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  • Rosetta Stone WJH Article · 2020. 9. 25. · Rosetta Stone Andrew Dalby,¹ et al. The Rosetta...
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WikiJournal of Humanities, 2019, 2(1):1 doi: 10.15347/wjh/2019.001 Review Article Rosetta Stone Andrew Dalby,¹ et al. The Rosetta Stone (British Museum EA24) is a granodiorite stele, found in 1799, inscribed with three versions of a decree issued at Memphis in 196 BC during the Ptolemaic dynasty on behalf of King Ptole- my V . The top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian using hieroglyphic and demotic scripts, respec- tively, while the bottom is in Ancient Greek. As the decree has only minor differences between the three versions, the Rosetta Stone proved to be the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. The stone, carved in black granodiorite during the Hellenistic period, is believed to have originally been displayed within a temple, possibly at nearby Sais. It was probably moved in Late Antiquity or during the Mameluk period, and was eventually used as building material in the construction of Fort Julien near the town of Rashid (Rosetta) in the Nile Delta. It was rediscovered there in July 1799 by a French soldier, Pierre-François Bouchard, during the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt. It was the first Ancient Egyptian bilingual text recovered in modern times, and it aroused widespread public interest with its potential to decipher this previously untranslated hieroglyphic script. Lithographic copies and plaster casts began circulating among European museums and scholars. Meanwhile, British troops defeated the French in Egypt in 1801, and the original stone came into British possession under the Capitulation of Alexandria and was transported to London. It has been on public display at the British Museum almost continuously since 1802, and is the most-visited object there. Study of the decree was already under way when the first full translation of the Greek text appeared in 1803. It was 20 years, however, before the transliteration of the Egyptian scripts was announced by Jean- François Champollion in Paris in 1822; it took longer still before scholars were able to read Ancient Egyptian inscriptions and literature confidently. Major ad- vances in the decoding were recognition that the stone offered three versions of the same text (1799); that the demotic text used phonetic characters to spell foreign names (1802); that the hieroglyphic text did so as well, and had pervasive similarities to the demotic (Thomas Young, 1814); and that, in addition to being used for foreign names, phonetic characters were also used to spell native Egyptian words (Champollion, 1822–1824). Ever since its rediscovery, the stone has been the focus of nationalist rivalries, including its transfer from French to British possession during the Napoleonic Wars, a long-running dispute over the relative value of Young and Champollion's contributions to the decipherment, and demands for the stone's return to Egypt. Three other fragmentary copies of the same decree were discovered later, and several similar Egyptian bilingual or trilingual inscriptions are now known, including three slightly earlier Ptolemaic decrees (the Decree of Alexandria in 243 BC, the Decree of Canopus in 238 BC, and the Memphis decree of Ptolemy IV , c. 218 BC). The Rosetta Stone is, therefore, no longer unique, but it was the essential key to modern understanding of Ancient Egyptian literature and civilisation. The term Rosetta Stone is now used in oth- er contexts as the name for the essential clue to a new field of knowledge. of | WikiJournal of Humanities 1 19 1 Dalby Andrew *Author correspondence: [email protected] ORCID: [0000-0003-3527-8320] Licensed under: CC-BY Received 17-06-2018; accepted 20-02-2019

Rosetta Stone WJH Article · 2020. 9. 25. · Rosetta Stone Andrew Dalby,¹ et al. The Rosetta Stone (British Museum EA24) is a granodiorite stele, found in 1799, inscribed with three

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  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

    ReviewArticle

    RosettaStoneAndrewDalby,¹etal.

    TheRosettaStone (BritishMuseumEA24) isagranodioritestele, found in1799, inscribedwith threeversionsofadecreeissuedatMemphisin196BCduringthePtolemaicdynastyonbehalfofKingPtole-myV.ThetopandmiddletextsareinAncientEgyptianusinghieroglyphicanddemoticscripts,respec-tively,whilethebottomisinAncientGreek.Asthedecreehasonlyminordifferencesbetweenthethreeversions,theRosettaStoneprovedtobethekeytodecipheringEgyptianhieroglyphs.

    Thestone,carvedinblackgranodioriteduringtheHellenisticperiod,isbelievedtohaveoriginallybeendisplayedwithinatemple,possiblyatnearbySais.ItwasprobablymovedinLateAntiquityorduringtheMamelukperiod,andwaseventuallyusedasbuildingmaterialintheconstructionofFortJuliennearthetownofRashid (Rosetta) in theNileDelta. Itwas rediscovered there inJuly 1799byaFrench soldier,Pierre-FrançoisBouchard,during theNapoleonic campaign inEgypt. Itwas thefirstAncientEgyptianbilingualtextrecoveredinmoderntimes,anditarousedwidespreadpublicinterestwithitspotentialtodecipher this previously untranslated hieroglyphic script. Lithographic copies and plaster casts begancirculatingamongEuropeanmuseumsandscholars.Meanwhile,British troopsdefeatedtheFrench inEgyptin1801,andtheoriginalstonecameintoBritishpossessionundertheCapitulationofAlexandriaandwastransportedtoLondon.IthasbeenonpublicdisplayattheBritishMuseumalmostcontinuouslysince1802,andisthemost-visitedobjectthere.

    StudyofthedecreewasalreadyunderwaywhenthefirstfulltranslationoftheGreektextappearedin1803.Itwas20years,however,beforethetransliterationoftheEgyptianscriptswasannouncedbyJean-FrançoisChampollioninParisin1822;ittooklonger

    stillbeforescholarswereabletoreadAncientEgyptianinscriptionsandliteratureconfidently.Majorad-vancesinthedecodingwererecognitionthatthestoneofferedthreeversionsofthesametext(1799);thatthedemotictextusedphoneticcharacterstospellforeignnames(1802);thatthehieroglyphictextdidsoaswell,andhadpervasivesimilaritiestothedemotic(ThomasYoung,1814);andthat,inadditionto being used for foreign names, phonetic characters were also used to spell native Egyptian words(Champollion,1822–1824).

    Eversinceitsrediscovery,thestonehasbeenthefocusofnationalistrivalries,includingitstransferfromFrenchtoBritishpossessionduringtheNapoleonicWars,along-runningdisputeovertherelativevalueofYoungandChampollion'scontributionstothedecipherment,anddemandsforthestone'sreturntoEgypt.

    Threeotherfragmentarycopiesofthesamedecreewerediscoveredlater,andseveralsimilarEgyptianbilingualortrilingualinscriptionsarenowknown,includingthreeslightlyearlierPtolemaicdecrees(theDecreeofAlexandriain243BC,theDecreeofCanopusin238BC,andtheMemphisdecreeofPtolemyIV,c.218BC).TheRosettaStoneis,therefore,nolongerunique,butitwastheessentialkeytomodernunderstandingofAncientEgyptianliteratureandcivilisation.ThetermRosettaStoneisnowusedinoth-ercontextsasthenamefortheessentialcluetoanewfieldofknowledge.

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    1DalbyAndrew

    *Author correspondence:[email protected]: [0000-0003-3527-8320]Licensed under:CC-BYReceived 17-06-2018; accepted 20-02-2019

    mailto:[email protected]://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/https://xtools.wmflabs.org/articleinfo/en.wikipedia.org/Rosetta_Stone/2019-02-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/granodioritehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stelehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone_decreehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphaneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphaneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/granodioritehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_periodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_templehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sais,_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Julienhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosettahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_Deltahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Bouchardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bilingual_inscriptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptology#Modern_Egyptologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/undeciphered_writing_systemshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithographyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plaster_casthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitulation_of_Alexandria_(1801)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Decreeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decree_of_Canopushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decree_of_Memphis_(Ptolemy_IV)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decree_of_Memphis_(Ptolemy_IV)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literaturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptmailto:[email protected]://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

    ReviewArticle

    DescriptionTheRosettaStoneislistedas"astoneofblackgranodiorite,bearingthreeinscriptions...foundatRosetta"inacon-temporarycatalogueoftheartefactsdiscoveredbytheFrenchexpeditionandsurrenderedtoBritishtroopsin1801.[1]AtsomeperiodafteritsarrivalinLondon,theinscriptionswerecolouredinwhitechalktomakethemmorelegible,andtheremainingsurfacewascoveredwitha layerofcarnaubawaxdesignedtoprotect it fromvisitors'fingers.[2]Thisgaveadarkcolourtothestonethatledtoitsmistakenidentificationasblackbasalt.[3]Theseadditionswerere-movedwhenthestonewascleanedin1999,revealingtheoriginaldarkgreytintoftherock,thesparkleof itscrys-talline structure, and a pink vein running across the top left corner.[4]Comparisonswith theKlemm collection ofEgyptianrocksamplesshowedacloseresemblancetorockfromasmallgranodioritequarryatGebelTingaronthewestbankoftheNile,westofElephantineintheregionofAswan;thepinkveinistypicalofgranodioritefromthisregion.[5]

    TheRosettaStoneis1,123millimetres(3ft8in)highatitshighestpoint,757mm(2ft5.8 in)wide,and284mm(11in)thick.Itweighsapproximately760kilograms(1,680lb).[6] It bears three inscriptions: the top register inAncientEgyptianhieroglyphs,thesecondintheEgyptiandemot-icscript,andthe third inAncientGreek.[7]The frontsur-face ispolishedand the inscriptions lightly incisedon it;thesidesofthestonearesmoothed,butthebackisonlyroughlyworked,presumablybecausethiswouldhavenotbeenvisiblewhenitwaserected.[5][8]

    Originalstele

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    Figure2|Onepossiblereconstructionoftheoriginalstele
KeithSchengili-Roberts,CCBY-SA3.0

    Figure1|Onepossiblereconstructionoftheoriginalstele
KeithSchengili-Roberts,CCBY-SA3.0

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/granodioritehttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chalkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/carnauba_waxhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking23-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/basalthttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vein_(geology)https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemarie_and_Dietrich_Klemm_Collectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/granodioritehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebel_Tingarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephantinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aswanhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-MiddletonKlemm207-7https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-British_Museum-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hieroglyphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_languagehttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Ray3-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incised#Archaeology_and_the_Plastic_Artshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-MiddletonKlemm207-7https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking28-10

  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

    ReviewArticle

    TheRosettaStoneisafragmentofalargerstele.NoadditionalfragmentswerefoundinlatersearchesoftheRosettasite.[9]Owing to its damaged state, none of the three texts is absolutely complete.The top register, composed ofEgyptianhieroglyphs, suffered themostdamage.Only the last 14 linesof thehieroglyphic text canbe seen;all ofthemarebrokenontherightside,and12ofthemontheleft.Thefollowingregisterofdemotictexthassurvivedbest;ithas32lines,ofwhichthefirst14areslightlydamagedontherightside.ThefinalregisterofGreektextcontains54lines,ofwhichthefirst27surviveinfull;therestareincreasinglyfragmentaryduetoadiagonalbreakatthebottomrightofthestone.[10]

    Thefull lengthofthehieroglyphictextandthetotalsizeoftheoriginalstele,ofwhichtheRosettaStone isa frag-ment,canbeestimatedbasedoncomparablestelaethathavesurvived,includingothercopiesofthesameorder.TheslightlyearlierdecreeofCanopus,erectedin238BCduringthereignofPtolemyIII,is2,190millimetreshigh(7.19ft)and820mm(32in)wide,andcontains36linesofhieroglyphictext,73ofdemotictext,and74ofGreek.Thetextsareofsimilarlength.[11]Fromsuchcomparisons,itcanbeestimatedthatanadditional14or15linesofhieroglyphicinscrip-tionaremissingfromthetopregisteroftheRosettaStone,amountingtoanother300millimetres(12in).[12]Inaddi-tion to the inscriptions, therewould probably have been a scene depicting the king being presented to the gods,toppedwithawingeddisc,asontheCanopusStele.Theseparallels,andahieroglyphicsignfor"stela"onthestoneitself,

    (seeGardiner'ssign list), suggest that itoriginallyhada roundedtop.[7][13]Theheightof theoriginalstele isestimatedtohavebeenabout149centimetres(4ft11in).[13]

    TheMemphisdecreeanditscontextThestelewaserectedafterthecoronationofKingPtolemyVandwasinscribedwithadecreethatestablishedthedivinecultofthenewruler.[14]ThedecreewasissuedbyacongressofpriestswhogatheredatMemphis.Thedateisgivenas"4Xandikos"intheMacedoniancalendarand"18Mekhir" in theEgyptian calendar,which corresponds to27March196BC.Theyear is statedas theninthyearofPtolemyV'sreign(equatedwith197/196BC),confirmedbynamingfourpriestswhoofficiatedinthatyear:AetossonofAetoswas priest of the divine cults ofAlexander theGreatandthefivePtolemiesdowntoPtolemyVhimself;theotherthreepriestsnamedinturnintheinscriptionarethosewholedtheworshipofBereniceEuergetis(wifeofPtolemy III), Arsinoe Philadelphos (wife and sister ofPtolemy II), andArsinoePhilopator,motherofPtolemyV.[15]However,aseconddateisalsogivenintheGreekandhieroglyphic texts, corresponding to 27 November 197BC,theofficialanniversaryofPtolemy'scoronation.[16]Thedemotictextconflictswiththis,listingconsecutivedaysinMarchforthedecreeandtheanniversary.[16]Itisuncertainwhythisdiscrepancyexists,but it isclearthatthedecreewasissuedin196BCandthatitwasdesignedtore-estab-lishtheruleofthePtolemaickingsoverEgypt.[17]

    ThedecreewasissuedduringaturbulentperiodinEgypt-ianhistory.PtolemyVEpiphanesreignedfrom204to181BC,thesonofPtolemyIVPhilopatorandhiswifeandsisterArsinoe.Hehadbecomerulerattheageoffiveafterthesuddendeathofbothofhisparents,whoweremurderedina

    of | WikiJournalofHumanities 3 19

    Figure3 |OldKingdompharaohPepi IIgrants tax immunitytothepriestsofthetempleofMin. 
KeithSchengili-Roberts,CCBY-SA2.5

    https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking20-11https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Budgea2-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/decree_of_Canopushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergeteshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Mummy106-13https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Mummy109-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner%2527s_sign_list#O._Buildings.2C_parts_of_buildings.2C_etc.https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Ray3-9https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking26-15https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking26-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coronationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphaneshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking25-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_calendarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%25C3%25ABtus_son_of_A%25C3%25ABtushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%25C3%25ABtus_son_of_A%25C3%25ABtushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berenice_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergeteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsinoe_II_of_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsinoe_III_of_Egypthttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-17https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking29-18https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking29-18https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-ShawNicholson_247-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pharaohhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptos_Decreeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_(god)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pharaohhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptos_Decreeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_(god)

  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

    ReviewArticle

    conspiracy that involved Ptolemy IV'smistress Agathoclea, according to contemporary sources.The conspiratorseffectivelyruledEgyptasPtolemyV'sguardians[18][19]untilarevoltbrokeouttwoyears laterundergeneralTlepole-mus,whenAgathoclea andher familywere lynchedby amob inAlexandria.Tlepolemus, in turn,was replaced asguardianin201BCbyAristomenesofAlyzia,whowaschiefministeratthetimeoftheMemphisdecree.[20]

    PoliticalforcesbeyondthebordersofEgyptexacerbatedtheinternalproblemsofthePtolemaickingdom.AntiochusIIItheGreatandPhilipVofMacedonhadmadeapacttodivideEgypt'soverseaspossessions.Philiphadseizedsev-eralislandsandcitiesinCariaandThrace,whiletheBattleofPanium(198BC)hadresultedinthetransferofCoele-Syria, includingJudaea, fromthePtolemies to theSeleucids.Meanwhile, in thesouthofEgypt, therewasa long-standingrevoltthathadbegunduringthereignofPtolemyIV,[16]ledbyHorwenneferandbyhissuccessorAnkhwen-nefer.[21]BoththewarandtheinternalrevoltwerestillongoingwhentheyoungPtolemyVwasofficiallycrownedatMemphisattheageof12(sevenyearsafterthestartofhisreign)andwhen,justoverayearlater,theMemphisde-creewasissued.[19]

    Stelaeofthiskind,whichwereestablishedontheinitiativeofthetemplesratherthanthatoftheking,areuniquetoPtolemaicEgypt. IntheprecedingPharaonicperiod itwouldhavebeenunheardofforanyonebutthedivinerulersthemselvestomakenationaldecisions:bycontrast,thiswayofhonoringakingwasafeatureofGreekcities.Ratherthanmakinghiseulogyhimself,thekinghadhimselfglorifiedanddeifiedbyhissubjectsorrepresentativegroupsofhissubjects.[22]ThedecreerecordsthatPtolemyVgaveagiftofsilverandgraintothetemples.[23]ItalsorecordsthattherewasparticularlyhighfloodingoftheNileintheeighthyearofhisreign,andhehadtheexcesswatersdammedforthebenefitofthefarmers.[23]Inreturnthepriesthoodpledgedthattheking'sbirthdayandcoronationdayswouldbecelebratedannuallyandthatall thepriestsofEgyptwouldservehimalongsidetheothergods.Thedecreecon-cludes with the instruction that a copy was to be placed in every temple, inscribed in the "language of thegods"(Egyptianhieroglyphs),the"languageofdocuments"(Demotic),andthe"languageoftheGreeks"asusedbythePtolemaicgovernment.[24][25]

    SecuringthefavourofthepriesthoodwasessentialforthePtolemaickingstoretaineffectiveruleoverthepopulace.TheHighPriestsofMemphis—wherethekingwascrowned—wereparticularlyimportant,astheywerethehighestreligiousauthoritiesof the timeandhad influence throughout thekingdom.[26]Given that thedecreewas issuedatMemphis,theancientcapitalofEgypt,ratherthanAlexandria,thecentreofgovernmentoftherulingPtolemies,itisevidentthattheyoungkingwasanxioustogaintheiractivesupport.[27]Thus,althoughthegovernmentofEgypthadbeenGreek-speakingeversincetheconquestsofAlexander theGreat, theMemphisdecree, like thethreesimilarearlier decrees, included texts in Egyptian to show its connection to the general populace byway of the literateEgyptianpriesthood.[28]

    TherecanbenoonedefinitiveEnglishtranslationofthedecree,notonlybecausemodernunderstandingofthean-cientlanguagescontinuestodevelop,butalsobecauseoftheminordifferencesbetweenthethreeoriginaltexts.Old-er translationsbyE.A.WallisBudge (1904,1913)[29] andEdwynR.Bevan(1927)[30] areeasilyavailablebutarenowoutdated,ascanbeseenbycomparingthemwiththerecenttranslationbyR.S.Simpson,whichisbasedonthede-motictextandcanbefoundonline,[31]or,bestofall,withthemoderntranslationsofallthreetexts,withintroductionandfacsimiledrawing,thatwerepublishedbyQuirkeandAndrewsin1989.[32]

    ThestelewasalmostcertainlynotoriginallyplacedatRashid(Rosetta)whereitwasfound,butmorelikelycamefromatemplesitefartherinland,possiblytheroyaltownofSais.[33]ThetemplefromwhichitoriginallycamewasprobablyclosedaroundAD392whenEasternRomanemperorTheodosiusIorderedtheclosingofallnon-Christiantemplesofworship.[34]Theoriginalstelebrokeatsomepoint,itslargestpiecebecomingwhatwenowknowastheRosettaStone.AncientEgyptiantempleswerelaterusedasquarriesfornewconstruction,andtheRosettaStoneprobablywasre-usedinthismanner.LateritwasincorporatedinthefoundationsofafortressconstructedbytheMamelukeSultanQaitbay(c.1416/18–1496)todefendtheBolbitinebranchoftheNileatRashid.Thereitlayforatleastanotherthreecenturiesuntilitsrediscovery.[35]

    Threeother inscriptions relevant to thesameMemphisdecreehavebeen foundsince thediscoveryof theRosettaStone:theNubayrahStele,astelefoundinElephantineandNoubTaha,andaninscriptionfoundattheTempleofPhilae(onthePhilaeobelisk).[36]UnliketheRosettaStone,thehieroglyphictextsoftheseinscriptionswererelatively

    of | WikiJournalofHumanities 4 19

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    intact.TheRosettaStonehadbeendecipheredlongbeforetheywerefound,butlaterEgyptologistshaveusedthemtorefinethereconstructionofthehieroglyphsthatmusthavebeenusedinthelostportionsofthehieroglyphictextontheRosettaStone.

    RediscoveryNapoleon's1798campaigninEgyptinspiredaburstofEgyptomaniainEurope,andespeciallyFrance.Acorpsof167technical experts (savants), known as theCommission desSciences et desArts, accompanied the French expedi-tionaryarmytoEgypt.On15July1799,FrenchsoldiersunderthecommandofColoneld'Hautpoulwerestrengthen-ingthedefencesofFortJulien,acoupleofmilesnorth-eastoftheEgyptianportcityofRosetta(modern-dayRashid).LieutenantPierre-FrançoisBouchardspottedaslabwithinscriptionsononesidethatthesoldiershaduncovered.[37]Heandd'HautpoulsawatoncethatitmightbeimportantandinformedGeneralJacques-FrançoisMenou,whohap-penedtobeatRosetta.AThefindwasannouncedtoNapoleon'snewlyfoundedscientificassociationinCairo,theIn-stitutd'Égypte,inareportbyCommissionmemberMichelAngeLancretnotingthatitcontainedthreeinscriptions,thefirstinhieroglyphsandthethirdinGreek,andrightlysuggestingthatthethreeinscriptionswereversionsofthesametext.Lancret'sreport,dated19July1799,wasreadtoameetingoftheInstitutesoonafter25July.Bouchard,meanwhile,transportedthestonetoCairoforexaminationbyscholars.NapoleonhimselfinspectedwhathadalreadybeguntobecalledlaPierredeRosette,theRosettaStone,shortlybeforehisreturntoFranceinAugust1799.[9]

    ThediscoverywasreportedinSeptemberinCourrierdel'Égypte,theofficialnewspaper of the French expedition.The anonymous reporter expressed ahopethatthestonemightonedaybethekeytodecipheringhieroglyphs.A[9]In 1800 three of theCommission's technical experts devisedways tomakecopiesofthetextsonthestone.OneoftheseexpertswasJean-JosephMar-cel,aprinterandgiftedlinguist,whoiscreditedasthefirsttorecognisethatthemiddle textwaswritten in theEgyptiandemotic script, rarelyused forstoneinscriptionsandseldomseenbyscholarsatthattime,ratherthanSyri-ac as had originally been thought.[9] It was artist and inventor Nicolas-JacquesContéwhofoundawaytousethestoneitselfasaprintingblocktoreproducetheinscription.[38]AslightlydifferentmethodwasadoptedbyAn-toine Galland. The prints that resulted were taken to Paris by GeneralCharlesDugua.ScholarsinEuropewerenowabletoseetheinscriptionsandattempttoreadthem.[39]

    AfterNapoleon'sdeparture,FrenchtroopsheldoffBritishandOttomanat-tacks for another 18months. InMarch 1801, the British landed atAboukirBay.Menouwasnow incommandof theFrenchexpedition.His troops, in-cludingtheCommission,marchednorthtowardstheMediterraneancoasttomeet theenemy, transporting thestonealongwithmanyotherantiquities.Hewasdefeatedinbattle,andtheremnantofhisarmyretreatedtoAlexan-driawheretheyweresurroundedandbesieged,thestonenowinsidethecity.MenousurrenderedonAugust30.[40][41]

    FromFrenchtoBritishpossessionAfterthesurrender,adisputearoseoverthefateoftheFrencharchaeologi-calandscientificdiscoveriesinEgypt,includingtheartefacts,biologicalspec-imens,notes,plans,anddrawingscollectedbythemembersofthecommis-sion.Menourefusedtohandthemover,claimingthattheybelongedtotheInstitute. British General John Hely-Hutchinson refused to end the siegeuntilMenou gave in. Scholars Edward DanielClarke andWilliam Richard

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    Figure 4 | Report of the arrival of theRosetta Stone in England in TheGentle-man'sMagazine,1802

    Gentleman'sMagazine,publicdomain

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gentleman%2527s_Magazinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gentleman%2527s_Magazinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptomaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_des_Sciences_et_des_Artshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Julienhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Bouchardhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Benjamin2009-39https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Menouhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_d%2527%25C3%2589gyptehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_d%2527%25C3%2589gyptehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Ange_Lancrethttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking20-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courrier_de_l%2527%25C3%2589gyptehttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking20-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Marcelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Marcelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_languagehttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking20-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas-Jacques_Cont%25C3%25A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas-Jacques_Cont%25C3%25A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/woodblock_printinghttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Adkins38-40https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Galland_(1763%25E2%2580%25931851)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Galland_(1763%25E2%2580%25931851)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Duguahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-41https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Qir_Bayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Qir_Bayhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-42https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking21-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hely-Hutchinson,_2nd_Earl_of_Donoughmorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Daniel_Clarkehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Richard_Hamiltonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gentleman%2527s_Magazinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gentleman%2527s_Magazine

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    Hamilton, newly arrived from England, agreed to examinethecollectionsinAlexandriaandclaimedtohavefoundmanyartefactsthattheFrenchhadnotrevealed. Ina letterhome,Clarke said that "we found much more in their possessionthanwasrepresentedorimagined".[42]

    Hutchinson claimed that all materials were property of theBritish Crown, but French scholar ÉtienneGeoffroy Saint-HilairetoldClarkeandHamiltonthattheFrenchwouldratherburnall theirdiscoveries thanturnthemover, referringomi-nouslytothedestructionoftheLibraryofAlexandria.ClarkeandHamilton pleaded the French scholars' case toHutchin-son, who finally agreed that items such as natural historyspecimenswouldbeconsideredthescholars'privateproper-ty.[41][43]Menouquickly claimed the stone, too, as his privateproperty.[44][41] Hutchinson was equally aware of the stone'sunique value and rejected Menou's claim. Eventually anagreementwas reached,andthe transferof theobjectswasincorporated into the Capitulation ofAlexandria signed byrepresentativesoftheBritish,French,andOttomanforces.

    It is not clear exactly how the stone was transferred intoBritish hands, as contemporary accounts differ. ColonelTomkynsHilgroveTurner,whowas toescort it toEngland,claimedlaterthathehadpersonallyseizeditfromMenouandcarried it away on a gun-carriage. In amuchmore detailedaccount, Edward DanielClarke stated that a French "officerandmemberoftheInstitute"hadtakenhim,hisstudentJohnCripps, and Hamilton secretly into the back streets behindMenou'sresidenceandrevealedthestonehiddenunderpro-tectivecarpetsamongMenou'sbaggage.AccordingtoClarke,their informant feared that the stone might be stolen ifFrenchsoldierssawit.Hutchinsonwasinformedatonceandthestonewas takenaway—possiblybyTurnerandhisgun-carriage.[45]

    Turner brought the stone to England aboard the capturedFrench frigate HMS Egyptienne, landing in Portsmouth inFebruary1802.[46]HisordersweretopresentitandtheotherantiquitiestoKingGeorgeIII.TheKing,representedbyWarSecretaryLordHobart,directedthatitshouldbeplacedintheBritishMuseum.AccordingtoTurner'snarrative,heandHobartagreedthatthestoneshouldbepresentedtoschol-arsattheSocietyofAntiquariesofLondon,ofwhichTurnerwasamember,beforeitsfinaldepositinthemuseum.Itwasfirst seen and discussed there at a meeting on 11 March1802.BH

    In1802theSocietycreatedfourplastercastsoftheinscrip-tions,whichweregiventotheuniversitiesofOxford,Cam-bridgeandEdinburghandtoTrinityCollegeDublin.Soonafterwards, prints of the inscriptionsweremade and circu-

    latedtoEuropeanscholars.EBeforetheendof1802,thestonewastransferredtotheBritishMuseum,whereitislo-

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    Figure5|LeftandrightsidesoftheRosettaStone,within-scriptions inEnglishrelatingto itscapturebyEnglishforcesfromtheFrench

    KeithSchengili-Roberts,CCBY-SA3.0

    Figure 6 |Experts inspecting the RosettaStone during theSecondInternationalCongressofOrientalists,1874

    IllustratedLondonNews,publicdomain

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Richard_Hamiltonhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Burleigh212-44https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crownhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C3%2589tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilairehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C3%2589tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilairehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking21-43https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Burleigh241-45https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Budge2-46https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking21-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitulation_of_Alexandria_(1801)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(15th-19th_centuries)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomkyns_Hilgrove_Turnerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/limbers_and_caissonshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking2122-47https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Egyptienne_(1799)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouthhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Andrews12-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War_and_the_Colonieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War_and_the_Colonieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hobart,_4th_Earl_of_Buckinghamshirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Londonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxfordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Dublinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_International_Congress_of_Orientalistshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_International_Congress_of_Orientalists

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    catedtoday.[46]Newinscriptionspaintedinwhiteontheleftandrightedgesoftheslabstatedthatitwas"CapturedinEgyptbytheBritishArmyin1801"and"PresentedbyKingGeorgeIII".[2]

    ThestonehasbeenexhibitedalmostcontinuouslyintheBritishMuseumsinceJune1802.[6]Duringthemiddleofthe19thcentury,itwasgiventheinventorynumber"EA24","EA"standingfor"EgyptianAntiquities".Itwaspartofacol-lectionofancientEgyptianmonumentscapturedfromtheFrenchexpedition,includingasarcophagusofNectaneboII(EA10),thestatueofahighpriestofAmun(EA81),andalargegranitefist(EA9).[47]Theobjectsweresoondiscov-eredtobetooheavyforthefloorsofMontaguHouse(theoriginalbuildingofTheBritishMuseum),andtheyweretransferredtoanewextensionthatwasaddedtothemansion.TheRosettaStonewastransferredtothesculpturegalleryin1834shortlyafterMontaguHousewasdemolishedandreplacedbythebuildingthatnowhousestheBritishMuseum.[48]Accordingtothemuseum'srecords,theRosettaStoneisitsmost-visitedsingleobject,[49]asimpleimageofitwasthemuseum'sbestsellingpostcardforseveraldecades,[50]andawidevarietyofmerchandisebearingthetextfromtheRosettaStone(orreplicatingitsdistinctiveshape)issoldinthemuseumshops.

    TheRosettaStonewasoriginallydisplayedataslightanglefromthehorizontal,andrestedwithinametalcradlethatwasmadeforit,whichinvolvedshavingoffverysmallportionsofitssidestoensurethatthecradlefittedsecurely.[48]Itoriginallyhadnoprotectivecovering,anditwasfoundnecessaryby1847toplaceitinaprotectiveframe,despitethepresenceofattendantstoensurethatitwasnottouchedbyvisitors.[51]Since2004theconservedstonehasbeenondisplayinaspeciallybuiltcaseinthecentreoftheEgyptianSculptureGallery.AreplicaoftheRosettaStoneisnowavailableintheKing'sLibraryoftheBritishMuseum,withoutacaseandfreetotouch,asitwouldhaveappearedto

    early19th-centuryvisitors.[52]

    Themuseumwasconcernedaboutheavybombing inLon-dontowardstheendoftheFirstWorldWarin1917,andtheRosetta Stone was moved to safety, along with other por-tableobjectsofvalue.Thestonespentthenexttwoyears15m (50 ft)belowground level ina stationof thePostalTubeRailwayatMountPleasantnearHolborn.[53]Otherthandur-ingwartime, theRosettaStonehas left theBritishMuseumonly once: for onemonth inOctober 1972, to be displayedalongsideChampollion'sLettreattheLouvreinParisonthe150thanniversaryoftheletter'spublication.[50]EvenwhentheRosetta Stone was undergoing conservation measures in1999,theworkwasdoneinthegallerysothatitcouldremainvisibletothepublic.[54]

    ReadingtheRosettaStonePrior to thediscoveryof theRosettaStoneand its eventualdecipherment,theancientEgyptianlanguageandscripthadnotbeenunderstoodsinceshortlybeforethefalloftheRo-man Empire.The usage of the hieroglyphic script had be-come increasingly specialised even in the later Pharaonicperiod;by the4thcenturyAD, fewEgyptianswerecapableof reading them.Monumentaluseofhieroglyphsceasedaf-ter theclosingofallnon-Christiantemples in391byRomanEmperorTheodosiusI;thelastknowninscriptionisdatedto24August394,foundatPhilaeandknownastheGraffitoofEsmet-Akhom.[55]

    Hieroglyphsretainedtheirpictorialappearance,andclassicalauthors emphasised this aspect, in sharp contrast to theGreekandRomanalphabets. Inthe5thcentury, thepriest

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    Figure 7 |Patrons at the BritishMuseum view the RosettaStoneasitwasdisplayedin1985.

    RickDikeman,publicdomain

    Figure8|AcrowdofvisitorsexaminingtheRosettaStoneattheBritishMuseum.

    IvánMartínez,CCBY-SA4.0

    https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Andrews12-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armyhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking23-4https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-British_Museum-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sarcophagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectanebo_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectanebo_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Priests_of_Amunhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus30-31-49https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montagu_House,_Bloomsburyhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus31-50https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus7-51https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus47-52https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus31-50https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus32-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%2527s_Libraryhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus50-54https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I#1917https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I#1917https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Post_Office_Railwayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Post_Office_Railwayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Mail_Mount_Pleasant_Sorting_Officehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holbornhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-55https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettre_%25C3%25A0_M._Dacierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvrehttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus47-52https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus50-51-56https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philaehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graffito_of_Esmet-Akhomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graffito_of_Esmet-Akhomhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Ray11-57https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_century

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    HorapollowroteHieroglyphica,anexplanationofalmost200glyphs.Hisworkwasbelievedtobeauthoritative,yetitwasmisleadinginmanyways,andthisandotherworkswerealastingimpedimenttotheunderstandingofEgyptianwriting.[56]LaterattemptsatdeciphermentweremadebyArabhistoriansinmedievalEgyptduringthe9thand10thcenturies.Dhul-Nunal-MisriandIbnWahshiyyawerethefirsthistorianstostudyhieroglyphs,bycomparingthemtothecontemporaryCopticlanguageusedbyCopticpriestsintheirtime.[57][58]ThestudyofhieroglyphscontinuedwithfruitlessattemptsatdeciphermentbyEuropeanscholars,notablyJohannesGoropiusBecanusinthe16thcentury,AthanasiusKircherinthe17th,andGeorgZoëgainthe18th.[59]ThediscoveryoftheRosettaStonein1799providedcriticalmissing information, gradually revealed by a succession of scholars, that eventually allowed Jean-FrançoisChampolliontosolvethepuzzlethatKircherhadcalledtheriddleoftheSphinx.[60]

    GreektextTheGreektextontheRosettaStoneprovidedthestartingpoint.AncientGreekwaswidelyknowntoscholars,buttheywerenotfamiliarwithdetailsofitsuseintheHellenisticperiodasagovernmentlanguageinPtolemaicEgypt;large-scalediscoveriesofGreekpapyriwerealongwayinthefuture.Thus,theearliesttranslationsoftheGreektextofthestoneshowthetranslatorsstillstrugglingwiththehistoricalcontextandwithadministrativeandreligiousjar-gon.StephenWestonverballypresentedanEnglishtranslationoftheGreektextataSocietyofAntiquariesmeetinginApril1802..[61][62]

    Meanwhile,twoofthelithographiccopiesmadeinEgypthadreachedtheInstitutdeFranceinParisin1801.There,librarian and antiquarianGabriel de La Porte duTheil set towork on a translation of theGreek, but hewas dis-patched elsewhere onNapoleon's orders almost immediately, and he left his unfinishedwork in the hands of col-leagueHubert-PascalAmeilhon.AmeilhonproducedthefirstpublishedtranslationsoftheGreektextin1803,inbothLatinandFrenchtoensurethattheywouldcirculatewidely.HAtCambridge,RichardPorsonworkedonthemissinglowerrightcorneroftheGreektext.Heproducedaskilfulsuggestedreconstruction,whichwassoonbeingcirculatedbytheSocietyofAntiquariesalongside itsprintsofthe inscription.Atalmostthesamemoment,ChristianGottlobHeyneinGöttingenwasmakinganewLatintranslationoftheGreektextthatwasmorereliablethanAmeilhon'sandwasfirstpublishedin1803.GItwasreprintedbytheSocietyofAntiquariesinaspecialissueofitsjournalArchaeologiain1811,alongsideWeston'spreviouslyunpublishedEnglish translation,ColonelTurner'snarrative,andotherdocu-ments.H[63][64]

    DemotictextAt the timeof thestone'sdiscovery,Swedishdiplomatandscholar Johan David Åkerblad was working on a little-known script of which some examples had recently beenfound in Egypt, which came to be known as demotic. Hecalled it "cursiveCoptic" because he was convinced that itwasusedtorecordsomeformoftheCoptic language(thedirectdescendantofAncientEgyptian),althoughithadfewsimilarities with the later Coptic script. French OrientalistAntoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy had been discussing thisworkwithÅkerbladwhenhereceivedoneoftheearlylitho-graphic prints of the RosettaStone in 1801 from Jean-An-toine Chaptal, French minister of the interior. He realisedthatthemiddletextwasinthissamescript.HeandÅkerbladsettowork,bothfocusingonthemiddletextandassumingthatthescriptwasalphabetical.Theyattemptedto identifythe points where Greek names ought to occur within thisunknowntext,bycomparing itwith theGreek. In1802,Sil-vestredeSacy reportedtoChaptal thathehadsuccessfullyidentifiedfivenames("Alexandros","Alexandreia","Ptolemaios","Arsinoe",andPtolemy'stitle"Epiphanes"),Cwhile

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    Figure9|RichardPorson'ssuggestedreconstructionofthemissingGreektext(1803).

    Archaeologiavol.16(1812),publicdomain

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Porsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horapollohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glyphhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking1516-58https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muslim_historianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhul-Nun_al-Misrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyyahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-59https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Ray15-60https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Goropius_Becanushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_Kircherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Zo%25C3%25ABgahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Ray20-61https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_Kircherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphinx#The_Riddle_of_the_Sphinxhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-62https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/papyrushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Weston_(antiquary)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Londonhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Budge133-63https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Andrews13-64https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_de_Francehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_de_La_Porte_du_Theilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert-Pascal_Ameilhonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Porsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Gottlob_Heynehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Gottlob_Heynehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%25C3%25B6ttingenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomkyns_Hilgrove_Turnerhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-65https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking22-66https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_David_%25C3%2585kerbladhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Isaac_Silvestre_de_Sacyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Chaptalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Chaptalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphaneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsinoe_III_of_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Porson

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    Åkerbladpublishedanalphabetof29letters(morethanhalfofwhichwerecorrect)thathehadidentifiedfromtheGreeknamesinthedemotictext.D[61]Theycouldnot,however,identifytheremainingcharactersinthedemotictext,which,asisnowknown,includedideographicandothersymbolsalongsidethephoneticones.[65]

    HieroglyphictextSilvestredeSacyeventuallygaveupworkonthestone,buthewastomakeanothercontribution.In1811,promptedbydiscussionswithaChinesestudentaboutChinesescript,SilvestredeSacyconsideredasuggestionmadebyGeorgZoëgain1797thattheforeignnamesinEgyptianhieroglyphicinscriptionsmightbewrittenphonetically;healsore-calledthatasearlyas1761,Jean-JacquesBarthélemyhadsuggestedthatthecharactersenclosedincartouchesin

    hieroglyphic inscriptions were proper names. Thus, when ThomasYoung,foreignsecretaryoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon,wrotetohim

    aboutthestonein1814,SilvestredeSacysuggestedinreplythatinattemptingtoreadthehieroglyphictext,Youngmightlook for cartouches that ought to containGreeknames andtrytoidentifyphoneticcharactersinthem.[66]

    Youngdid so,with two results that togetherpaved thewayfor the final decipherment. In the hieroglyphic text, he dis-covered the phonetic characters "p t o l m e s" (in today'stransliteration "p t w l m y s") that were used to write theGreekname"Ptolemaios".Healsonoticedthatthesecharac-tersresembledtheequivalentonesinthedemoticscript,andwent on to note asmany as 80 similarities between the hi-eroglyphicanddemotictextsonthestone,animportantdis-coverybecausethetwoscriptswerepreviouslythoughttobeentirely different from one another.This led him to deducecorrectly that the demotic script was only partly phonetic,alsoconsistingofideographiccharactersderivedfromhiero-glyphs.IYoung'snewinsightswereprominentinthelongarti-cle"Egypt"thathecontributedtotheEncyclopædiaBritan-nicain1819.JHecouldmakenofurtherprogress,however.[67]

    In 1814 Young first exchanged correspondence about thestonewithJean-FrançoisChampollion,ateacheratGreno-ble who had produced a scholarly work on ancient Egypt.Champollion saw copiesof thebrief hieroglyphic andGreekinscriptionsof thePhilaeobelisk in 1822,onwhichWilliamJohnBankeshad tentativelynoted thenames "Ptolemaios"and"Kleopatra"inbothlanguages.[68]Fromthis,Champollionidentifiedthephoneticcharactersk leopa t ra (in today'stransliterationqli̓wp3dr3.t).[69]Onthebasisofthisandtheforeignnameson theRosettaStone,hequicklyconstructedan alphabet of phonetic hieroglyphic characters, which ap-pears in his famous 1822 "Lettre àM. Dacier" sent to Bon-JosephDacier,secretaryoftheParisAcadémiedesInscrip-tions et Belles-Lettres and immediately published by theAcadémie.K In the postscriptChampollion notes that similarphonetic characters seemed to occur in both Greek andEgyptian names, a hypothesis confirmed in 1823, when heidentified thenamesof pharaohsRamesses andThutmose

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    A

    B

    Figure9 |A) JohanDavidÅkerblad's tableofdemoticpho-neticcharactersandtheirCopticequivalents(1802).B)Repli-caofthedemotictexts.

    J.D.Akerblad,publicdomainandChris73,CCBY-SA3.0

    https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Budge133-63https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ideogramhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-67https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%25C3%25B6rgen_Zoegahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%25C3%25B6rgen_Zoegahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Barth%25C3%25A9lemyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cartouchehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Societyhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-68https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannicahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-69https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philae_obeliskhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_John_Bankeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_John_Bankeshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-70https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Budge136-71https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettre_%25C3%25A0_M._Dacierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon-Joseph_Dacierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon-Joseph_Dacierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%25C3%25A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettreshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%25C3%25A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettreshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_David_%25C3%2585kerbladhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_David_%25C3%2585kerbladhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_alphabet

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    written in cartouches at AbuSimbel.These far older hiero-glyphic inscriptions had been copied by Bankes and sent toChampollion by Jean-Nicolas Huyot.M From this point, thestoriesoftheRosettaStoneandthedeciphermentofEgypt-ianhieroglyphsdiverge,asChampolliondrewonmanyothertexts to develop anAncient Egyptian grammar and a hiero-glyphic dictionary which were published after his death in1832.[70]

    LaterworkWorkonthestonenowfocusedonfullerunderstandingofthetextsandtheircontextsbycomparingthethreeversionswithoneanother.In1824ClassicalscholarAntoine-JeanLetronnepromisedtoprepareanewliteraltranslationoftheGreektextfor Champollion's use. Champollion in return promised ananalysisofall thepointsatwhich the three texts seemedtodiffer.FollowingChampollion'ssuddendeathin1832,hisdraftof this analysis could not be found, and Letronne's workstalled.FrançoisSalvolini,Champollion'sformerstudentandassistant, died in 1838, and this analysis and other missingdraftswere foundamonghispapers.Thisdiscovery inciden-tally demonstrated that Salvolini's own publication on thestone, published in 1837, was plagiarism.O Letronne was atlastabletocompletehiscommentaryontheGreektextandhisnewFrenchtranslationofit,whichappearedin1841.PDur-

    ingtheearly1850s,GermanEgyptologistsHeinrichBrugschandMaxUhlemannproducedrevisedLatintranslationsbasedonthedemoticandhieroglyphictexts.QRThefirstEnglishtranslationfollowedin1858,theworkofthreemem-bersofthePhilomatheanSocietyattheUniversityofPennsylvania.S

    Whetheroneof thethreetextswas thestandardversion, fromwhichtheother twowereoriginally translated, isaquestionthathasremainedcontroversial.Letronneattemptedtoshowin1841thattheGreekversion,theproductoftheEgyptiangovernmentundertheMacedonianPtolemies,wastheoriginal.PAmongrecentauthors,JohnRayhasstatedthat"thehieroglyphswerethemostimportantofthescriptsonthestone:theywerethereforthegodstoread,andthemorelearnedoftheirpriesthood".[7]PhilippeDerchainandHeinzJosefThissenhavearguedthatallthreever-sionswerecomposedsimultaneously,whileStephenQuirkeseesinthedecree"anintricatecoalescenceofthreevitaltextual traditions".[71]RichardParkinsonpointsoutthatthehieroglyphicversionstrays fromarchaic formalismandoccasionally lapses into language closer to that of the demotic register that the priests more commonly used ineverydaylife.[72]Thefactthatthethreeversionscannotbematchedwordforwordhelpstoexplainwhythedecipher-menthasbeenmoredifficult thanoriginallyexpected,especially for thoseoriginalscholarswhowereexpectinganexactbilingualkeytoEgyptianhieroglyphs.[73]

    RivalriesEvenbeforetheSalvoliniaffair,disputesoverprecedenceandplagiarismpunctuatedthedeciphermentstory.ThomasYoung'swork isacknowledgedinChampollion's1822LettreàM.Dacier,but incompletely,accordingtoearlyBritishcritics:forexample,JamesBrowne,asub-editorontheEncyclopædiaBritannica (whichhadpublishedYoung's1819article),anonymouslycontributedaseriesofreviewarticlestotheEdinburghReview in1823,praisingYoung'sworkhighlyandallegingthatthe"unscrupulous"Champollionplagiarisedit.[74][75]ThesearticlesweretranslatedintoFrenchbyJuliusKlaprothandpublishedinbookformin1827.NYoung'sown1823publicationreassertedthecontributionthathehadmade.LTheearlydeathsofYoung(1829)andChampollion(1832)didnotputanendtothesedisputes.Inhisworkonthestonein1904E.A.WallisBudgegavespecialemphasistoYoung'scontributioncomparedwithChampol-

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    Figure 10 | Champollion's table of hieroglyphic phoneticcharacterswiththeirdemoticandCopticequivalents(1822).

    Jean-FrançoisChampollion,publicdomain

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Simbel_templeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Nicolas_Huyothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/decipherment_of_Egyptian_hieroglyphshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/decipherment_of_Egyptian_hieroglyphshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-72https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Antoine_Letronnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Salvolinihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plagiarismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Karl_Brugschhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Uhlemannhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philomathean_Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemieshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Ray3-9https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-73https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_B._Parkinsonhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus13-74https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Cracking3031-75https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Browne_(writer)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Reviewhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-76https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-77https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Klaprothhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budge

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    lion's.[76] In the early 1970s, French visitors complained thattheportraitofChampollionwassmallerthanoneofYoungonan adjacent information panel; English visitors complainedthat the opposite was true. The portraits were in fact thesamesize.[50]

    RequestsforrepatriationtoEgyptCalls for the Rosetta Stone to be returned to Egypt weremadeinJuly2003byZahiHawass,thenSecretary-GeneralofEgypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities. These calls, ex-pressed in theEgyptianand internationalmedia,asked thatthe stele be repatriated to Egypt, commenting that it wasthe "icon of our Egyptian identity".[77] He repeated the pro-posaltwoyearslaterinParis,listingthestoneasoneofsev-eral key items belonging to Egypt's cultural heritage, a listwhichalsoincluded:theiconicbustofNefertitiintheEgypt-ianMuseumofBerlin;astatueoftheGreatPyramidarchi-tect Hemiunu in the Roemer-und-Pelizaeus-Museum inHildesheim, Germany; the DenderaTemple Zodiac in theLouvreinParis;andthebustofAnkhhafintheMuseumofFineArtsinBoston.[78]

    During2005theBritishMuseumpresentedEgyptwithafull-sizedfibreglasscolour-matchedreplicaofthestele.Thiswasinitially displayed in the renovated Rashid National Muse-

    um,anOttomanhouse inthetownofRashid(Rosetta),theclosestcitytothesitewherethestonewasfound.[79] InNovember2005Hawasssuggestedathree-monthloanoftheRosettaStone,whilereiteratingtheeventualgoalofapermanentreturn.[80]InDecember2009heproposedtodrophisclaimforthepermanentreturnoftheRosettaStoneif the British Museum lent the stone to Egypt for threemonths for theopeningof theGrandEgyptianMuseumat

    Gizain2013.[81]

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    Figure 11 | Replica of the Rosetta Stone, displayed as theoriginalusedtobe,availabletotouch,intheKing'sLibraryoftheBritishMuseum.

    KacperGrabowski,CCBY-SA3.0

    Figure12|AgiantcopyoftheRosettaStonebyJosephKo-suth in Figeac, France, the birthplace of Jean-FrançoisChampollion

    MarkusBautsch,publicdomain

    Figure13|AreplicaoftheRosettaStoneinRashid(Rosetta),Egypt

    TheEgyptian,CCBY-SA3.0

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosettahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-78https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-focus47-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahi_Hawasshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_Antiquitieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/art_repatriationhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Edwardes-79https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti_Busthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Museum_of_Berlinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Museum_of_Berlinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Gizahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemiunuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roemer-und-Pelizaeus-Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildesheimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendera_zodiachttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankhhaf_(sculpture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Bostonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Bostonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston,_Massachusettshttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid_National_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid_National_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosettahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-81https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-82https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gizahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-83https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kosuthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kosuthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figeachttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kosuthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kosuthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figeachttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Champollionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%2527s_Libraryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosettahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%2527s_Library

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    AsJohnRayhasobserved,"thedaymaycomewhenthestonehasspentlongerintheBritishMuseumthaniteverdidinRosetta."[82]Thereisstrongoppositionamongnationalmuseumstotherepatriationofobjectsofinternationalcul-turalsignificancesuchastheRosettaStone.InresponsetorepeatedGreekrequestsforreturnoftheElginMarblesfromtheParthenonandsimilarrequeststoothermuseumsaroundtheworld,in2002over30oftheworld'sleadingmuseums—includingtheBritishMuseum,theLouvre,thePergamonMuseuminBerlinandtheMetropolitanMu-seuminNewYorkCity—issuedajointstatementdeclaringthat"objectsacquiredinearliertimesmustbeviewedinthelightofdifferentsensitivitiesandvaluesreflectiveofthatearlierera"andthat"museumsservenotjustthecitizensofonenationbutthepeopleofeverynation".[83]

    IdiomaticUseThetermRosettastonehasbeenusedidiomaticallytorepresentacrucialkeyintheprocessofdecryptionofencodedinformation,especiallywhena smallbut representative sample is recognisedas theclue tounderstandinga largerwhole.[84]AccordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary,thefirstfigurativeuseofthetermappearedinthe1902editionoftheEncyclopædiaBritannicarelatingtoanentryonthechemicalanalysisofglucose.[84]AnotheruseofthephraseisfoundinH.G.Wells'1933novelTheShapeofThingstoCome,wheretheprotagonistfindsamanuscriptwritteninshorthandthatprovidesakeytounderstandingadditionalscatteredmaterialthatissketchedoutinbothlonghandandontypewriter.[84]

    Sincethen,thetermhasbeenwidelyusedinothercontexts.Forexample,NobellaureateTheodorW.Hänschina1979ScientificAmericanarticleonspectroscopywrotethat"thespectrumofthehydrogenatomshasprovedtobetheRosettaStoneofmodernphysics:oncethispatternoflineshadbeendecipheredmuchelsecouldalsobeunder-stood".[84] Fully understanding the key set of genes to the human leucocyte antigen has been described as "theRosettaStone of immunology".[85]The flowering plantArabidopsis thaliana has been called the "RosettaStone offloweringtime".[86]AGammarayburst(GRB)foundinconjunctionwithasupernovahasbeencalledaRosettaStoneforunderstandingtheoriginofGRBs.[87]ThetechniqueofDopplerechocardiographyhasbeencalledaRosettaStoneforclinicianstryingtounderstandthecomplexprocessbywhichtheleftventricleofthehumanheartcanbefilledduringvariousformsofdiastolicdysfunction.[88]

    Thenamehas alsobecomeused in various formsof translation software.RosettaStone is a brandof language-learningsoftwarepublishedbyRosettaStoneInc.,headquarteredinArlingtonCounty,US."Rosetta"isthenameofa"lightweightdynamictranslator"thatenablesapplicationscompiledforPowerPCprocessorstorunonApplesystemsusinganx86processor. "Rosetta" isanonline language translation tool tohelp localisationof software,developedandmaintainedbyCanonicalaspartoftheLaunchpadproject.Similarly,Rosetta@homeisadistributedcomput-ingprojectforpredictingproteinstructuresfromaminoacidsequences(ortranslatingsequenceintostructure).TheRosettaProjectbrings languagespecialistsandnativespeakerstogethertodevelopameaningfulsurveyandnear-permanent archive of 1,500 languages, intended to last fromAD 2000 to 12,000.The European SpaceAgency'sRosettaspacecraftwaslaunchedtostudythecomet67P/Churyumov–GerasimenkointhehopethatdeterminingitscompositionwillrevealtheoriginoftheSolarSystem.

    AcknowledgementsThisWikipediapagewas rewritten,expanded,and submitted for featurearticle status in the contextof theGLAMBritishMuseumproject.RichardB.Parkinsonsuggestednumerous improvementsasanexternal reviewer."RosettaStone"wasthefeaturedarticlefor14September2010.AspecialacknowledgementtoKeithSchengili-Roberts,with-outwhosewritingandeditingskillsfeaturedstatuswouldnothavebeenachieved;alsotoJustinMansfield,whocon-tributedsignificantlytotheLatinVicipaediaarticle,writtenconcurrently,andsoalsotothisEnglisharticle.Thanks,too,toallotherWikipedianswhohavecontributedtothepagebothbeforeandafterthatdate.

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    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Rayhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-Ray4-84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elgin_Marbleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Arthttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-85https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/idiomhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-OUP-86https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glucosehttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-OUP-86https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._G._Wellshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Comehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shorthandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/longhandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/typewriterhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-OUP-86https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_laureatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._H%25C3%25A4nschhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Americanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/spectroscopyhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-OUP-86https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human_leucocyte_antigenhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-87https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thalianahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-88https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_bursthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/supernovahttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-89https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_echocardiographyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/left_ventriclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human_hearthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/diastolic_dysfunctionhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Rosetta_Stone#cite_note-90https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/machine_translationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone_(software)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlington_County,_Virginiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_(software)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/x86https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_Ltd.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launchpad_(website)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@homehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Projecthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/comethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/67P/Churyumov%25E2%2580%2593Gerasimenkohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System

  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

    ReviewArticle

    BecauseitoriginatesasaWikipediapage,thisarticlebetraysapreferenceforcitingsourcesthatarefreelyavailableonlineandarethusmoreaccessibletoWikipediaeditorsandreaders.Thanks,therefore,tothecreatorsofthewikienvironment for this fruitful impulse,andequally to thepeer reviewers,who,while recommendingother improve-ments,alsonotedsomerecentsourcesthathadbeenoverlookedorunder-emphasizedbecausetheyarenotavailableonline.

    of | WikiJournalofHumanities 13 19

  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

    ReviewArticle

    Notes"Demotic" is often written with an upper-case initial, especially when referring to a linguistic stage or register ofEgyptian. In thisarticle "hieroglyphic"and "demotic"arebothgiven lower-case initialsbecause theyareprincipallybeingusedheretorefertothetwoscripts.

    CompetinginterestsThereisnoconflictofinterest.

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  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

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  • WikiJournalofHumanities,2019,2(1):1doi:10.15347/wjh/2019.001

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    34. Nishimura, RickA.;Tajik, A. Jamil (1998-04-23). "Evaluation of diastolic filling of left ventricle in health and disease:Dopplerechocardiographyistheclinician'sRosettaStone".JournaloftheAmericanCollegeofCardiology30(1):8–18.doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(97)00144-7.PMID9207615.Retrieved2010-07-05.

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    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budgehttps://archive.org/details/cu31924086199548https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budgehttps://archive.org/details/decreesofmemphis01budghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budgehttps://archive.org/details/rosettastone00budguofthttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-059767-2https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06879-1https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-28628-0http://www.astronomynow.com/news/n1004/14GRB/https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-07-053103-5https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-271-7https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1436606/Egypt-demands-return-of-the-Rosetta-Stone.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ahram_Weeklyhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84472-063-2http://www.tyndalehouse.com/Egypt/ptolemies/horwennefer_fr.htmhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051201070256/http:/www.cairomagazine.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=1238&format=htmlhttp://www.cairomagazine.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=1238&format=htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070809000616/http:/www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2000/ihwg.htmhttp://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2000/ihwg.h


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