstoriesinallofworldhistory.AsmallpeopleinhabitingapoorcountryontheperipheryofthecivilizationsofEgyptandtheNearEast,theGreekscreatedoneoftheworldsmostremarkablecultures.Inalmosteveryareaoftheartsandsciencestheymadefundamentalcontributions,andtheirlegacyisstillaliveinwesternandIslamiccivilizations.ThroughouttheRenaissanceandtheeighteenthcentury,Spartawascherishedasthemodelofamixedandthereforestableconstitution.Inthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,moreattentionhasfocusedonAthens,whereitispossibletowitnessthegradualerosionofprivilegebasedonwealthandlineageandthegrowthofdemocraticmachinerylawcodesandcourts,proceduresforselectingofficialsandholdingthemaccountable,andpublicdebatesandvotesonmattersofdomesticandforeignpolicy.AthensandSpartafoughtruinouswarswithoneanother,andthepropensityoftheGreekstatesforfightingoneanothershapedmuchoftheirhistory.ThedevastatingGreekworldwarof431404knownasthePeloponnesianWar(becauseofSpartas

xiv

locationonthepeninsulaofthePeloponnesus)placedadamperontheextraordinaryburstofcreativitythathadmarkedthefifthcenturythetragediesofAeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripides;thecomediesofAristophanes;thebuildingoftheParthenonatAthensandthetempleofZeusatOlympia.Throughoutthispainfuleraandthedecadesthatfollowed,thinkerscontinuedtoexplorethequestionsthathadintriguedGreekintellectualsatleastasfarbackasthesixthcenturytheoriginsoftheuniverseandthemechanismsbywhichitfunctioned;therelationbetweenphysis,nature,andnomos,customorlaw;howandwhatmortalscanknowaboutthegods;whatthesegodsmightwantfrompeople;whetherindeedtrueknowledgewaspossibleforhumans;whatthebestrulesmightbebywhichpeoplecouldlivetogetherinsociety;whatthebestformofeducationwaswhowasmostqualifiedtodirectit,andhowmanycouldprofitfromit;underwhatcircumstancestheruleofasinglewisemanmightafterallbebest.Newquestionswerealsoposedwhetherinvolvementinpoliticsoughtreallytobethefocusofamanslife;whethertheindividualmightfindidentityseparatefromthestate;whetherwarwasworththesacrificesitentailed;andevenwhetherslaveryandthedisfranchisementofwomenwerenecessary(thoughthoseradicalspeculationsdidnotresultinsocialchange).Inevitably,theconquestsofAlexander,themassmarriageshecelebratedbetweenMacedoniansoldiersandwomenfromPersiaandMediain324BC,andthehybridculturethatwasforgedthroughoutwesternAsiaandEuropechallengedconventionalGreekassumptionsabouttheclearlinethatdividedGreeksfromthenonGreekpeoplestheycalledbarbarianspeoplewhoselanguagesoundedlikebar,bar,bar.InsomeofthelandsincorporatedintothenewMacedonianempires,womenenjoyedhigherstatusthaninmostoftheGreekworld,andthissometimesrubbedoffonthecolonialMacedonianaristocracy,changinglongentrenchedmores.

ThecountrythatthepoetByronlabeledthelandoflostgodscontinuestoliveoninthemodernimagination.Itisourhopethatthisbookwillfleshouttheseromanticimageswithhistoricalrealities.DuringthepastdecadesourunderstandingofancientGreecehasvastlyexpanded.Thankstotheworkofagenerationoftalentedscholars,ourknowledgeofnumerousaspectsofGreekhistoryandlifehasbeentransformedandisstillbeingtransformedtoday.ArchaeologyhasrevealedthecriticalimportanceoftheDarkAges,whilecomparativeanthropologyhasilluminatedthenatureofArchaicsocietyandmadecleartheoralcharacterofearlyGreekculture.Atthesametime,socialhistorianshaveveeredawayfromthetraditionalpreoccupationwiththeelite,wholeftwrittenrecordsoftheirdoings,andhavebeentirelessinferretingoutevidencethatthrowslightonthelivesofthosewhodonotgenerallyspeakforthemselveswomen,forexample,andslaves.

Synthesizingtheresultsofthisscholarshiphasbeenanexcitingandchallengingtaskmadepossibleonlybythehelpofmanypeople.Wehave,ofcourse,profitedenormouslyfromtheworkofinnumerablescholarswhosenamesneverappearinourvolume;thatisthenatureofhistoricalwriting.Wearealsogreatlyindebtedto

RobertMilleroftheOxfordUniversityPressandhisenergeticstaffwhodraggedusthroughaseriesofseeminglyimpossibledeadlines,andtothe

xv

readerswhotooktimeoutfrombusyschedulestoexamineourworkandmakenumeroususefulcriticismsandsuggestions.BethCohenandH.AlanShapirogavecarefulscrutinytothevisualimagespresentedherebutareinnowayresponsibleforanyerrorsofjudgmenttheauthorsmayhaveexercised.WearegratefulalsotoJrgenMejerforhisadviceonthePresocraticsandtoMargaretMilesforbringinguptodatetheplanoftheArchaicagoraofAthens.

Finally,wemustthankGailDavis,whoseeditorialsagacityhassmoothedtheroughedgesfromseveralofthesechapters;RobertLejeune,whoofferedcomputerassistancewhenitwasmostneededandenduredourassortedtechnoflubswithremarkablepatience;andMiriamBurstein,whonotonlyundertooktoobtainthenecessarypermissionsfromvariouspublishersbutalsohandledwithgraceandfirmnessthechallengingtaskofremindingusthatwewerewritingforordinarymortals,notomniscientdeities.

Weacknowledgewiththanksthepublisherswhohavegrantedpermissiontoquotetranslations.Unattributedtranslationsinthetextarebytheauthors.

Theauthorswouldalsoliketocallthereadersattentiontotheextensiveglossaryattheend,whichprovidescapsuledescriptionsofmanyofthetermsthatoccurinthebook.

JenniferRoberts,NewYorkCityWalterDonlan,Irvine,California

StanleyBurstein,LosAlamitos,CaliforniaSarahPomeroy,NewYorkCity

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSTheauthorswishtoacknowledgethefollowingpublishersfortheirkindpermissiontoreprintmaterialfromtheirpublications. AmericanHistoricalAssociation:FromTheHellenisticPeriodinWorldHistory,by

StanleyM.Burstein.Copyright1996. Aris&Phillips,Ltd.:FromPlato:Phaedrus,editedandtranslatedbyC.J.Rowe.

Copyright1988. CambridgeUniversityPress:FromTheHellenisticAgefromthebattleofIpsostothe

deathofKleopatraVII,editedandtranslatedbyStanleyM.Burstein.Copyright1985.

ColumbiaUniversityPress:FromZenonPapyri.BusinessPapersoftheThird

CenturyB.C.DealingwithPalestineandEgypt,vol.2,editedbyW.L.Westermann,C.W.Keyes,andH.Liebesny.Copyright1940.

HarvardUniversityPressandtheLoebClassicalLibrary:FromIsocrates,vol.1,translatedbyGeorgeNorlin.Copyright1928.

JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:FromHesiod:WorksandDays,translatedbyApostolosN.Athanassakis.Copyright1983.FromPindarsVictorySongs,translatedbyFrankNisetich.Copyright1980.

OxfordUniversityPress:FromTheRepublicofPlato,translatedbyFrancisMacDonaldCornford.Copyright1945.FromThePoliticsofAristotle,translatedbyErnestBarker.Copyright1946.FromXenophon:Oeconomicus:Asocialandhistoricalcommentary,editedandtranslatedbySarahB.Pomeroy.Copyright1994.

PenguinBooks:FromPlutarch:TheAgeofAlexander,translatedbyIanScottKilvert.Copyright1973.From:PlutarchonSparta,translatedbyRichardTalbert.Copyright1988.

SchockenBooks:FromGreekLyricPoetry,translatedbyWillisBarnstone.Copyright1972.

UniversityofCaliforniaPress:FromSapphosLyre,translatedbyDianeJ.Rayor.Copyright1991.

UniversityofChicagoPress:FromAeschylus:ThePersians,translatedbyS.BernardeteandAeschylus:TheOresteia,translatedbyR.LattimoreinTheCompleteGreekTragedies,

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vol.1,editedbyD.GreneandR.Lattimore.Copyright1959.FromAntigone,translatedbyElizabethWyckoffinGreekTragedies,Vol.1,editedbyDavidGreneandRichmondLattimore.FromTheHistoryofHerodotus,translatedbyDavidGrene.Copyright1987.FromTheIliadofHomer,translatedbyR.Lattimore.Copyright1951.

UniversityofOklahomaPress:FromAlexandertheGreatandtheGreeksbyA.J.Heisserer.Copyright1980.

W.W.NortonandCompany,Inc.:FromHerodotus:TheHistories,editedbyWalterBlancoandJenniferTolbertRoberts,translatedbyWalterBlanco.Copyright1992.FromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,editedbyWalterBlancoandJenniferTolbertRoberts,translatedbyWalterBlanco.Copyright1998.

YaleUniversityPress:FromRoyalCorrespondenceintheHellenisticPeriod:AStudyinGreekEpigraphy,editedandtranslatedbyC.B.Welles.Copyright1934.

xviii

TIMELINE

Political/ CulturalPeriod MilitaryEvents SocialEvents Development

65003000Neolithic

Permanentfarmingvillages

Domesticationofplantsandanimals;pottery

30002100EarlyBronzeAge(EarlyHelladic28001900)

Socialrankingemerges;villagesanddistrictsruledbyhereditarychiefs

2500WidespreaduseofbronzeandothermetalsinAegean

21001600MiddleBronzeAge(MiddleHelladic19001580)

21001900Lernaandothersitesdestroyed

21001900IncursionsofIndoEuropeanspeakersintoGreece

21001900IndoEuropeangodsintroducedintoGreece

2000FirstpalacesinCrete

1900MainlandcontactswithCreteandtheNearEast

1800CretansdevelopLinearAwriting

16001150LateBronzeAge(LateHelladic15801150)

1600Mycenaeandothersitesbecomepowercenters;smallkingdomsemerge

1600Shaftgraves

continued

xix

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

15001450MycenaeanstakeoverCrete

1500Tholostombs

1450LinearBwriting

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

1375Knossosdestroyed14001200HeightofMycenaeanpowerandprosperity

1400NewpalacesinGreece

12501225TheTrojanWar

1200Invaderslootandburnthepalacecenters

12001100Palacesystemcollapses

1200Culturaldecline

1150900EarlyDarkAge(Submycenaean11251050)(Protogeometric1050900)

1050Smallchiefdomsestablished;migrationsofmainlandGreekstoIonia

1050Irontechnology

1000DorianGreekssettledinthemainlandandtheislands

1000MonumentalbuildingatLefkandi

900750LateDarkAge(EarlyGeometric900850)(MiddleGeometric850750)

900Populationincreases;newsettlementsestablished;tradeandmanufactureexpand

800Rapidpopulationgrowth

800Greeksdevelopanalphabet;earliesttemplesbuilt

776TraditionaldateoffirstOlympiangames

750490ArchaicPeriod(LateGeometric750700)

730700FirstMessenianWar;LelantineWar

750700Citystatesemerge

750720IliadandOdysseycomposed

750OverseascolonizationtotheWestbegins

720Orientalizingperiodinartbegins

continued

xx

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

700650Evolutionofhoplitearmorandtactics

700Hesiod;periodoflyricpoetrybegins

669BattleofHysiae670500Tyrantsruleinmanycitystates

650SecondMessenianWar

650ColonizationofBlackSeaareabegins;earliestknownstoneinscriptionofalaw;LycurganReformsatSparta;theGreatRhetra(?)

650Templesbuiltofstoneandmarble;Corinthianblackfiguretechnique

632CylonfailsinattemptattyrannyinAthens

620LawcodeofDracoinAthens

600Lydiansbegintomintcoins

600Beginningsofscienceandphilosophy(thePresocratics)

582573Pythian,Isthmian,Nemeangamesinaugurated

560514PeisistratusandhissonstyrantsofAthens

PeisistratusexpandsreligiousfestivalsatAthens

550SpartadominantinthePeloponnesus

530Athenianredfiguretechnique

507CleisthenesinstitutespoliticalreformsinAthens

499IonianGreeksrebelfromPersianEmpire

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

continued

xxi

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

494DefeatofArgosbyPeloponnesianLeagueinBattleofSepea

5thcenturyrationalistsandscientists;Hippocrates;advancesinmedicine;increaseinliteracy

490323ClassicalPeriod

490BattleofMarathon

489TrialofMiltiadesClassicalstyleinsculpture

486DecisiontochooseAthenianarchonsbylot

483OstracismofAristides

480479BattlesofThermopylae,Artemisium,Salamis,Plataea,Mycale;XerxesdrivenfromGreece

477FoundationofDelianLeague

470456ConstructionoftempleofZeusatOlympia

GrowthofdemocracyinAthens;ThemistoclesdrivenoutofAthens,fleestoPersia

463HelotrebellioninSparta

460sProminenceofCimon

461ReformsofEphialtesat

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

Athens;Periclesrisestoprominence

460445FirstPeloponnesianWar

458AeschylusOresteia

454AtheniansmovetreasuryfromDelostoAthens

continued

xxii

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

FlourishingofGreektradeandmanufacture

451PericlescarrieslawlimitingcitizenshipatAthens

HerodotusatworkonhisHistories

447432ConstructionofParthenonatAthens

SophistsactiveinAthens

431404PeloponnesianWar

ThucydidesbeginshisHistory

429DeathofPericles428SophoclesOedipusTyrannus

425AristophanesAcharnians

423ThucydidesexiledfromAthens

422DeathsofBrasidas,Cleon

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development 421PeaceofNicias

415413Siciliancampaign 415EuripidesTrojanWomen

411410OligarchiccoupinAthens;establishmentofCouncilof400;regimeofthe5000

411AristophanesLysistrata

407AscendanceofDionysusIatSyracuse

403377SpartathemostpowerfulstateinGreece

404403RegimeoftheThirtyTyrantsinAthens

399TrialandexecutionofSocrates

399347DialoguesofPlato;foundationoftheAcademy

xxiii

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

395387CorinthianWar

Fourthcentury:RiseofclassofrhetoresatAthens;economicinequalitiesandsocialstasisthroughoutGreece

377EstablishmentofSecondAthenianNavalConfederacy

377371AthensthemostpowerfulstateinGreece

371ThebanvictoryoverSpartansatLeuctra

371362Thebesthemostpowerful

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

DevelopmentstateinGreece

SeriouspopulationdeclineinSparta;impoverishedclassofInferiorsatSparta;increasingamountofpropertyinhandsofSpartanwomen

359DefeatofPerdiccasIII359AccessionofPhilipII

357SiegeofAmphipolis357MarriageofPhilipIItoOlympias

357355SocialWar

356BirthofAlexandertheGreat;outbreakofThirdSacredWar

356PhilipIIsOlympicvictory

355Demosthenesfirstspeech

352BattleofCrocusField 348CaptureofOlynthus 347DeathofPlato

346EndofThirdSacredWar;PeaceofPhilocrates

346IsocratesPhilippus

xxiv

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

340AthensandMacedon

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Developmentatwar

338BattleofChaeronea

338AssassinationofArtaxerxesIII;foundationofCorinthianLeague;marriageofPhilipIIandCleopatra

338DeathofIsocrates

338325AdministrationofLycurgusatAthens

336InvasionofAsiabyPhilipII

336AccessionofDariusIII;assassinationofPhilipII;accessionofAlexanderIII

335RevoltofThebes335DestructionofThebes

335AristotlereturnstoAthens;foundingofLyceum

334BattleofGranicus

333BattleofIssus333AlexanderatGordium

331BattleofGaugamela

331FoundationofAlexandria

331VisittoSiwahbyAlexander

330327WarinBactriaandSogdiana

330DestructionofPersepolis;deathofPhilotas

329AssassinationofDariusIII

328MurderofClitus

327325AlexandersinvasionofIndia

327MarriageofAlexanderandRoxane

326BattleoftheHydaspes

324ExilesDecress 32330Hellenistic

323DeathofAlexanderIII;

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

DevelopmentPeriod accessionofPhilipIII

andAlexanderIV

xxv

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

323322LamianWar322DissolutionoftheCorinthianLeague

322DeathsofAristotleandDemosthenes

321InvasionofEgypt321DeathofPerdiccas;Antipaterbecomesregent

321292CareerofMenander

318316RevoltagainstPolyperchon

317DemetriusofPhaleronbecomestyrantofAthens

315311FouryearwaragainstAntigonus

315FreedomofGreeksproclaimedbyAntigonustheOneEyed

311PeacebetweenAntigonusandhisrivals

307DemetriusinvadesGreece

307EndoftyrannyofDemetriusofPhalerumatAthens

307283FoundationoftheMuseum

306BattleofSalamis306AntigonusandDemetriusacclaimedkings

306EpicurusfoundsGarden

305304SiegeofRhodes

305Ptolemy,Seleucus,Lysimachus,andCassanderdeclarethemselveskings

301BattleofIpsus301DeathofAntigonus;divisionofhisempire

301ZenofoundsStoa

300246ConstructionofthePharos

283DeathofPtolemyI;

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

DevelopmentaccessionofPtolemyII

281BattleofCorupedium

281DeathsofLysimachusandSeleucus

279InvasionofGauls

237222ReignofCleomenesIIIatSparta

xxvi

Period MilitaryEventsPolitical/

SocialEventsCultural

Development

222BattleofSellasia222ExileofCleomenesIII;endofhisreformsatSparta

200197SecondMacedonianWar

196FlamininusproclaimsfreedomoftheGreeksatIsthmiangames

171168ThirdMacedonianWar

167EndoftheMacedonianmonarchy

167PolybiuscomestoRome

146SackofCorinth146RomeannexesMacedonandGreece

31BattleofActium

30SuicideofCleopatraVII;RomeannexesEgypt

xxvii

GreeceandTheAegeanWorld

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1EARLYGREECEANDTHEBRONZEAGE

OneofthegreatestoftheGreekculturalheroeswasOdysseus,amanwhosawthetownsofmanymenandlearnedtheirminds,andsufferedinhisheartmanygriefsuponthesea...(Odyssey1.34).Liketheirlegendaryhero,theGreekswereirresistiblydrawntodistantshores.Fromearlyintheirhistoryandcontinuallythroughoutantiquitytheyventuredovertheseastoforeignlandsseekingtheirfortunesastraders,colonizers,andmercenarysoldiers.TheirlimitednaturalresourcesforcedtheGreekstolookoutward,andtheywerefortunateinbeingwithineasyreachoftheMediterraneanshoresofAsia,Africa,andEurope.BythefifthcenturyBC,theyhadplantedcoloniesfromSpaintothewestcoastofAsiaandfromnorthAfricatotheBlackSea.ThephilosopherPlato(c.429347BC)likenedthehundredsofGreekcitiesandtownsthatringedthecoastsoftheMediterraneanandBlackseastofrogsaroundapond(Phaedo109b).ThosefarflungGreeksleftapricelesslegacyofachievementsinart,literature,politics,philosophy,mathematics,science,andwar.Theirstoryisalongandfascinatingone.

THELANDOFGREECE

AhistoryoftheGreeks(Hellnes)mustbeginwiththeland,forthenaturalenvironmentofapeoplethelandscape,theclimate,andthenaturalresourcesisamajorfactorindeterminingthewaytheyliveandhowtheydevelopsocially.Greece(Hellas)occupiesthesouthernportionoftheBalkanpeninsula,whichjutsfarintotheeasternMediterraneanSea.ItsreachwasfurtherextendedbytheGreekislandstothewestandeastofthemainland,embracingthelargeislandsofCreteandRhodestothesouth.

GreeceisaboutthesizeofEnglandinGreatBritainorthestateofAlabamaintheUnitedStates.Thelandscapeisveryrugged,withmountainscoveringalmost75percentoftheland.Onlyabout30percentofthelandcanbecultivatedatall,

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andonlyabout20percentisclassifiedasgoodagriculturalland.Exceptinthenorthernmainland,wherethereareextensiveplainlands,themountainsandlowerhillscutthelandintomanynarrowcoastalplains,anduplandplainsandvalleys.Themountainranges,whicharenotterriblyhigh(30008000feet)butquitesteepandcraggy,madeoverlandtravelverydifficultinantiquity,andsomewhatisolatedthesmallvalleysandtheirpeoplefromoneanother.Byfartheeasiestwaytotravelwasbysea,especiallyintheislandsandthesouthernmainland,wherethecoastisnevermorethan40milesaway.ThechainsofislandsintheAegeanSeafacilitatedseavoyages.Itistruethattheruggedcoastlinesofferrelativelyfewgoodharbors,andthosechoicelocationswerecontinuouslyoccupiedfromearliesttimes.Yetsailors

wereseldomfarfromsafelandfalls,wheretheycouldbeachtheirboatsforthenightorfindhavenfromathreateningstorm.Throughoutantiquity,thenarrowAegeantiedtheGreekstotheNearEastandEgypt,commercially,culturally,politically,andmilitarily.Thecommercialcontactswerevital,for,withtheexceptionofbuildingstoneandclay,Greeceisnotwellendowedwithrawmaterials.Thenecessitytotradeoverseasforrawmaterials,especiallyforbronze,destinedtheGreeksveryearlyintheirhistorytotaketotheseaandminglewithpeoplefromtheother,oldercivilizationstotheeastandsouth.

TheMediterraneanclimateissemiarid,withlong,hot,drysummersandshort,cool,moistwinters,whenmostoftherainfalls.ThisgeneralpatternvariesfromregiontoregioninGreece.NorthernGreecehasamorecontinentalclimate,withmuchcolderandwetterwintersthanthesouth.MorerainfallsonthewesternsideoftheGreekmainlandthanontheeasternside,whiletheAegeanislandsreceiveevenless.Thegenerallymildweatherpermittedoutdooractivityformostoftheyear.ThesoilinGreecethoughrockyisfairlyrich,themostfertileplowlandbeinginthesmallplainswhere,overtheages,earthwasheddownfromthehillshasformeddeepdeposits.Thelowerhillsides,whicharerockier,canbecultivatedthroughterracing,whichpreventsthesoilfromwashingfurtherdowntheslopeandcapturessoilfromabove.Themountains,withtheirjaggedlimestonepeaksandsteepcliffs,supportonlywildvegetation,butsomeenclosemountainvalleyssuitableforfarmingandforgrazinganimals.Wood,essentialforfuelandconstruction,especiallyshipbuilding,wasoriginallyabundantinthehighlandareas.Astimewenton,however,forestsbecamedepletedandbythefifthcenturyBCthemorepopulousregionswereforcedtoimporttimber.Water,themostpreciousnaturalresource,isscarceinGreece,becausethereareveryfewriversthatflowyearroundandfewlakes,ponds,andsprings.UnlikeinthehugerivervalleysofEgyptandMesopotamia,irrigationonalargescalewasnotpossible;farmingdependedonthelimitedannualrainfall.

ItshouldbeemphasizedthatthisdescriptionofthelandandresourcesofGreeceisageneralizedone.Thoughsmallinarea,Greecehasavarietyoflocallandscapesandmicroclimatesinwhichtherainfall,thequantityandqualityoffarmland,thepastureland,andrawmaterialsaredecidedlydifferent.Onthewhole,however,theland,whichtheGreekscalledGaia(MotherEarth),allowedthemajorityofthefarmersadecentthoughmodestliving.Butsheoffered

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noguarantees.Drought,especiallyinthemoreandregions,wasaconstantanddreadedthreat.Adrywintermeantaleanyear,andaprolongeddroughtmeanthungerandpovertyforentirevillagesanddistricts.Torrentialrainstorms,ontheotherhand,couldsendwaterrushingdownthehillsidesandthroughthedrygullies,suddenlywipingouttheterraces,floodingthefields,anddestroyingthecrops.Life

ontheseawasequallyunpredictable.TheAegean,thoughoftencalmwithfavoringwinds,couldjustassuddenlyboilupintoferociousstormssendingships,cargo,andsailorstothebottom.(Drowningatsea,unburied,wasahatefuldeathfortheGreeks.)Itisnowonder,consideringtheextenttowhichtheGreekswereatthemercyoftheland,sky,andsea,thatthegodstheyworshippedwerepersonificationsoftheelementsandforcesofnature.

FoodandLivestock

Ingeneral,thesoilandclimateamplysupportedtheMediterraneantriadofgrain,grapes,andolives.Bread,wine,andoliveoilwerethestaplesoftheGreekdietthroughoutantiquityandforlongafterward.Grainswheat,barley,andoatsgrowwellinGreeksoil,havingbeencultivatedfromnativewildgrasses.Olivetreesandgrapevines,alsoindigenoustoGreece,flourishedintheircultivatedstate.Legumes(peasandbeans)andseveralkindsofvegetables,fruits(especiallyfigs),andnuts,roundedoutandvariedthebasiccomponentsofbread,porridges,andoliveoil.Cheese,meat,andfish,whicharerichinproteinsandfat,supplementedthediet;however,meatprovidedaverysmallpartoftheaveragefamilysdailyfoodintake,andbecausefisharenotabundantintheMediterranean,theywereusuallyeatenasasmallrelishwiththemeal.TheGreeksdidnotlikebutteranddranklittlemilk.Theirbeverageswerewaterorwine(usuallydilutedwithwater).Honeywasusedforsweetening,andvariousspicesenhancedtheflavoroffood.Thoughitmightappearmonotonoustomoderntastes,theGreekdietwashealthfulandnourishing.

Thepasturingofsmallanimalsdidnotinterferewithagriculture.Flocksofsheepandgoatsgrazedonhillylandthatcouldnotbefarmedandonthefallowfields,providingmanureinreturn.Assuppliersofwool,cheese,meat,andskins,theyhadgreateconomicimportance.TheGreeksalsokeptpigs,relishedfortheirmeat,andfowl.Thetwolargestdomesticatedanimals,horsesandcattle,occupiedaspecialnicheintheeconomyandthesociety.Oxen(castratedbulls)ormules(hybridsofthehorseanddonkey)werenecessaryforplowingandfordrawingheavyloads.Afarmerwithoutreadyaccesstoayokeofoxenorapairofmuleswouldbeclassifiedaspoor.Herdsofcattleandhorsesdidcompetewithagriculture,sincethestretchesofgoodgrazinglandtheyrequiredwerealsoprimefarmland.Practicallyspeaking,therecouldbelargescaleranchingofcattleandhorses(exceptinthenorthernplains)onlyintimesoflowpopulationdensity.Becausetheyweresuchcostlyluxuries,cattleandhorseswereastatussymbolfortherich.Cattlewereraisedmainlyfortheirmeatandhides.Horsesweretheprimarymarkersofhighsocialstatus:beautifulcreatures,veryexpensivetomaintain,andusefulonlyforridingandforpullinglightchariots.

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ThisagriculturalandpastoralwayofliferemainedessentiallyunchangedthroughoutGreekhistory.ThefundamentaleconomicfactthatancientGreecewasessentiallyalandofsmallscalefarmers(mostofwhomlivedinfarmingvillagesandsmalltowns)governedeveryaspectofGreeksociety,frompoliticstowartoreligion.IthasbeenestimatedthateveninthefifthtothirdcenturiesBC,thepeakpopulationperiod,upto90percentofthecitizensofacitystatewereengagedinagriculture.OneofthemajorunifyingforceswithintheGreekcitystateswasthecitizenfarmersdevotiontotheirsmallagriculturalplainanditssurroundinghillsides,andtheirwillingnesstodiedefendingtheirancestralearth,asthepoetHomercalledit.AndtheprimarydisunifyingforcethroughoutGreekhistorywastheperpetualtensionbetweenthosecitizenswhohadmuchlandandthosewhohadlittleornone.

SOURCESFOREARLYGREEKHISTORY

TruehistoryinthesenseofspecificeventsinvolvingspecificpersonswouldnotbeginuntiltheseventhcenturyBC,whenwritingmadeitpossibletorecordwhatwashappeningintheGreekworld.Knowledgeofwhathadhappenedearliercameintheformofancientmythoi(stories),whichweretransmittedorallyfromgenerationtogenerationforhundredsofyears.TheancientGreekhistoriansacceptedthesemyths,manyofwhichhadbeencommittedtowriting,ashistoricalfactandusedthemtoreconstructtheearlyhistoryoftheGreeks.Modernhistorians,however,realizinghowmucholdstoriescanchangeintheircountlessretellings,aregenerallyskepticaloftheirhistoricalvalue,althoughitispossiblethatsomeofthemcontainelementsoftruth.

TheprimarylegendoftheGreekpastwasthestoryoftheTrojanWar,atenyearassaultagainstthelargefortifiedcityofTroyinnorthwestAnatolia(modernTurkey)byahugearmadaofGreeksledbyAgamemnon,kingofMycenae,alargecityinthePeloponnesus.Ifsuchawarhadactuallyoccurred(modernhistoriansaredividedonthequestion),itwouldhavetakenplaceduringthethirteenthcenturyBC,attheheightofBronzeAgeprosperityandmilitarymight.ForlaterGreeks,thechiefrepositoriesofknowledgeconcerningtheworldoftheTrojanWarweretheIliadandtheOdyssey,twolongnarrativepoemsattributedtoHomer,thepoetwhomtheyregardedasthegreatestofall.Thepoems,however,werecomposedfivecenturiesafterthetimeoftheTrojanWar,around750to700BC.TheycorrectlyportrayedtheeraoftheTrojanWarasoneofgreatwealthandarchitecturalsplendor,butinthelongprocessoforaltransmissiontheactualsocietyoftheLateBronzeAgewascompletelyforgotten.Thetypeofsocietyreflectedinthepoemsisinfactmuchcloserintimetothatofthepoet.

ThediscrepancybetweenthewaytheeighthcenturyGreeksimaginedtheworldoftheBronzeAgeandwhatthatworldwasreallylikehasbeenrevealedbyarchaeologicaldiscoveries.AlmosteverythingweknowofearlyGreecehascome

fromthestudyoftheexcavatedremains.Scientificorsystematicarchaeology(thestudyofarchaia,ancientthings)goesbackalittlemorethanacentury.

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Beforethelatenineteenthcenturyantiquarianshadtunneledandduginancientgravesandsettlements,buttheywereprimarilyinterestedinuncoveringpreciousartobjects,notinusingtheartifactsandotherfindstoreconstructthenatureandhistoryoftheexcavatedsite.Today,archaeologyisascience,whichemployshighlysophisticatedmethodsandequipmenttowringeverybitofinformationfromthematerialremains.Ithascomealongwayfromtheearlyorganizedexpeditions,whosetechniquesappearcrudebytodaysstandards.Yet,wemustadmiretheachievementsofthosepioneerarchaeologistswho,inventingthedisciplineastheywentalong,werethefirsttouncoveranddescribetheancientcivilizationsoftheNearEast,Egypt,andGreece.

Thankstothescienceofarchaeology,scholarstodayknowinfinitelymoreaboutthesocietyandcultureofearlyGreecethandidtheancientGreeksthemselves,whoknewitonlythroughthemythsandlegends.Evenso,manyquestionsremainunansweredoronlypartiallyanswered.Prehistoricarchaeologyhasonlythesilentfragmentsofancientcivilizations.Thesitesareburieddeepunderthesurface,eachlevelofhabitationcrushedundertheenormouspressureofthesucceedinglayersanderodedbytimeandtheforcesofnature.Bypiecingtogethertheevidence(inmanycasesliterally),archaeologistscanreconstructwithfairaccuracythematerialaspectsoflifeandsociety.Itismuchmoredifficult,however,tomakeinferencesaboutsocialbehaviorandbeliefsfromthearchaeologicalremains.Inthisrespect,Aegeanarchaeologistsarefortunate,fortheyhavenotonlyalargeamountbutalsoawidevarietyofmaterialfromwhichtoreconstructthesociety,includingpaintedpottery,murals,engravings,sculptures,and,mostimportant,writtenrecords,preservedonclaytablets.ThosekindsofevidencehaveaddedimmeasurablytoourunderstandingoftheearlyGreekculture.

GREECEINTHESTONEAGES

ThearchaeologyofprimitiveGreecehasmadegreatstridesinthiscentury;nevertheless,thesparselypopulatedStoneAgesremainveryobscure.HumanshavelivedinGreecesinceatleasttheMiddlePaleolithic(OldStone)Age(c.55,00030,000BC).Theseearliestinhabitantslivedmainlybyhuntingandsomegatheringofwildplants,usingfinelycraftedtoolsandweaponsofstone,wood,andbone.AttheendoftheIceAge,whentheglaciersthathadcoveredmuchofEuropewerereceding(c.12,000BC),theclimateofGreecewarmedconsiderably;intheprocessthelandscapeanditsplantsandanimalswerealteredintotheirpresentforms.EvidencefromacaveinsouthernGreece,ataplacecalledFranchthi,showsthatthe

inhabitantsattheendoftheIceAgehunteddeerandsmallergame,caughtfishinthecoastalwaters,andgatheredwildcereals,wildpeasandbeans,andnuts.Theyprobablyalsohadsomeexperiencewithgoingtoseainsmallboatsmadeofreedsandskins.

EarlyintheNeolithic(NewStone)Age(c.65003000BC)thepeoplelearnedtocultivatethewildcerealsandotherplantsandtodomesticateanimals,beginning

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thefarmingandherdingeconomythatwastobethemainstayofGreeklifeuntilthemodernera.Thisnewwayoflife,whichrepeatedaprocessthathadbegunintheNearEastnearlytwothousandyearsearlier,mayhavebeenintroducedbynewcomersfromwesternAnatolia.Thecultivationofplantsisawatershedeventinthelivesofapeople.Itallowspopulationtoincreaseandforcesthemtosettledownpermanently.TheNeolithicAgesawthefirstappearanceofsmall,permanentfarmingvillages,madeupofoneroomhousessimilarinconstructiontothoseoftheNearEast.Houseswerebuiltofsundriedmudbrickslaidoverlowstonefoundations,withfloorsofstampedearthandflatorpitchedroofsmadeofthatchorbrush.TheNeolithichousestyleandthecustomofclusteringhousestogetherinsmallcommunitieswouldpersistwithlittlechangeformillenniainGreeceandtheNearEast.InthefavorableconditionsofthewarmNewStoneAge,villagesgrewlargerandnewvillagecommunitieswereformed.

ThesocialorganizationofthesmallStoneAgevillageswasprobablyverysimple.Familiescooperatedandsharedwiththeirneighbors,mostofwhomwerealsotheirkinfolk.Wemayassumethatbythistimedivisionoflaborbygenderandageandthedominanceofmalesoverfemaleshadbecomeestablished,andalthoughnooneindividualorfamilyheldadominantposition,temporaryleadershipwasprobablyassumednowbythisman,nowbyanother,astheneedarose.Atacertainpointinthegrowthofpopulation,however,leadershiprolesemergedthatweremoreformalandmorelasting.Thissemipermanentpositionofleadershipwasheldbyatypeofpersonanthropologistscallthebigmanortheheadman,onewhoisbetteratgettingthingsdone.Hisforceofcharacter,senseofresponsibility,wisdominsolvingdisputes,courageinthefaceofdanger,andlikequalitiespropelhimtothefrontandkeephimthere.Intimethispositionbecomesasortofoffice,intowhichanewman,havingdemonstratedthatheisbettersuitedthantheotherwouldbeleaders,stepswhentheoldheadmanretiresordies(orispushedout).ThatthiskindofpoliticalandsocialrankingoccurredintheNeolithicperiodisalmostcertain.Thereafter,thedivisionintotwogroups,theverysmallgroupofthosewholedandthelargegroupofthosewhowereled,wouldbeapermanentfeatureofGreekpoliticallife.

THEANCIENTCIVILIZATIONSOFTHENEAREAST

WhileranksocietieswereevolvinginGreeceandelsewhereontheEuropeancontinent,anewkindofsocietywasforminginwesternAsiaandnorthernAfrica:thestateandcivilization.WhentheGreeksattainedahighcivilization(around1600BC),thecivilizedculturesoftheNearEastandEgyptwerealready1500yearsold.ThedirectteachersoftheGreekswouldbetheCretans,whohadattainedthislevelbyabout2000BC,butthegrowthofcivilizationonCretewasitselfaproductofcontactwiththeoldercivilizations.ThehistoryofancientGreekcivilizationisentwinedwiththecivilizationsoftheEast.

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TheregionwheretheearliestcivilizationemergedwascalledbylaterGreeksMesopotamia,thelandbetweentheriversTigrisandEuphrates.Inthatwide,fertileriverplaintheabilitytoorganizeandcontrolthenaturalandsocialenvironmentswasadvancingtoahigherlevelaround3500BC.Thereappeared,forthefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheworld,largescaleirrigation,metaltechnology,largecities,bureaucraticadministration,complextradenetworks,andwriting.

MostofthesenewfeatureshadtheirrootsinearlierMesopotamianculture.Theprogressiontocivilizationwastheresultoftheconcurrentadvancementandinteractionofcertainfeatures,whichcreatedaspiralingeffect.Advancementsinthetechnologyofirrigationincreasedfoodproduction,whichenabledpopulationtoincreasefurther.Theresponsibilityoftheleaderstomobilizelaborandresourcesforincreasinglyambitiousirrigationprojectsgavethemmorepowerandturnedthemintoaprivilegedrulingclass,sharplydifferentiatedfromthemassofthepeople.Thegrowingappetiteofthegoverningelitesforluxurygoodsbefittingtheirhighstatusincreasedthequantityandqualityofmanufactureathomeandledtotherapidexpansionoflongdistancetradeforrawmaterialsandexoticitems.Thesegoodswerepaidforwitheverincreasingsurplusesfromtheland,moreandmoreofwhichcameunderthecontroloftherulers.

TheEgyptiancivilization,whichemergedaround3200BCalongthelong,narrowvalleyoftheNile,followedthesametrajectoryascivilizationsoftheNearEast,exceptthatveryearlyonEgyptbecameaunitedkingdomunderasinglepharaoh(king).TheAegeancivilizationsofCreteandGreecewouldpatternthemselvesontheNearEasternmodelofseparatecitystatesandkingdoms.

CityStatesandKingdoms

InMesopotamia,asadvancesweremadeinagriculturalproduction,townswithhundredsofpeoplegrewintocitieswiththousands,andeventensofthousands,ofinhabitants.Inthefertileirrigatedareas,thelargestandmostpowerfulcity

dominatedthetownsandvillagesanddrewthemintoasinglepoliticalunit,administeredfromthecapital.Theterritoriesofthoseearliestcitystates,astheyarecalled,werefairlysmall,usuallynomorethanafewhundredsquaremiles;yetthestepfromaloosecommunityoftownsandvillagesintoacentralizedstatechangedthecourseofhumanhistory.

Withcivilization,societybecamehighlystratified.Theleaderandhisimmediatesubordinatesmadeallthedecisions,whichwerecarriedoutbylowerstatusofficialsandtheirassistants.Thewidebaseofthesocialpyramidwasmadeupoftheprimaryproducers,freefarmersandherdsmen,whowererequiredtogivetothestate(i.e.,thepalace)aportionoftheirannualproduction,contributetheirlabortoirrigationandconstructionprojects,andserveinthearmy.Manyofthemweredependentsoftherulingclass,workingastenantsonlandthatbelongedtothepalaceandtothetemplesofthegods.Somecraftsmenalsoworkeddirectlyforthestate.Attheverybottom,belowthefreebutdependentpopulation,wereslaves.Althoughslaverypredatedtheadventofciviliza

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tion,itwasonlyaftertheformationofthestatethatitbecameeconomicallyimportantandpracticedonalargescale.

TheformationofstatestransformedMesopotamiansocietyinallsortsofways.Artistryandcraftsmanshipmadegiganticstrides,writingwasinvented,architecturetookonamonumentalcharacter.Alloftheseculturalrefinementsservedtheelitesastoolsofsocialcontrol.Thekingsandthehighnobles,usingahugeportionofthesurpluswealthfromagriculture,manufacture,andtrade,aswellasmillionsofhoursofhumanlabor,builtmassivedefensivewallsandtemples,andluxuriouspalacesandelaboratetombsforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Architectureespeciallyservedreligion,whichbecamethemostimportantmeansofcontrol,foritidentifiedthewilloftherulerwiththewillofthegods.Vastwealthandincreasedpopulationallowedbattlestobefoughtonalargescalebywellorganizedarmies;andwarprogressedfromspontaneousactionsinspiredbyrevengeorgreedforbootyintodeliberatecampaignsofpunishmentorconquestbyoneruleragainstanother.

Thenaturalreflexofstatesthatborderononeanotheristotrytogaindominion.InearlyMesopotamia,apowerfulcitystatewouldintimidateandconqueritsweakerneighbors,becomingthecapitalcity.Itsrulerwouldthenbecomethegreatkingoveranumberofvassalstates.Thesekingdomswereinherentlyunstable,bothbecausethecorecitystateitselfwascontinuallybesetbyinternalstrugglesforpower,andbecausethesubjectcitieswereconstantlyassertingtheirindependence.Moreover,therewasanongoingthreatofraidsfrompeopleonthefringesofcivilization.Largegroupsofwarriorswouldsometimesmoveenmasseoutofthemountainsordeserts

totakeovercitiesandkingdoms.SuchwasthegeopoliticalworldinwhichthecivilizationsofCreteandthenofGreeceemergedinthesecondmillenniumBC.

GREECEINTHEEARLYBRONZEAGE(c.30002100BC)

ThetechnologyofsmeltingandcastingcopperappearstohaveoriginatedindependentlyinbothwesternAsiaandsoutheasternEuropebefore6000BC.Thecrucialnextstep,ofadding10percentoftintothecoppertoproducebronze,amuchhardermetal,wastakenintheNearEastduringthefourthmillennium.ThetechniquecametoGreecearound3000BC;byabout2500,theuseofbronzeaswellasothermetalssuchaslead,silver,andgoldbecamewidespreadthroughoutGreeceandtheAegean.

Theintroductionofmetallurgywasamajortechnologicaladvance,fortoolsandweaponsofbronzewereconsiderablymoreefficientthanthosemadeofstone,bone,orcopper.Theimpactwasnotjustutilitarian,however;themovementintotheBronzeAgemarkedaturningpointinGreeksocialandeconomicrelations,justasithadintheEast.Itwasthehighrankedindividualsandfamilies,thosewithgreatersurplusesofwealth,whohadthemostaccesstobronzeandscarcemetalproducts.Possessionoftheseandotherprestigeitemssetthemfurtherapartfromthemassofthepopulation.Theirincreasingdemandformetal

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goodsgaverisetolocalspecialistsandworkshopsandacceleratedtradeforcopperandtinandothermetals,notonlywiththeEast,butalsowiththepeoplesofcentralandwesternEurope.EarlyBronzeAgeGreecewasedgingitswayintothewidereconomyandcultureoftheMediterraneanworld.Andastheeconomyexpandedandthesettlementsgrewlarger,sodidthewealth,power,andauthorityoftheirleaders,nowestablishedashereditarychiefswhoruledforlifeandwereaccordedexceptionalhonorsandprivileges.

AmajorEarlyBronzeAgesettlementwasthetownofLernainArgolis,wheretheremainsofstrongstonefortificationsandsomemonumentalbuildingshavebeenfound,thelargestofwhichmayhavebeenthehouseoftherulingchief.Thesophisticationofthearchitectureandthequalityoftheartifactsbetokenafairlycomplexpoliticalandeconomicsystem,thoughfarlessadvancedthanthoseoftheNearEastandEgypt.Lernaflourishedfromabout3000toabout2100,whenitwasdestroyedalongwithanumberofothertownsandvillagesinArgolis,Attica,andLaconia.SimilardevastationofsettlementsoccurredthroughoutmuchofEuropeatthistime.

GREECEINTHEMIDDLEBRONZEAGE(c.21001600BC)

Afterthedestructions,Greeceenteredwhatappearstohavebeenaperiodofculturalstagnation.Duringthenextfivehundredyearsthearchaeologicalrecordisbothsparseandgenerallyunimpressive.MosthistoriansconnectboththedestructionsofthesitesandtheensuingculturallagtotheincursionofanewpeopleintothecentralandsouthernmainlandofGreece.Thearrivalofthesenewcomers,whospokeaveryearlyformofGreek,markedadecisiveturningpointinthehistoryandcultureofGreeceandtheAegean.

Asisusualwitheventsthatoccurredsoearlyinprehistory,thereisuncertaintyaboutwhenthespeakersofprotoGreekenteredGreece.Itmayhavebeenasearlyas2100BC,ortwocenturieslater,whenthereisevidenceofanewtypeofpotteryandotherpossiblynewculturalfeatures.Onthebasisofsuchmaterial,archaeologistshavelabeledthisintermediateculturalstagetheMiddleHelladicperiod(c.19001580).Thepictureisconfusedbyathirdtheory,whichplacesthearrivaloftheGreekspeakersattheendoftheMiddleHelladicperiod,around1600BC.Despitetheongoingcontroversyaboutwhentheyentered,however,itisunanimouslyagreedthatthenewcomerswerepartofahugewaveofmigratinggroupsfromthenorthandeastknowncollectivelyastheIndoEuropeans.Thisknowledgewastheresultofmodernlinguisticdiscoveries.

TheIndoEuropeans

IntheeighteenthcenturyAD,scholarsbegantorecognizethatancientGreekboremanysimilaritiestootherdeadlanguages,suchasLatin,OldPersian,andSanskrit(thelanguageofancientIndia),aswellastoentirefamiliesof

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spokenlanguages,suchastheGermanicandSlavic.Theyobserved,forexample,astrikingsimilarityinwordssuchasmother:Sanskritmtar,Greekmtr,Latinmater,AngloSaxonmdor,OldIrishmathir,Lithuanianmote,Russianmat.Thecloselikenessesinvocabularyandgrammaticalstructureamongancientlanguagesandtheirdescendantssoonledtotheinsightthattheyhadallsprungfromacommonlinguisticancestor,whichwastermedProtoIndoEuropean.ItwasreasonedthattherehadoncebeenasingleIndoEuropeanhomeland,locatedperhapsinthevaststeppesnorthoftheBlackandCaspianseas(oneofseveralsuggestedhomelands),andthattheseparatelanguagesdevelopedinthecourseofemigrationsfromthehomelandintodistantplaces.ThespeakersofprotoGreekwerethusapartofagreatandlengthyancientexodusofpeoples,whichgraduallyoverthecenturiesspreadtheIndoEuropeanlanguagesacrossEuropeandAsia,fromIrelandtoChineseTurkestan.

TheFirstGreekSpeakers

Eventually,thelanguageoftheGreekspeakingnewcomersreplacedthenonIndoEuropeanAegeanlanguages,whichsurvivedinGreekprimarilyinplacenames(e.g.,Korinthos)andinnamesforindigenousanimalsandplants,suchashyakinthos,(hyacinth).ThiswouldseemtoindicatethattheGreekspeakerswerethedominantgroupwithinthesociety,butonelanguagemaydisplaceanotherforreasonsotherthanconquestanddominance.Atanyrate,theprocessofdisplacementwasprobablyalongone,withbothGreekandindigenouslanguagesexistingsidebysideforcenturies.

Duringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,therewasconsiderableconjectureaboutthenatureofthesocialorganizationandcultureoftheseearliestGreekspeakers.ItwasassumedthattheIndoEuropeanswereasuperiorraceofnorthernhorseridingAryanwarriors,whosweptdownintosouthernEuropeandviolentlyimposedtheirlanguagesandcustomsontheweaker,unwarlike,agrariannatives.SuchsuppositionsweretheproductsofaraciallybiasedEurocentrism.NoscholartodayacceptsanypartofthisAryanmyth,whichwasthepretextforsomanycrimesagainsthumanityinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,culminatinginthehorrorsperpetratedbytheNazisandFascistsinthe1930sand40s.

ThemostwecansafelysayabouttheseincomingIndoEuropeanGreekspeakersisthatforsubsistencetheypracticedherdingandagriculture,andtheyknewmetallurgyandothercrafts,suchaspotteryandclothmaking.Oftheirsociety,wecansurmiseonlythattheywereorganizedinfamiliesandlargergroups(clansandtribes)thatwerepatriarchal(thefatherwasthesupremeauthorityfigure)andpatrilineal(descentwasreckonedinthemaleline).TheirprimarydivinitywasZeus,apowerfulmalegod;andtheywereawarlikepeoplewithahierarchicalleadershipsystem.TheoncecommonnotionthatthepreIndoEuropeansocietiesofGreecearound2000BCwerepolaroppositespeaceful,nonhierarchical,andmatriarchal(wheredescent,

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inheritance,andauthoritycamedownthroughthemother)isnowdiscredited.Inmostrespects,exceptforlanguage,religion,andsomerelativelyminorfeatures(suchasarchitectureandpottery),thetwopeopleswereprobablyverysimilar.

ThedropintheculturallevelduringthearchaeologicalMiddleHelladicperiod(c.19001580BC)isbestexplainedasalongstageofadjustment,duringwhichthenativepeopleandthenewcomersgraduallymergedintoasinglepeoplethroughgenerationsofintermarriage,andtheirtwoculturesfusedintoasingleGreekspeakingculturethatcontainedelementsofboth.NorinfactwastheMiddleBronze(MiddleHelladic)periodtotallystatic.Populationincreased,newsettlementsgrew

up,therewereadvancesinmetallurgy,andcontactswiththecivilizationsofCreteandtheNearEastbegan.Thesewouldlead,towardtheendoftheperiod,toasuddenculturalquickeningthatusheredinthehighcivilizationoftheLateBronze(LateHelladic)period.

THEDISCOVERYOFAEGEANCIVILIZATION:TROY,MYCENAE,KNOSSOS

ThatadvancedcivilizationshadexistedintheAegeanduringtheBronzeAgewasnotknownuntiltheunearthinginthelatenineteenthcenturyofthreefamouscitiesfromthemythicalAgeofHeroes.First,in1870,HeinrichSchliemann,awealthyGermanbusinessmanturnedarchaeologist,discoveredthecityofTroy.InSchliemannsday,mosthistoriansdismissedtheMycenaeanswaragainstTroy(thecentraleventoftheGreeksancientpast)asjustanothermythicaltale.Schliemann,however,wasconvincedthattheTrojanWarhadhappenedexactlyasitwastoldintheearlyepicpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey.UsinghisbelovedHomerasaguide,hedugataplacecalledHissarlikonthenortheastcoastofAnatoliaandrevealedthemassiveruinsofaBronzeAgecity,whichheidentifiedasthefabledTroy.Thenewselectrifiedthescholarlyworldandcapturedthepublicsimagination.TherereallyhadbeenaTroy,foundwhereHomersaiditwaslocated!

Fouryearslater,SchliemannbeganhisexcavationsofBronzeAgeMycenaeitself.Thoughasmall,ratherinsignificanttownthroughoutrecordedGreekhistory,prehistoricMycenaeturnedouttobemorethanworthyofthelegendaryheroAgamemnon,itskingandtheleaderoftheGreekinvasionofTroy.AlthoughSchliemannsdiscoveriesarenotconclusiveevidenceofalargescalewarbetweenTroyandMycenae,theimpressiveruinsunearthedatbothsites,withtheirimmensewealthingoldandothercostlythings,doprovecorrecttheGreeksremembranceoftheirHeroicAge(i.e.,theLateBronzeAge)asatimeoffabulouswealthandsplendor.BecauseMycenaewastherichest(aswellasthefirst)siteexploredinmainlandGreece,archaeologistsrefertotheentirecultureofGreeceintheLateBronze(LateHelladic)period(c.15801150BC)astheMycenaeanAge.

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MINOANSOCIETYANDCULTURE(c.17001500BC)

Nolessspectacularwasthediscoveryin1899ofthethirdfabledsite,thepalacecomplexofKnossosonCrete,bytheEnglisharchaeologistArthurEvans.EvanscalledthecivilizationonCreteMinoan,afterthemythicalkingMinosofKnossos,wholived,accordingtoHomer,threegenerationsbeforetheTrojanWar.IntheIliadandtheOdysseyKnossosisthedominantcityofarichandpopulousland.Odysseus,theherooftheOdyssey,describesitasfollows:

ThereisalandcalledCrete,inthemiddleofthewinedarksea,beautifulandfertile,surroundedbywater;andinittherearemanypeople,countless,andninetycities....andamongthemisKnossos,thegreatcity,whereMinoswasking...andconversedwithgreatZeus.

(Odyssey19.172179)

Verylittleisknownabouttheearlyhistoryofthislarge,mountainousisland(3400squaremiles).Around7000BC,theearliestinhabitants,peopleofunknownlanguageandorigin,settledinthecentralandeasternparts,wheretherewerefairlylargefertileplains,andpracticedfarmingandstockraising.Duringthefourthmillennium,newsettlementssprangupandsomeofthesmallfarmingvillagesgrewintosubstantialtowns.Withpopulationgrowthandincreasingproduction,thechiefsgainedconsiderablygreaterpowersintheirtownsandvillages.AndjustasintheNearEast,thechiefsofthemajorsettlementsemergedasthesinglerulersovertheotherchiefsandpeopleinthevariousdistricts.ThusCretebecamealandofsmallcitykingdoms.

ThefirstroyalpalaceinCretewasbuiltabout2000BcatKnossos,whichbythenwasalargetownwithseveralthousandinhabitants.Othermajorpalaces,thoughnotasbigorasmagnificentasKnossos,followedatPhaistos,Mallia,Zakro,andelsewhere,eachcentercontrollinganareaofafewhundredsquaremiles.ThepoliticalandculturalfloweringinCrete(andonotherAegeanislandsaswell)probablycanbeattributedtotheirinclusionintheinternationaltrade,whichwasamajorcomponentofthestateeconomiesoftheEast.CretancontactwithEgyptandwesternAsiawasbothheavyanddirect,becausetheislandslocationandnaturalharborsmadeitanimportantcrossroadinthetraderoutesacrosstheMediterraneanSea.ThepalacecenteredeconomiesthatemergedinCrete,accordingly,werereplicas,onamuchsmallerscale,ofthestateeconomiesoftheNearEast.

WhetherthesmallMinoankingdomswereconsolidatedintolargerpoliticalunits,ashappenedintheNearEast,remainsanopenquestion.OneopinionisthatbythesixteenthcenturyBCtheisland,ormostofit,wasaunifiedkingdom,ruledbythekingofKnossos.OtherssuggestthatKnossoswasthedominantcenterofalooserfederationofselfrulingstates,whichseemsmorelikely.

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TheMinoanPalaceEconomy

ThepalacecomplexthatweseetodayatKnossoswasbegunaround1700BC,afterthefirstpalacewasdestroyedbyanearthquake.Duringitsexistenceitunderwentnumerousrestorationsandadditionsuntilitsfinaldestructionaround1375.Knossos

andtheothersmallerCretanpalacesconsistedofamazeofroomsresidentialquarters,workshops,andstoreroomsclusteredaroundalargecentralcourtyard.AsintheEast,thepalacewasthecentralplaceoftheentiresociety.Theimpressiveresidenceoftherulerandhishighrankingsubordinatesappearstohavebeenthepoliticalandadministrativecenterandthefocalpointofeconomicactivity,stateceremony,andreligiousritualfortheentirekingdom.

ThetypeofeconomythatdevelopedaroundKnossosandtheotherCretancentersiscalledaredistributiveeconomy.Thecenterthekingandthepalaceprobablyhadconsiderablecontrolovertheallocationanduseofthesurroundingland,muchofwhichbelongeddirectlytothepalace.Producefromthepalaceslandsalongwithproducefromprivatefarmsandherds,paidastaxes,wasfunneledintothepalace,whereitwasstored.Thekingcoulddistributetheseashewilled.Theinfluxoffoodandrawmaterialsprovidedhisfamilyandhisentouragewithaluxuriouslifestyleandalsosuppliedtheneedsofthelowstatusworkersinthepalacecomplex.Inaddition,thegreatquantitiesofgrainandoliveoilstoredinthepalaceformedareservefordistributiontothepopulaceintimesoffamineorothercalamity.

Thekingsmainuseofhissurplus,however,wasfortrade.Thelargeareasofthepalacedevotedtostorageandworkshopsindicatethatasignificantportionofwhatwasproducedwasmeanttobesentoutinexchangeforotherthings.Thepalacesworkshopswerekeptbusyturningrawmaterialsfromthecountryside,suchaswool,flax,andhides,aswellasbronze,gold,ivory,andamberfromabroad,intomaterialgoods.Nodoubtsomeoftheseweretradedinternally,amongthecitykingdoms.Throughouttheisland,traceshavebeenfoundofnetworksofgoodroads,alongwhichfood,animals,andgoodswouldhavepassedbetweenthecentersandintothesmallertownsandvillages.ItwastheexchangeofmaterialsandgoodsontheMediterraneanwidemarket,however,thatmadeKnossosandtheotherCretancenterssorich.

TheincreasingdiversityandcomplexityoftheCretanpalaceeconomiesisshownbytheiradoptionofwritingforthepurposeofmanagement.About1900BCtheCretansdevelopedpictographicwriting,perhapsinspiredbyEgyptianhieroglyphics,inwhichapicturesymbolizesanobjectoridea(asinI[heartsymbol]NewYork).Thisevolvedaround1800BCintoamorestylizedlinearscriptmadeupofspecificsignsthatstoodforsyllablesandwerejoinedtogethertoformthesoundofthewordsthemselves.Althoughthisscript(calledLinearAbyarchaeologists),preservedonsmallclaytablets,remainslargelyundeciphered,itisclearthatitwasusedforkeepingtheeconomicrecordsinthepalaces.

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TheSocialClassesofCrete

Evidenceofaclasssocietyshowsuparchaeologicallyasahugedifferenceinthelivingstandards,lifestyles,andsocialstatusoftheprivilegedfewandtherestofthepeople.ThearchitectureandthefindsatKnossosandothercentersgiveusagoodideaoftheenormousluxuryenjoyedbytheroyalfamilyandthenobility.Archaeologistshavealsofoundintownsoutsidethepalacescomfortabletwoandthreestoryhouses,whichindicatetheexistenceofalowertierofelitefamilies.Thisgroupofwellofftownspeopleprobablyformedaverysmallsegmentofthefreepopulation,andwaspossiblypartoftheadministrativeandcommercialsectors.Ontheotherhand,thethousandsofordinaryfarmersandcraftsworkershaveleftalmostnotraceinthearchaeologicalrecord.Whatlittleevidencethereisindicatesthattheylivedinsmall,sparselyfurnishedhousesinsmallvillagesandwereburiedwithmeagerfunerarygiftsinsimplegraves.Inotherwords,theylivedmuchastheirancestorshad.Itwasonlythehighrankedfamiliesthatenjoyedvastlyincreasedwealthandmoreluxuriouslifestyles,benefitsderivedfromthetaxesandlaborextractedfromthepeople.

Inallprobability,ordinaryCretanpeople,likethecommonpeopleinEgyptandintheNearEast,acceptedtheirrolesasexploitedsubjectswillingly,inthebeliefthattherigidlyhierarchicalarrangementwasquiteproper.Itistruethatpeoplereceivedbenefitintheformofprotectionfromfamineandfromoutsideaggressors.Still,theirwillingacceptanceoftheheavyinterferenceintheirlivesbythecenterindicatessomethingmoretheirpositiveidentificationwiththecenter,thatis,theking.InCrete,asinallancientkingdoms,thekingwasasymbolaswellastheactualruler.Hewastheembodimentofthestate:supremewarleader,lawgiverandjudge,and,mostimportant,therepresentativeofthelandandpeopletothegods.

Thisenlargementoftherulerspriestlyfunction,culturalhistoriansbelieve,wasoneofthekeyfactorsintheriseofmonarchicalpower.CertainlythekingsofancientEgyptandtheNearEastderivedmuchoftheirlegitimacyfromtheofficialequationofroyalpowerwiththewillofthegods.TheEgyptiansexpandedthisprinciplebyidentifyingeachnewpharaohasthehumanincarnationofthegodHorus.SomeMediterraneanscholarsbelievethattheMinoankingsruledaspriestkingsliketheMesopotamiankings.Amajordifference,though,isthatBronzeAgeCretelackedthehugetemplecomplexesoftheNearEast;ratherthepalacesthemselvesappeartohavebeenthereligiouscentersofthesociety.

Slavery

Occupyinganeconomicandsociallevelbelowthefreefarmersandpalacedependentsweretheslaves.Whatdifferentiatestrueslavesfromotherswhoworkbycompulsionisnotsomuchhowtheyaretreatedasthefactthattheyarepossessions,notpersons.Thoughtheyliveinacommunity,theyarenotmembersofitandthus

lackeventhemostrudimentaryprotectionsagainstarbitraryuseoftheirbodies.Becausemostslavesintheancientworldwerewarcaptives,thatis,

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outsiders,itwaseasytosetthemapartasnonpersons.AlthoughthepracticeofcapturingpeopleandmakingthemslavesundoubtedlywentbacktotheStoneAges,itwasonlywiththeemergenceofcivilizationandthestateinthefourthmillenniumthatenslavementoccurredonalargescaleasamatterofpolicyandeconomicnecessity.WehavenowayofestimatingtheproportionofslavestotherestofthepopulationintheAegeansocieties.Itisprobable,however,thatthemajorityofthembelongedtothepalaces.

MinoanCulture

MinoanartandarchitectureowedalargedebttothecivilizationsoftheNearEast,andespeciallyEgypt.TheCretansdevelopedextensivecommercialanddiplomaticrelationswithEgyptandthestatesalongtheSyrianandPhoeniciancoasts,andtheyadoptedboththetechniquesandstylesoftheoldercivilizations.ThespiritofMinoanartandarchitecture,however,wasverydifferent.ThepredominantfunctionofpalaceartintheEastwastoglorifytheroyalhousehold.Thekingsweredepictedasmightyconquerorsandpowerfulrulers.InMinoanart,ontheotherhand,therearenoscenesthatshowthekingasaconqueringwarriorandindeedveryfew,ifany,imagesofroyalpomp.Thesubjectsandmotifsofthewallpaintingsaremuchthesameasthoseinthemiddleclass,villas.Naturemotifsareeverywhere.ThespiritofMinoanpalaceartissereneandhappy,evenplayfulattimes.Itwasmeanttomakethepalaceaplaceofbeautyandcharm.

VisitorstotheruinsofKnossos,whichwasgreatlyrestoredbyArthurEvansintheearlytwentiethcentury,aredazzledbyitssizeandcomplexity(itcovered3.2acreswithperhapsthreehundredrooms)andtheeleganceofitsarchitecture.Thepalacewaswellconstructedofstoneandmudbrick,reinforcedwithtimbers(tohelpwithstandearthquakes);itstoodtwoandthreestorieshighwithbasementsbeneath.Porticoes(withcolumnsthatseemupsidedowntous)andnumerousbalconiesandloggias,allbrightlypainted,gavetheexterioratheatricallook.Lightwellsbroughtdaylightandfreshairintotheinteriorofthepalace.Asystemofconduitsanddrainsprovidedmanyoftheroomswithrunningwaterandwastedisposal.Wallsandpassagewayswereadornedwithbrilliantlycoloredpaintingsofplantandanimallifeandwithscenesofhumanactivity,oftenreligiousprocessionsorrituals.

Minoanpaintingsaremuchadmiredtodayfortheirsophistication,vitality,andexuberanceandstandcomparisonwiththebestofcontemporaryancientart.AlthoughEgyptianscenepaintingsweremoreaccurateindetail,Cretanpaintersweremoreskillfulatconveyingasenseofmovementandlife.Minoanpottery,

jewelry,andmetalandivoryworkdisplayequaltechnicalandartisticskill.Minoanfrescoesandsmallsculptureshavepreservedavisualimageofwhatthepeoplelookedlike,thatistosaytherichandpowerfulinhabitantsofthepalacesandvillas.Menandwomenbotharedepictedasyoung,slender,andgraceful.Themenaresmoothshavenandwearonlyashortkilt,similartotheEgyptianmaledress.Thewomenwearelaborateflouncedskirtsandatight,sleevedbodice

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ThePalaceatKnossos.1WestPorch2CorridoroftheProcession3PalaceShrine4Steppedporch5ThroneRoom6GrandStaircase7HalloftheDoubleAxes8

QueensMegaron9PillarHall10Storerooms11RoyalRoad,toLittlePalaceFigure1.1a.GroundplanoftheMinoanpalaceatKnossos,Crete.Figure1.1b.Viewofthe

ruinsoftheMinoanpalaceatPhaistos,Crete.

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thatexposestheirbreasts.Bothmenandwomenhavelonghair,stylishlycurled,andweargoldbraceletsandnecklaces.

TheplacidandcarefreeoutlookofMinoanart,thefactthatnoneoftheCretanpalacecomplexeswaswalled,andthelaterGreektraditionthatKnossosunderkingMinoshadbeenamightyseapower,ledearliergenerationsofscholarstopictureCreteasapeaceful,secureisland,untouchedbyinternalandexternalconflict.However,morerecentdiscoveriesofdepictionsoflandandnavalbattlesandsomeremainsoffortificationwallshavelargelydispelledthatromanticview.

MinoanInfluenceintheAegean:Thera

ThattheCretansexercisedactualpoliticalcontroloutsideofCreteisdoubtful.Theydid,however,exertconsiderableeconomicandculturalinfluenceintheCycladicislands.AremarkableexampleofMinoanculturalhegemonywasdiscoveredontheislandofThera(modernSantorini),80milesnorthofCrete.In1967,theGreekarchaeologistSpyridonMarinatosbeganexcavationofathrivingcityofseveralthousandinhabitants,whichlayburiedunder50yardsofvolcanicash.Theexplosionthattoreapartthetinyislandconsideredthemostpowerfulvolcaniceruptioninallofhistoryoccurred,accordingtothelatestscientificdating,around1630BC.AsinPompeii(theRomanprovincialcityburiedbyaneruptionofMountVesuviusin79AD),thehardenedashformedaprotectiveenvelope,allowingustodayadetailed

pictureoftownlifeattheheightoftheMinoancivilization.ThefrescoesthatadornthewallsofanumberofhousesareverysimilarinstyleandalsoequalinimaginationandexecutiontothefinestpaintingsfromCrete.LessspectacularfindsfromotherCycladicislandsshowasimilarMinoanizationinsuchthingsasart,religion,dress,andlifestyles.Nevertheless,severaldistinctlylocalfeaturesamongtheislandculturesindicatethatthoseprosperousislandswereindependentsocieties,tradingpartners,notcolonialoutpostsofaCretanempire.

THEMYCENAEANS

AboutthetimeTherawasdestroyed,theGreekswerejustemergingintotheircivilizationalstage.TheytoowereheavilyinfluencedbytheCretansandevenadoptedthemodeloftheMinoanstate.AcenturyorsolaterMinoanizedGreeksfromthemainland,theMycenaeans,ungratefullyrepaidtheirteachersbyinvadingCreteandtakingovertheirpowercenters.

Aswasnotedearlier,MycenaeanreferstotheentirecivilizationofGreeceduringtheLateBronze(LateHelladic)period(c.15801150BC).TheemergenceinmainlandGreeceofahierarchicalpoliticalandsocialsystem,basedoncentralizedcontroloftheeconomy,recapitulatedtheprocessofstateformationintheNearEastandCrete.Before1600Greecehadgonethroughthepreparatorysteps:riseinpopulation,increasedproductivity,expansionoftradewiththeout

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Figure1.2.FrescoofafishermanfromThera.

side,andthestrengtheningoftheeconomicandpoliticalpoweroftheleaders.AsthesouthernmainlandGreekstatesbecamefullparticipantsintheMediterraneantradingeconomy,theyputonthereadymadecloakofMinoanadministration.

ContactsbetweenmainlandGreeceandCretehadbegunasearlyas2000BCandincreasedsteadilythereafter.TheevidenceofMinoaninfluenceoverGreecewassooverwhelmingthatArthurEvans,theexcavatorofKnossos,wasconvincedthatthemainlandGreekpalacesofthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturyhadbeenoccupiedbyCretankings,loyalsubjectsofthekingofKnossos,whosemightyseapowerhadconqueredGreece.Evansreasonableconclusionturnedouttobejusttheoppositeofwhathappened:itwastheMycenaeanswhodidtheconquering.WealthyCretemusthaveseemedajuicyprizetothewarlikeMycenaeans,whohadintimateknowledgeoftheislandanditsdefenses.Yet,theMycenaeanswerecertainlynotouttodestroyCrete.Oncetheyhadbeatenthe

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Cretanforces,sackedsomepalacesandtowns,andkilledtheleaders,themainlanderstookoverKnossosandothercentersandruledinplaceoftheoldrulers.

TheMycenaeantakeoverisdatedtoaround1500to1450.Aboutthattime,anumberofimportantCretansiteswerebadlydamaged,thoughKnossositselfsufferedlittleharm.Therearealsosignsthatabout1500BcMinoanexportstoplacesaroundtheAegeandeclined,whileMycenaeanexportsrose;andonseveralCycladicislandsMycenaeanculturalinfluencesappearmoreprominently.CretansocietyandcultureundertheruleofthealreadyMinoanizedMycenaeaninvadersdidnotchangemuch,however.Forthemassofthepeoplelifewentonasbefore,althoughtheynowpaidtheirtaxestokingswhospokeGreek.AndthenewkingsruledandlivedinthemannerofCretankings,althoughtheydidkeeptocertainmainlandways(inburialrites,forexample).FromthefifteenthcenturyonwardwecanspeakofaMinoanMycenaeanculture,adynamicfusionofthetwocultures,whichwasfurtherenrichedbycontinuinginfluencesfromtheNearEastandEgypt.

ThereissomereasontobelievethatunderMycenaeanruleKnossoscontrolledmuchofcentralandwesternCrete(anareaofperhaps1500squaremiles),havingincorporatedtheterritoriesoftheformerlyindependentorsemiindependentpalacecenters.Buttheirsuccesswasrelativelyshortlived.Around1375,Knossoswasburnedandlooted,andalthoughtheruinedpalacecontinuedtobeoccupied,MycenaeanCretesankinimportancewhileMycenaeandtheothermainlandcentersreachedthezenithoftheirprosperityandinfluenceintheAegean.ItisnotknownwhodestroyedKnossosandsetofftheirreversibledeclineoftheentireCretaneconomyandculture.ThemostlikelysuspectsaremainlandMycenaeanstemptedbytherichesoftheCretanpalacesandperhapseagertogetridoftheirbiggestrivalintheMediterraneantrade.

TheFamousClayTablets

Aswesawearlier,theMinoanshaddevelopedapictographicwritingsystemtokeeprecordsoftheirpalaceeconomies,whichwasinusefromabout1900Bc.Thepictographsweremostlyincisedonsmallstonesusedasseals(whenpressedonwaxorclaytheyleaveanimpressionofthesymbols)andwereprobablyusedaslabelsandmarksofownership.Thispicturewriting,whichcouldconveyonlyminimalinformation,wasreplacedbyasyllabicwritingsystemincisedonsmallclaytablets,usedfromabout1800.ArthurEvansfoundafewtabletswiththiswritinginKnossos;smallquantitieswerelaterdiscoveredatPhaistos,Mallia,andothersitesinCreteandtheCycladicislands,showingthatitwaswidelyusedintheareaduringtheeighteenthtofifteenthcenturiesBC.

InthedestructionlevelatKnossos,Evansfoundahugenumber(aroundthreethousand)ofclaytabletsinscribedwithamoreelaborateversionofthelinearscript.

EvansnamedtheearlierscriptLinearAandthislateroneLinearB.HeassumedwithoutquestionthatthelanguageofbothwasCretan.Thediscoveryin1939ofmanyhundredsoftheLinearBtabletsatthepalacecomplexofPylosonthesouthwesternGreekmainlandseemedtostrengthenhistheorythatmainlandGreecewascontrolledbytheMinoans.

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TherewasnowasufficientamountofmaterialtoallowseriousattemptsatdeciphermentoftheLinearBtablets.Evenso,thetabletspresentedanenormouschallenge,becausethescriptwastotallyunlikeanyoftheotherwritingsystemsinuseamongtheLateBronzeAgecivilizations,andnooneknewwhattheunderlyinglanguagewas.Relativelylittleprogresswasmadeuntiltheearlyfifties,whenayoungBritishamateur,MichaelVentris,brokethecode.WorkingfromthehypothesisthatthesignsstoodforwholesyllablesratherthansinglelettersandthatthelanguagemightpossiblybeGreek(andnotMinoan,afterall),Ventriswasgraduallyabletoobtainthephoneticvaluesofsomeofthesigns.Forexample,acombinationofthreesignstiripoyieldsthesyllabicequivalentoftheGreekwordtripous(tripod).

In1953,Ventrisandacollaborator,JohnChadwickofCambridgeUniversity,jointlypublishedtheirfindingsinafamousarticlethathascompletelychangedourpictureoftheBronzeAgeAegean.Itisnowcertainbeyondanydoubtthat(1)GreekwasthelanguageoftheMycenaeanculture,(2)theMycenaeanshadadaptedtheCretanLinearAscripttotheirownGreeklanguageanduseditforthesamepurposeasLinearA,tokeeppalacerecords,and(3)MycenaeanswererulinginCretebyatleastthefifteenthcenturyBC.

MorerecentfindsofLinearBtabletsatPylos(in1952)andatMycenae,Tiryns,andThebesonthemainland,aswellasatChaniaonCretehaveincreasedthefundoftexts.Today,mostofthemorethanfivethousandLinearBinscriptionshaveyieldedupmostoftheirsecrets.Despitesomesuccesses,however,LinearA,thescriptoftheunknownCretanlanguage,hasnotyetbeendeciphered.

THEEARLYMYCENAEANS(c.16001400BC)

HundredsofBronzeAgehabitationsiteshavebeenfoundinmainlandandislandGreece,manyofwhichcanbeidentifiedbynamefromtheancientlegends.Archaeologyhasconfirmedthatthefamousmainlandcitiesofepicpoetry,suchasMycenae,Tiryns,Pylos,Thebes,andAthens,wereinfactthemajorBronzeAgecenters.Theirgrandpalaces,however,werebuiltinthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies,overtheremainsoftheolder,lessimposingstructuresoftheearlyMycenaeans.Accordingly,whatweknowoftheearlystageoftheMycenaean

civilization,roughly1600to1400,isrevealedchieflythroughgravesandtheofferingsinterredwiththebodiesofthedeceasedmen,women,andchildren.

TheRiseofMycenaeanPower:TheShaftGravesandTombs

Thecontentsoftwocircularburialgrounds,reservedfortheelitefamilies,haveshedmuchlightonMycenaesearlydevelopment.Theolderofthetwogravecircles,whichwasdiscoveredoutsidethecitadelin1952,wasusedfromthelateseventeenthcentury(MiddleHelladic)toabout1500.Itoverlapsintimewiththelatergravecirclelocatedattheedgeofthecitadel,discoveredbySchliemann.

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Thislater,richergroupwasinusefromtheearlysixteenthcenturyuntilafter1500.

Thegravesinthetwocircularburialgroundsarecalledshaftgraves,becausethebodieswereloweredintodeeprectangularpitscutintothesoftbedrock.Theearliercirclecontainedmanybronzeweapons(swords,daggers,spearheads,andknives)andquantitiesoflocalpottery,butlittlegoldorjewelry.Bycomparison,asingleoneofthegravesfromthelatercemetery,containingthebodiesofthreemenandtwowomen,heldnotonlyanarsenalofweapons(43swords,forexample),butalsohundredsofotherexpensiveobjects,includingexquisitegoldjewelryadorningthebodiesofthewomen.Theseburialgiftsexhibitsuperbworkmanshipandaremadeofpreciousmaterials,suchasgold,silver,bronze,ivory,alabaster,faence,andamber,importedfromCrete,Cyprus,Egypt,Mesopotamia,Syria,Anatolia,andwesternEurope.ThestylesandtechniquesareaneclecticmixoftraditionalHelladicandforeignelements.

TheincreasingwealthoftheshaftgravesrevealstheevolvingpoweroftherulingclassinMycenaeoverroughly150years.BurialgoodsshowthatduringtheMiddleHelladicperiodwarriorchiefsandtheirclosesupporterswerealreadyincontrolofthelocaleconomyandwereincontactwiththeestablishedcivilizations.Theirgrandsonsandgreatgrandsonsbecamepowerfulwarlordswho,withthehelpoftheirclosesubordinates,tightlyorganizedandexpandedtheirlocaleconomies,becomingsignificantplayersinthepanMediterraneaneconomy.

Shortlybefore1500,theMycenaeanelitesadoptedadifferenttypeoftomb,calledatholos,whichprovidesfurtherevidenceoftheirgrowingpowerandresources.Thetholoi(plural),whichhavebeenfoundthroughoutGreece,werethehighestachievementofMycenaeanengineering.Theywereverylargestonechambers,shapedlikebeehives,cuthorizontallyintoahillside.Thehighvaultedburialandceremonialchamberwasapproachedthroughalongstonelinedpassagewayandhugebronzedoorsandwascoveredoverbyanearthenmound.Thetholos,

representstheheightofMycenaeanupperclassostentation.WemayseeitasaconspicuousstatementoftheirarrivalonthewiderMediterraneanscene.Unfortunately,mostofthetholoiwererobbedcenturiesago,butthefewthatremainedunplunderedhaveyieldedburialgiftsevenmorenumerousandbeautifulthanthoseoftheshaftgraves.Theroyalandnoblefamiliesthatownedthosetombsappearjustaswarlikeastheirforebears,butfarricherandmorethoroughlyMinoanized.Manyofthelaterburialsinthetholoioverlapintimewiththeconstructionofthegreatpalacesinthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies,whoseruinsweseetoday.

THELATERMYCENAEANS(c.14001200BC)

WiththenewpalacestheMycenaeansenteredthefinalphaseoftheirwealthandpower.ThearchitectureanddecorationoftheMycenaeanpalacescloselyfollowedtheMinoanstyle,thoughwithsomenotabledifferences.Forone,theMycenaeancentersweremuchsmallerandwereusuallylocatedonacommandinghilland

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a b c dFigure1.3a.Abronzedaggerinlaidwithasceneofalionhunt,fromalatershaftgraveatMycenae.Figure1.3b.PlanandcrosssectionofatholostombfromMycenae.Figure1.3c.InteriorvaultofatholostombatMycenae(thesocalledTreasuryofAtreus).Figure1.3d.Goldmaskfromoneoftheearlyshaftgraves

atMycenae.

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fortifiedbyhigh,thickwalls.WhereastheMinoanpalaceshadhadlittledefensivefunction,defenseseemstohavebeentheparamountconsiderationintheGreekpalaces.TheimmenselystrongfortificationwarsofMycenaeandTiryns,builtofenormousstoneblocks,areanimpressivesightevenintheirruinedstate.ThelaterGreeksreferredtothemasCyclopeanwalls,somassivethattheycouldonlyhavebeenbuiltbythemythicalraceofgiantCyclopes.Thefortificationswerewellengineered,takingfulladvantageofthenaturalslopes,withrefinementsthatalloweddefenderstofiredownontwosidesatattackersstormingthegates.

Toconstruct,maintain,andrepairthedefensescalledforhugeexpendituresofmaterialresourcesandthemobilizedlaborofmanyhundredsofpeople.Thewalledcitadelprovidednotonlyprotectionforthepalace,butalsoaplaceofrefugefortheinhabitantsoftheunfortifiedtownbelow.ButtheseMycenaeanfortificationswereasmuchaboastbythekingofhiswealthandmilitarymightastheywereadefenseforhispalaceandpeople.Suchhugewalls,20feetthickinmanyplaces,weremuchmorethanwasnecessarytostaveoffanenemyassault.Thecitywallsthatwerebuilt

inthelaterperiodswerefarlessimmense,yetremainedimpregnableuntiltheadventofworkablesiegemachineryinthefourthcenturyBC.

TheMycenaeansalsoutilizedspacewithinthepalacesinonenotablydifferentwayfromtheMinoans.InplaceoftheopenpavedcourtyardoftheCretancomplexes,theymadethefocusoftheirpalacesthemegaron,alargerectangularhall,withasmalleranteroom,andaporticointhefront,openingontoacourtyard.Inthemiddleofthegreathallstoodalarge,raisedcircularhearth,flankedbyfourcolumnsthatsupportedabalcony;akindofchimneywasbuiltintotheroofabovethehearthtodrawoffthesmoke.FortheMycenaeansthemegaronwasclearlytheceremonialcenterofthepalace;theyuseditforfeasts,councils,andreceptionsofvisitors.ThemegaronroomwouldsurviveintheformofachieftainshouseduringthelongDarkAgethatfollowed,andastheessentialplanoftheGreektemple,thegodshouse,fromtheeighthcenturyonward.

ThefinalMycenaeanpalacesprovidedtheirinhabitantsastandardofluxury,refinement,andbeautyalmostashighasthatoftheMinoans.AlthoughtheyhadfewerroomsandlackedsomeofthearchitecturalembellishmentsoftheirCretanmodels,theMycenaeanpalacesboastedsuchMinoanrefinementsasindoorplumbingandbeautifulwallpaintings.ThefrescoesarecompletelyMinoaninstyle,thoughreproducedinamoreformalizedmanner,andshowapreferenceformartialthemes,suchaspersonalcombats,sieges,andhuntingscenes.Inthewallpaintings,womenandmenareusuallyshownwearingthetraditionalMinoancostume,butotherdepictions,asonpaintedvases,revealthatmainlandmennormallyworealoosewoolenorlinentunic,cinchedbyabelt,andwomenworealongerversionofthesametunic.

RelationsAmongthePalaceCenters

ScholarsnolongerbelieveinaunitedKingdomofGreece,ruledbythekingofMycenae.TheextentofpoliticalormilitaryexpansioninGreecewastheformationofsmallregionalkingdomsunderasinglecenter;thekingdomofPylosin

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Messeniapresentsaclearexample.Thepictureislesscertaininthoseregionswheremajorcenterswereclosetogether,asinArgolis,whichheldtenimportanttownsincludingtheimpregnablefortressesofMycenaeandTiryns,onlyafewmilesapart.ItispossiblethatthekingofMycenaewasthesoleandabsoluteruleroftheregion,justasthekingofPyloswasofMessenia.Inthatcase,weshouldseethepalaceatTirynsasanoutpostofthepalaceatMycenae.Wemustnotassume,however,thatallMycenaeankingdomswerestructuredalike.ItisequallypossiblethatTirynsandtheotherstrongholdsweresemiindependentsettlementswhoseleadersacknowledgedtherulerofMycenaeastheirsuperiorandpledgedtheirloyaltyto

him.ThepalacetownsofAthensandThebesmayhavehadsimilardominantpositionsintheregionsofAtticaandBoeotia.

Itappears,atanyrate,thatfrom1600until1200,relationsbothwithinandbetweenregionsweregenerallystable.Undoubtedlytherewerebattlesbetweenrivalpalacetownsastheyfeudedandfoughtforhegemonyintheirregion,butarchaeologyrevealsveryfewexamplesofalloutwarfare.TheburningofThebesearlyinthethirteenthcenturymayhavebeentheworkofaneighboringcenter,possiblyOrchomenus,whichwasarichandpopuloussiteandwouldlaterbeThebesperennialrivalduringtheClassicalperiod.

MycenaeanInfluenceintheMediterranean

Intheirheyday,around1300,MycenaeankingdomswereactivelytradingallacrosstheMediterranean,fromSardinia,southernItaly,andSicilyinthewesttoTroydowntoEgyptintheeast,aswellastoMacedoniainthenorth.MycenaeansettlementsandtradingpostswerestrungalongtheAsiancoastlineandthroughouttheislands,includingRhodesandCyprus.AcrossthiswideexpansetheMycenaeancultureexhibitsaremarkableuniformity;eventheexpertsfinditdifficulttodeterminewhetheravaseoradaggerfound,say,inMiletusinAnatoliawasmadelocallyorcamefromapalaceworkshopinGreeceorCrete.

TheimmensewealthoftheMycenaeankingsandnoblescamenotonlyfrompeacefultradebutalsofrominternationalpiracy.ThegenerationsofwarriorsburiedintheweaponladengravesandtombsoftheLateHelladicperiodwerewealthymarauderswhocouldeasilyaffordtomountlargeseaborneexpeditionsforbooty.ThoughtheywerefewinnumberscomparedwiththevastpopulationsoftheEast,andweredividedintosmallstates,theMycenaeanGreekswerethethirdpowerintheMediterranean,afterthehugeHittiteempire,whichcoveredAnatoliaandSyria,andthebrilliantandaggressiveNewKingdomofEgypt.HittitearchivesofthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturiesmentionapeopletheycalledAhhiyawan,whichmanybelieveisthecuneiformversionofMycenaeanAkhaiwoi,thatis,Achaeans,aninclusivetermforGreeksintheeighthcenturyBCepicpoems.Inaletter,thekingoftheHittitesaddresseshisbrother,thekingofAhhiyawa(Achaea).OtherrecordsspeakofanexchangeofgiftsbetweenthekingofHattiandthekingofAhhiyawa;AhhiyawansaresenttoHattitolearnchariotwarfare;agodoftheAhhiyawansissummonedtocureaHittiteking.Relationswerenotalwayspeaceful;inthethirteenthcenturyamanfrom

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a

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b cFigure1.4a.(facingpage)MycenaeansitesinthethirteenthcenturyBC.Figure1.4b.ViewoftheruinsofthemegaronhalloftheMycenaeanpalaceatPylos.

Figure1.4c.TheLionGateentrancetothecitadelofMycenae.

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AhhiyawawasinvadingHittiteterritoryinwesternAnatolia.ThesereferenceswereprobablynottomainlandGreeksbuttooneormoreofthenearerMycenaeankingdoms,locatedintheislandsorontheAsiancoast.Nevertheless,thementionsofGreeksintheHittiterecords(andpossiblyalsoinEgyptianrecords)supplementthearchaeologicalevidencethatMycenaeanswereasignificantpresenceintheworldofthefourteenthandthirteenthcentury.

TheAdministrationofaMycenaeanKingdom

OneoftheimportantleadersintheTrojanWar,astoldintheIliadandOdyssey,wasNestor,who,Homertellsus,livedinamagnificentmanyroomedhouseinatowncalledPylos,fromwhichheruledoveralargekingdominMessenia.ThediscoveryofthepalaceofNestorbytheAmericanarchaeologistCarlBlegenin1939wasasmomentousastheearlierdiscoveriesofTroy,Mycenae,andKnossos.ItnotonlyconfirmedthataBronzeAgecenterknownonlyinlegendhadactuallyexisted,butitalsorevealedthatacenterfarawayfromthegreatpalacesofeasternandcentralGreececouldbejustasrichandimportant.

ThefertileandwellwateredregionofMesseniainthesouthwestcornerofthePeloponnesuswasoneofthemostheavilypopulatedpartsofMycenaeanGreece.Accordingtoarecentsurvey,populationthererosefromabout4000inEarlyHelladicto10,000inMiddleHelladicandsurgedtowellover50,000inLateHelladic.Someestimatesputthefigureashighas100,000.Pylos(writtenPurointheLinearBscript)becamearegionalcenterofpoweraroundthetimeMycenaeandtheothercentersdid,reachingitsheightduringtheLateHelladicIIIAandIIIBperiods(roughly14001200BC).Thepalace,locatedonahill5milesfromthesea,wasbuiltaround1300BContheruinsofanearlier,smallercomplexofbuildings.

Blegensmeticulousexcavationofthesite,whichhadlainundisturbedsinceitsdestructionaround1200BC,andthehugenumbersofLinearBtabletsfoundinthearchiverooms,provideourclearestpictureoftheorganizationandworkingsofaMycenaeankingdom.ThePylostablets,togetherwiththosefromMycenaeanKnossos,revealmuchofthedaytodayadministrativedetailsofthehighlyregimentedproductionanddistributionsystemofMycenaeanpalaces.

ThesundriedtabletsfromPylosandKnossosweretemporaryrecords,meanttolastonlyuntiltheinformationonthemwastransferredontolarger,permanentrecords.Theywerepreservedonlybecausetheywerebakedhardinthefiresthatdestroyedthepalaces.Whatwehave,inotherwords,arepalacescribesnotesonpersonnelandproductionwhichpertaintoonlyasmallpartofthelastyearofthepalaceswheretheywerefound.Nevertheless,theyarerepresentativeofpalaceadministrationthroughoutthetimespanofthelaterpalaceperiod.

ThetabletsgiveussomeideaoftheMycenaeanrulinghierarchy.Atthetopwasthewanax,whichperhapsmeantlordormaster.Nextinrank,apparently,wasamancalledlawagetas,whichseemstobeacombinationofthewordsforpeopleandleader,andiscommonlybelievedtohavedesignatedthecommanderofthearmy.Therewasalsoahighrankinggroupcalledtelestai,whoreceivedthesameallotmentoflandasthelawagetas.Theirfunctionisunknown;

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a bFigure1.5a.ALinearBtabletfromMycenaeanKnossos.Figure1.5b.DrawingofachariottabletfromKnossos.

somebelievetheywerepriests.Otherindividuals,withthetitlehequetas(possiblymeaningfollower),mayhavebeenhighrankingmilitaryofficers.

Belowthistopechelonwerelesserofficials,whoappeartohavebeeninchargeoftheoutlyingareas.ThekingdomofPyloswasabout1400squaremilesinextentandcontainedovertwohundredvillagesandtowns.Itwasdividedadministrativelyintotwoprovinces,eachsubdividedintoseveraldistricts,namedaftertheprincipaltowninthedistrict.Thetitleskoreteandprokoretefoundonthetabletsmayhavebelongedtothegovernorofadistrictandhisdeputy.Finally,therewasanapparentlylargegroupofofficialswiththetitlepasireu,whoseemtohavebeeninchargeofaffairsatthetownandvillagelevel.Theofficialsandmilitaryofficersnamedinthetabletsrepresentonlythetipofalargebureaucracy.Subordinatetothemwerenumerouslowlevelfunctionaries,whowerejustasdependentonthemastheythemselvesweredependentonthewanax.Thetabletsrevealthatthehigherofficialsreceivedlandfromthewanaxinreturnfortheirservicetothepalaceandashareoftheircrops;asimilarrelationshipundoubtedlyexistedbetweensuchofficialsandtheirsubordinates.

Thehighestofficials,andperhapssomeportionofthelowerrankingones,occupiedsubstantialprivatehouses,somequitelarge,foundonthecitadels,inthelowertowns,andalsooutinsmallcountrytowns.Onlythehighestrankingfamiliescouldafford(or,perhaps,werepermitted)tobeburiedintheostentatioustholoi.Thefamiliesofthelesserelitewerelaidtorestinsmaller,simplertombs,rectangular

cryptscutintothesoftrock.Likethetholoi,someofthesechambertombsweregranderthanothersandtheycontainedgreaterorlesseramounts

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ofexpensivegravegoods.Itispossiblethatsomeoftheinhabitantsoftherichhousesandchambertombswereprivatemerchantsandtraders,actingasagentsofthepalace.

However,thegreatmajorityofthepeople,asusual,livedinsmall,modestlyfurnishedhouseswithfewamenities,andtheywereburiedinsimplegraveswithonlyacoupleofvasesorothersmallitems.Theirstandardoflivingwasmuchthesameastheirancestors,nobetterorworse.Infact,throughoutlaterantiquity,themajorityofGreekswouldliveatessentiallythesamemateriallevelastheinhabitantsoftheBronzeAge,andlikethemwouldmaketheirlivingasfarmers,herders,andartisans.IntheMycenaeanAge,aslater,mostofthefarmersandherderslivedinruralvillages,whilemostofthecraftsspecialistswereconcentratedintheregionalcentersandthelargersettlements.Itappearsfromthetabletsthatmanyfamiliesfarmedastenantsonlandbelongingtothenobles,someofwhoseholdingswereverylarge.Othernonelitefamiliesheldplotsoflandintheirownnames;craftsmenandherdersarelistedasownersofprivateland.ItappearsthatthefiftytoseventyfivefamiliesthatmadeupatypicalMycenaeanvillageeitherhadsharesinthevillageslandorelserentedlandthatwasallocatedtohighofficials.

Thepalacessupervisionoverthepeoplewasverythorough.Officialsweresentoutintothecountrysideonregularinspections,andthetaxesinproduceandani