Topic 1 - History, Archaeology and ScienceSyllabus• roles of history and archaeology in investigating the past, complementary nature of both disciplines• the unique methodologies of the historian and archaeologist, the contribution of written and material

remains in providing evidence of the past• archaeological and written sources, how evidence is lost, preserved and rediscovered• asking questions or archaeological and written sources • historiographical issues raised by archaeological and written sources• forensic techniques uses to bring together a coherent picture of a person, group, event and site, problems of

authenticity, fakes and forgeries• history of archaeology - changing purposes, excavations and recording techniques• archaeological conservations and preservation - preservation techniques, the role of science and disputation

over ‘reconstruction of ‘historic sciences’• problems associated with reconstructing the past through archaeological evidence - ancient customs and

religious beliefs• different interpretations of the past• influence of different perspectives on interpretations of the past• significance of selectivity, emphasis and omission for the interpretation of the past• who owns the past? who should administer the past? who presents the past?

Role of history and archaeology in unlocking the past• Archaeology is the science of studying human history in order to reconstruct and gain an understanding of

the past. Other sciences and studies need to be drawn upon to gain an accurate comprehension on how societies have impacted on the world

• History is the knowledge, narrative or record of past events and times, sometimes relating to particular person, country or period

Archaeological Sites and Excavation Methods• Excavation

• Finding a site• Aerial Survey such as crop marks, soil marks and shadow marks• Satellite photography, and geophysical surveys such as using radar and magnets

• Excavations• Most archaeological excavations are conducted for research purposes• Can be done through a grid system, allowing archaeologists to study the vertical dimensions of a site.• Baulks are the separating walls of the grid, laters exposed during the excavations are called strata, and

the study of the strata is called stratigraphy • Open Area Excavation, uncovers the whole site layer by layer.

• It emphasises understanding the relationship between things found in each strata• Findings

• Machinery can be used to move the topsoil and clear the surface. Small tools such as picks, shovels, buckets, and finer tools such as brushes are used when artefacts are found

• Artefacts must remain in situ, so their location and description can be recorded before they are removed

• Visual records are made, and computers are used• It is then carefully analysed then published

Primary, Secondary, Archaeological and Written sources, how evidence is lost, preserved, rediscovered• A source is anything that has survived from the past and can be either primary or secondary,

archaeological or written

• A primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study. These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event.

• All sources produced after the time being studied are called secondary sources• Archaeological sources are the physic remains of past cultures, such remains are called artefacts• Written sources include any materials or objects that have been written on • Some sources can be considered both written and archaeological such as a tombstone • Destruction

• The natural environment is one of the most obvious forms of destructions, through climate and vegetations

• Natural disasters can also wipe out significant evidence• Human Agents of Destruction• Warfare and conflict has caused looting of artefacts tourism can endanger archaeological sites• Modern Development can also potentially destroy anything that lies beneath• Pollution such as air and ground pollution can also cause significant deterioration in archaeological sites

• Preservation• Dry climates in desert regions would preserve normally perishable objects, as the heat and absence of

moisture prevent decay• Cold climates can provide perfect conditions for the preservation of organic material such as human

remains • Geological Conditions such as the composition of the soil in which objects are buried may play a role in

preservation• Chemicals from plants or animals react with minerals from the soil that may prevent decay • Actions of people also play a role, either deliberately or accidentally, such as burial customs

• Rediscovery• Artefacts and monuments can be rediscovered both by design or by accident. Hoards are a good example

(buried valuables in the ground)

Questions on archaeological and written sources• Archaeological

• What is it?• In what context was it found?• Can it be accurately dated?• How does its condition affect its interpretation• Is it reliable or useful in providing evince of the past• What evidence does this source provide about the past

• Written• What type of written source is it?• Who wrote it and when?• What was the writers purpose?• Who was the intended audience?• Is it reliable?• Is it useful in providing evidence about the period?

Historiographical Issues• Distinguishing between fact and opinion

• Bias occurs when a writers objectivity is affected by attitudes about race, gender, class, political or cultural factors

• Gender bias often occurs in ancient societies, most were written by men and therefore proceed a purely male perspective

• A few prominent women portrayed in ancient sources are often performing stereotypical roles• One sided accounts

• Sometimes our knowledge of events in the past is based on only one account when we might expect to have more than one perspective

History of archaeology• Historiography is the study of the writing of history and written histories• The earliest excavators were no more than treasure hinders who were keen to find treasures to sell to

museums or decorate their homes• Eventually, more scientific methods were introduced to refine and develop such archaeological

investigation • Originally, the first excavations involved using dynamite to break open walls, potentially destroying

evidence, doe by Giovanni Belzoni• Sir Flinders Petrie was among the first to use dating techniques • Mortimer Wheeler used precisions methods, revolutionising field archaeology• Arthur Evans discovered the Minoan civilisation • Howard Carter unearthed Tutankhamen’s tomb• Heinrich Schliemann revealed the Mycenaean civilisation and discovered troy

Dating Methods - Absolute and Relative, Fakes and Forgeries• Dating

• Relative Dating • Relative Dating gives archaeologists a general idea of the date of an object, objects found in the same

strata can be relatively dated if found with artefacts that are absolutely dated• Stratigraphic dating (by strata)• Typology and Seriation Dating• The Three Age System (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic)

• Absolute Dating• Absolute Dating is the exact dating of an object, for examples inscriptions of dates and documents with

dates• Radiocarbon Dating - The use of Carbon-14 to measure disintegration of carbon molecules• Dendrochronology - Counting tree rings• XRF and DNA Analysis, typology, thermoluminescence and stratigraphy • Facial Reconstructions

• Fakes and forgeries• The fascination of the past, and the enormous profits to be made, have tempted people the pass of fall

artefacts as the real thing • Advances in scientific techniques often enable such fakes to be revealed more readily than in the past

Ethics• Heritage

• Heritage is regarded as those things passed down through generations that give a sense of identity and belonging. There is family, community, national and international heritage

• Who owns the past?• The issue of ownership can be both legal and moral• Before there were laws preventing ancient artefacts from being taken out of their countries and origins,

finds were considered ‘finders keepers’• This is why museums have such large collections of antiquities• Many antiquities have been acquired from private collectors and have largely disappeared from public

view• Who administers and presents the past?

• Those who administer the past are its keeps or custodians. They are responsible for the cost of its upkeep and preservation

• Today museums are the main repositories of the past

Topic 2 - Tutankhamun’s TombSyllabus• its discovery and excavation by Howard Carter• consideration of the following aspects of the tomb and what they suggest about Egypt at the time of

Tutankhamen: size and structure, burial furniture, possessions, decorations, afterlife• details of burial customs - mummification, funeral procession and burial• tomb paintings and the information they provide about burial: deities, and funerary beliefs and practices • roles and responsibilities of a king in New Kingdom Egypt• archaeological/written evidence of the uniqueness of Tutankhamun's tomb in the Eighteenth Dynasty• Tutankhamun and popular culture

Discovery• Through several excavations in the past century, many excavators declared that there was nothing left to

find in Egypt.• World War 1 in 1914 almost ceased Carter’s work in Egypt, but in 1917, Carter and his sponsor Lord

Canarvon, began searching in The Valley of The Kings. • They spent a number of years, and a large sum of money, searching for something they were unsure that

even existed, Tutankhamen’s tomb. • Carter soon discovered several pieces of evidence, a faience cup, a piece of gold foil, and a cache of

funerary items which all bore the name of Tutankhamen. Carter was determined to systematically search the area where the artefacts were found by excavating down to the bedrock.

• Over many years of searching, Carter and his workers discovered a step that had been cut into the rock on November 1922.

• Over the next few days, a total of 12 steps were unearthed, and in front of the steps, was the top plastered door, where the seals gave the impression that it was the resting place of a royal necropolis.

• Three weeks later, 16 steps were revealed, and seals on the bottom of the door read Tutankhamen.• On the morning of the 25th of November. the door was photographed and opened

Excavation• The tomb consisted of two main rooms, the Burial Chamber, where the King lay, and the antechamber, a

room filled from bottom to top with artefacts and ancient items. • Antechamber• Before excavation began, each item was numbered and photographed in situ, they were then

documented, and a brief description written• The chamber was a small room, and the items tangled within one another, so a series of supports and

pulleys had to be used to successfully remove the items without causing damage.• The items were placed on sketchers then wrapped and carried carefully out of the tomb

• Burial Chamber

• The burial chamber consisted of yellow, painted walls, various small items such as necklaces and the shrine containing Tutankhamen’s sarcophagus.

• After dismantling the first shrine, it appeared as though there were four shines in total, each weighing about 500kg.

• Before Carter could finish opening the four sarcophagi, he was involved in an argument with the Antiquities Service and abandoned the excavation, heading to the United States.

• In 1925, Carter resumed excavation. All sarcophagi were carefully removed, revealing a series of coffins, in which the mummy of Tutankhamen lay inside.

Aspects of the Tomb compared to 18th dynasty tombs• It was usual for a pharaoh to spend a considerable part of his reign preparing for his tomb• Because of Tutankhamun’s young death, there was no time to prepare on the a lavish scale seen in other

royal tombs in the period. Tutankhamun’s tomb was originally designed for a private not a pharaoh • Tombs in the 18th Dynasty, usually had the same sizes, and the same decorations as other tombs• Structure and Decorations are similar to typical 19th dynasty tombs such as Amenhotep, Setit and Ramases• Tutankhamun’s tomb is significantly smaller, only containing two main rooms• Wall paintings are restricted to the burial chamber• The condition of Tutankhamun’s tomb was rushed, artefacts and items were strewn in poor manner• Tutankhamun’s tomb contained more preserved burial furniture and possessions than any other tomb• Some 18th Dynasty Tombs were damaged by natural causes, and Tutankhamun’s tomb lay across a fault

line• The coffin and the sarcophagus were the only aspects in the tomb that showed much significance to an

18th Dynasty Tomb

Burial Customs• Mummification

• When the pharaoh died, his body was prepared for burial by embalmers who carried out the important ritual of mummification

• In Herodotus’ description of mummification he describes:• The brain is removed, contents of abdomen removed, body is covered in natrum for seventy days, it is

ten washed and wrapped completely with linen• The aim of mummification was not to preserve a body, but to create a new body that would last for

eternity, or to house a person’s ka and ba (non physical parts of a person)• Funeral Procession and Burial

• Opening of the Mouth Ceremony• The opening of the Mouth Ceremony was an ancient Egyptian ritual• It involves the symbolic animation of a statue or a mummy by magically opening its mouth so that it

could breathe or speak • A painting on the east side of the burial chamber depicts Tutankhamun's mummy lying on a bier sitting

on a middle of a boat• Isis and Nephthys can be seen on the sides of the bier, twelve court officials and viziers are seen pulling

the boat across the sand

Tomb Paintings/Religious Themes in The Tomb• Unlike other royal tombs, Tutankhamun’s tomb’s paintings were restricted to the Burial Chamber• The scenes depict the funeral procession, the ‘Opening of the Mouth’ ceremony, and the pharaoh being

welcomed into the afterlife by a range of deities• All scenes were oriented toward the West Wall, which contained a detail from the royal funerary text,

Amduat• Wall Paintings and Osiris, the god of the afterlife, underworld and the dead• In the first scene, Tutankhamun is represented as Osiris• In the third scene, Tutankhamun is painted embracing Osiris

Tutankhamun and Popular Culture• Tutmania was expressed in a number of different media during the 1920s• Egyptian motifs appeared everywhere in architecture, art and jewellery • Tutankhamun’s curse, the opening of the tomb gave birth to the phenomenon of Tutankhamun’s curse,

example:• A cobra, attacked and swallowed Carter’s pet canary• The Death of Canarvon from pneumonia

Pharaohs Role - religious leader, warrior, hunter, administrator • Religious Leader

• The Pharaoh in ancient Egypt was the political and religious leader of the people and held the titles 'Lord of the Two Lands’ and 'High Priest of Every Temple’.

• They were seen as mortal reincarnations of Horus, and ancient Egyptian God• Administrator

• Pharaohs main responsibility was maintaining universal order, known as Ma’at• Pharaoh also had to ensure the land was productive and profitable and the people obeyed the law. • The Pharaoh was believed to have the ability to see good and evil, and the divine authority to make laws

and to punish those who broke them.• Hunter, Warrior

• Another of the Pharaoh's sacred duties was the responsibility for defending the Egypt's borders. • The Pharaoh was in charge of both the army and the navy, and was expected to make war on other

countries to gain land and resources, to protect Egypt, and keep foreigners out.• Even in making war, all of the Pharaoh's actions were seen as essential to maintaining Ma'at

Topic 3 - Bronze Age Aegean Societies - Crete and TheraSyllabusCrete and Thera• location of Crete/Thera in relation to mainland Greece• discovery and excavations at Crete / Thera, Arthur Evans and Spyridon Martinos• wall paintings and frescoes• pottery, architecture and trade• relationship of Minoan civilisation on Crete• role of the eruption at Thera in ending the Minoan civilisation• significance of the site

Crete and TheraLocation• The Santorini Volcanic Archipelago is made up of 5 islands located in the Aegean Sea between Greece and

Crete.• It is part of the Cyclades island regionDiscovery/Excavations• Spyridon Marinatos• In the 1930s Spyridon developed a theory that the sudden destruction of the Minoan civilisation was

linked to the eruption of the Theran Volcano• Marinatos began excavations on Thera in 1967, resulting in spectacular finds

• Arthur Evans• Responsible for the excavations, conservation and reconstruction of the Palace of Knossos, revealing the

Minoan civilisation

Akrotiri• Part of the Cyclades region, the tiny island of Thera boasts ancient archaeological sites from the Bronze

Age such as the town of Akrotiri• The progress and prosperity of this island came to an end after the volcanic eruption, covering the island in

ash• Spyridon Martinos was responsible for the excavations of Akrotiri in 1967• Excavators estimate Akrotiri to be a town of several thousand inhabitants

Wall Paintings and FrescoesTheran and Minoan Techniques:• Buon Fresco : Paint applied to wet plaster, ensures better preservation as plaster absorbs paint. Fragments

of frescoes discovered today with good colour quality.• Fresco secco: Paint applied to dry fresco, flaking paint and poor preservation• Use of mineral pigments, organic glue and limited colours such as blue, black red, brown and yellow• Paintings can cover entire walls, and even entire rooms, and were divided into three registers• Subjects include geometric motifs, buildings or structures, abstract patters, plants, domestic and wild

animals and humans• One key aspect of Minoan and Theran painting is the naturalism (realistic representation) of animals, plants

and materials• Frescoes dominated Minoan Palaces, such as Bull Leaping Fresco• Frescoes found in private and public housing in Thera include Young Boxers, The Admirals fresco, The

Spring Fresco and the Naval Campaign FrescoPottery, architecture, building remainsTheran Pottery• All the buildings excavated at Akrotiri, some miraculously intact, some in pieces.• Pottery was used for a wide variety of purposes such as storage, food prep, eating and drinking, bathing

and washing, ritual activity and the transportation of goods• Local pots were made from coarse, buff-coloured clay painted in black brown and red

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• Potters were influenced by Minoans, painting geometric, floral and faunal motifs

Minoan Pottery• The earliest pottery in Crete was probably made by women• EMII saw the invention of the turntable, and more advanced usage of the kiln, to create beautiful designs.• MMII came the invention of the potters wheel, motifs based on nature and the invention of stirrup jars and

rhytons.• Mycenaeans were influenced by the Minoan Pottery and developed flat bottomed alabastra and amphorae

used for storage• Gradual decline of pottery started in LM IIC, as the palaces became deserted• The prosperity and high quality of life in Theran ,Minoan and Mycenaean societies is the result of an

efficient trading system, and prime location in the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas• Items traded between Ancient Thera and Crete include pottery, materials and food.

Theran Architecture• There are there types of buildings identified at Thera• Mansions (eg Xeste)• Mansions have similar features to places built on Crete such as:• Facades of ashlar masonry• Lustral basins (adytons), points to a religious function• Rooms containing storage jars and plain pottery• Polythyra, large spaces divided into two or more rooms by pier and door partitions

• Large freestanding buildings (eg West House)• Building blocks or joined housing (alpha,beta)• Thera had no palaces, Minoan architecture was similar with the addition of palaces• A lustral basin, a Minoan structure found in Leste 3

Building Techniques and Materials• Windows were always placed next to doorways, basements had small windows, while windows on upper

stories tended to be large• Most common building materials were unworked stone and clay• Internal walls were made of thin mud bricks or straw filled clay reinforced with timber• Doors and windows were wooden, stairs were usually made of stone• Floors were usually beaten earth, and roofs were made of branches and reeds laid on wooden beams• Rainwater was directed through long clay pipes • Narrow paved passageways led from house to house, and underneath lay a sophisticated sewage system• Squares used for religious and ceremonial gatherings

Knossos• Knossos is a famous Minoan Palace. It is the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete, and is

considered Europe’s oldest city as well as being the centre of Minoan Civilisation • The palace contains a total of 1300 rooms, and was a multi storey complex consisting of many courts, a

theatre and many storage rooms• Mainly made up of ashlar blocks of limestone (like all other palaces)• Building supported by large pillars and columns on the upper floors• Palace was a place of high colour and aesthetics (like all Greek buildings) and featured many colours and

frescoes such as:• The bull leaping fresco• Fresco of dolphins

Room Types/Uses• Central Court : Paved area that provided light, ceremonies, rituals and feasts• Throne Room: Sacred area containing a throne made of alabaster

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• West Magazines: Oblong storerooms containing pithoi• Tripartite Shrine: Main sanctuary in Knossos, contains floor depressions for offerings, as well as pillar

worship• King’s and Queen’s Megaron: Residences for the hierarchy. Luxurious rooms containing windows,

benches and adjacent bathrooms with running water• All palaces had an intricate drainage system, channeling waste and sewage away from palace

Religion• Lustral Basins and adytons, bathrooms used for ceremonial washing, are Minoan sacred structures found in

Xeste 3 in Thera• The Horns of Consecration describe the horns of a sacred bull that was used as ritual furniture. These horns

are a Minoan religious symbol found outside the Theran house of Delta.• Theran priestesses wore a Minoan style dress (flounced skirts), and carried the Knot of Isis, similar to that

of Minoan priestesses• Minoan religious figurines have been found on Thera such as serpents, birds and labrys, a sacred double

bronze axe• More evidence of Minoan religion include the presence of figurines and shrines on top of mountains, called

a peak sanctuary• Altars and figurines are also found inside caves, a common place of Minoan worship. Of the 2000 caves in

Crete, 35 are sacred. Pillars are also found, suggesting pillar worship

Trade• Small Kamares style cups found in Thera imported, from Crete or Mycenae • Much Minoan pottery found in Akrotiri, found in Akrotiri, used as containers for goods• Seal Stones and fine stone bases found imported from Crete• Minoan metric system was used, large numbers of disc shaped lead weights found in various sizes• Large jars containing white snail shells found in Thera, a common delicacy in Crete• Frescoes depicting tradeTheran Eruption• The first phase of the eruption was a column of ash 35km into the atmosphere, a rain of pumice raced

down the mountain• Next phases of the eruption became violent, pyroclastic flows racing across the sea, causing tsunamis that

hit the costal cities on Crete, causing mass destruction

Significance of the sitePlumbing - Introduction of drainage and toiletsFrescoes - Their contraction to Aegean and later artArchitecture - Knowledge of construction of multi-storeyed buildingsShipbuilding - Contribution to Bronze Age Aegean trade and economyVulcanology - Science has been stimulated by the need to understand the nature of the eruption and how it occurred

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Topic 4 - Homer and the Trojan WarHomer and the Trojan War• overview of the Bronze Age world: major cultures and site, social, economic and political structures• Trojan legends: Greek gods, Homer and the Epic Cycle, ancient and modern views before Schliemann• discovery and excavation at Troy: Calvert, Schliemann, Dorpfeld, Blegen, Korfmann• Schliemann’s excavations at Mycenae• role of written evidence: Linear B - tablets from Pylos, Homer’s Iliad, Euripides’ Women of troy, Hittite

diplomatic archive• role and status of women: treatment of Helen, fate of Trojan and greek women, goddesses• function of myth: greek values, Greek religion, fantasy history• major issues: evidence of the Trojan War, Homer’s Iliad, Schliemann - father of archaeology or fraud, the

legacy of the Trojan War for classical Greek Society, poetry as an historical source

Homer and the Trojan WarArchaeological Sites of Mycenae and Troy• Schliemann unearthed 7 layers of the city superimposed on one another. • The second layer comprised of a well built citadel with 10 metre high fortifications approached by a paved

ramp and defensive gates, as well as the Treasure of Priam. • However, Schliemann’s unskilled excavations and somewhat ecstatic personality have caused controversy

in the accuracy of his finds, soon revealing anachronisms and discrepancies in relation to Homer’s account• Schliemann’s controversial method of excavating, digging a giant trench through the mound at Hissarlik

has caused much controversy

Mycenaean Sites - Pylos, Tiryns, Mycenae• Pylos has evidence of continuous human presence dating back to the Neolithic Age. In Mycenaean times,

it was an important centre• The Mycenaean state of Pylos covered an area of 2000 square km and had a minimum population of

50,000 according to Linear B tablets, or even perhaps as large as 80,000 - 120,000• Bronze Age Pylos was excavated by Carl Blegen between 1939 and 1952.• This site was abandoned sometime after the 8th century BC and burned to the ground.• Tiryns was a hill fort with occupation ranging back seven thousand years, from before the beginning of

the Bronze Age.• The Acropolis was first excavated by the German archaeologist Tirs in 1831. • The walls of the fort extend to the entire area of the top of the hill, it consists of strong walls as well as

series of tunnels and palatial buildings• Schliemann’s excavations at Mycenae involve a discovery of a circle of shaft graves, containing 15 gold

plated skeletons, one of which was believed to have belonged to Agamemnon.

Excavation History• Frank Calvert sank trial trenches into a mound known as Hissarlik, situated in the Troad area of North

Western Asia Minor.• Calvert realised the mound promised much for the excavator who had the resources to carry out such

investigation • Heinrich Schliemann was the first to dig at Hissarlik

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• Wilhem Dorpfeld further excavated at Hissarlik after Schliemann and identified two more layers. On the seventh layer, he found a magnificent fortress, strong stone towers and walls and a monumental palace, suffering from conflagration

• Carl Blegen stated Troy VIIa as the 'real' Troy of Homer, but it does not fit Homer's description, as it consisted of poor, cramped housing and strong walls

• Manfred Korfmann was able to use some of the very latest technology to reveal new areas of the site for excavation and study

Written Evidence/ Evidence from Homer• Written evidence for the war remains minimal and Greek literature such as Homer’s Iliad are our main

sources. • The Iliad however, is more of an epic play then a historical account, but it has given us a general

understanding, and has motivated archaeologists such as Schliemann. • Other ancient sources include Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War, which regards the war as

occurring, and playwrights such as Euprides’ The Trojan Women, a story told by the perspectives of women after the war.

• Mycenaean Linear B tablets refer to “men watching the coastline”, indicating threat of invasion, and some names of Greek deities and inventories of military equipment including chariots and deployment of troops have been inscribed

• The Hittite diplomatic archive was a series of cuneiform outlining place names around the Asia Minor region

Role of Women• The Late Bronze Age is filled with women who changed their roles within the home and turned them into

positions of wisdom and power, making their husbands comprehend their importance.• When Paris abducted Helen, lawfully she is the wife of Achaean Menelaus, the powerful King of Sparta.

Menelaus was chosen as the husband for Helen, under the decision of her mortal father, Tyndareus. • In the courting of Helen, the Oath of Tyndareus was established stating that all the suitors present would

come to the defence of the chosen husband (Menelaus) if anyone brought quarrel to him.

Legacy of the Trojan War• Commonly known as being reared in the Homeric Tradition, it is the inspiration and interest in Homer and

The Trojan War• It has become an important part of our cultural heritage and has inspired modern artists, sculptors,

novelists, poems, filmmakers and advertisers

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