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Sampling
Neuman and Robson Ch. 7
Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling
Introduction Qualitative vs. Quantitative Sampling
Non-Random Sampling Non-probability Not representative of population
Random sampling Probability Representative of population
The sampling distribution Used in probability sample to allow us to generalize from
sample to population
Non-Probability Samples
Haphazard, convenience or accidental Choose any convenient cases Highly distorted
Quota Establish categories of cases Choose fixed number in each category
Purposive (judgmental) Use expert judgment to pick cases Used for exploratory or field research
Non-Probability (cont.)
Snowball Network or chain referral Use of sociograms to represent
Other types Deviant case
Choose cases for difference from dominant pattern Sequential
Select cases until all possible information obtained
Probability Sampling
Used for quantitative research
Representative of population
Can generalize from sample to population through use of sampling distribution
Logic Behind Probability Sampling
Problem: The populations we wish to study are almost always so large that we are unable to gather information from every case.
Logic (cont.)
Solution: We choose a sample -- a carefully chosen subset of the population – and use information gathered from the cases in the sample to generalize to the population.
Terminology
Statistics are mathematical characteristics of samples.
Parameters are mathematical characteristics of populations.
Statistics are used to estimate parameters.
PARAMETER
STATISTIC
Probability Samples: Must be representative of the population.
Representative: The sample has the same characteristics as the population.
How can we ensure samples are representative? Samples drawn according to the rule of
EPSEM (every case in the population has the same chance of being selected for the sample) are likely to be representative.
The Sampling Distribution
We can use the sampling distribution to calculate our population parameter based on our sample statistic.
The single most important concept in inferential statistics.
Definition: The distribution of a statistic for all possible samples of a given size (N).
The sampling distribution is a theoretical concept.
The Sampling Distribution
Every application of inferential statistics involves 3 different distributions.
Information from the sample is linked to the population via the sampling distribution.
Population
Sampling Distribution
Sample
The Sampling Distribution: Properties
1. Normal in shape.
2. Has a mean equal to the population mean.
μx=μ
3. Has a standard deviation (standard error) equal to the population standard deviation divided by the square root of N.
σx= σ/√N
First Theorem
Tells us the shape of the sampling distribution and defines its mean and standard deviation. If we begin with a trait that is normally distributed
across a population (IQ, height) and take an infinite number of equally sized random samples from that population, the sampling distribution of sample means will be normal.
Central Limit Theorem
For any trait or variable, even those that are not normally distributed in the population, as sample size grows larger, the sampling distribution of sample means will become normal in shape.
Note: The Census is a sample of the entire population
Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
Sampling frame and elements
Selection techniques Table of random numbers
Other types of samples are variants of the simple random sample
Other Probability Samples
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Random Route Sampling
Other Strategies and Issues Related to Random Sampling
Random Digit Dialing (RDD)
Hidden Populations
Sampling Error and Bias
Sample Size