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ROOM I

PILGRIMAGE. A RITUAL PATH OF PURIFICATION AND KNOWLEDGE

A PEREGRINACIÓN. UN CAMIÑO RITUAL DE PURIFICACIÓN E COÑECEMENTO

Going on pilgrimage has become for us a sentimental evocation of the places that have marked our lives and memories. However, a pilgrimage is also an analogy of the religious phenomenon par excellence.

Nearly all the forms of cult have developed this form of interaction with the sacred. In fact, there is evidence of prehistoric pilgrimages. Documents exist of pilgrimages in the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Greek cultures. During the Christian and Muslim Middle Ages pilgrimages attained a significance that has endured to this day, as do the journeys to sacred places in India or China.

A pilgrimage is a ritual journey embarked on individually or collectively with the aim of seeking purification, perfection or salvation.

In this religious experience, a number of associations are created. A profane place is linked to the higher world, an individual traveller joins a community, and the flesh and bone pilgrim is connected to the individual that is reborn purified by accomplishing their undertaking. It is these connections what distinguishes a pilgrimage from any other trip or journey. Therefore, so as to be able to speak of a pilgrimage, there must be a site, a journey that entails some sacrifice and physical effort and, finally, a sacred aim.

The holy site can take on various forms. It can be a tree, a fountain, a mountain, or any city or temple where some relics are worshipped. It is a visible symbol of the contact between the human and the divine. But on the journey – a metaphor of life on earth – a personal transformation begins that is visible in a series of rites that culminate in the moment of arrival. There, upon reaching the target, the pilgrim is reborn, thus turning into a new person.

This map is the result of a research project that began in 2003 at the Museo de las Peregrinaciones.

Its aim is to locate the different pilgrim routes and sites in the world: the places of worship and their festivals, rites, history and anything that contributes to getting to know each pilgrimage, as

well as the culture that gave rise to it.

Consequently, the map will progressively include the names of the pilgrimage sites that as they are documented.

We invite you to participate in this project by providing information about any pilgrimage that does not currently appear in this map. To this end, please take one of the forms that you will find on the way

out.

Thank you for your help.

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Iam not capable of walking. 500 pair shoes of glass in direction of Nidaros

(selection) Borgny Svalastog

Norway, 2006 Mould-blown glass

Donated by the artist

These glass shoes symbolise the aim pursued in following a route through seven colours used symbolically in relation to the Universality of the Pilgrimage experience. This selection was part of an installation under the title of: No soy capaz de caminar: 500 pares de zapatos de vidrio en dirección a Nidaros, (I am not able to walk: 500 pairs of glass shoes towards Nidaros) included in the exhibition entitled: 14+1 Estaciones. Experiencias de con:tacto.

Pilgrimage in Grabarka. “The

mountain of 6,000 crosses”

Cristina Garcia Rodero 1997-1998

Positives in B/W on paper

Grabarka, “The Mountain of 6,000 crosses”, is currently the most important centre of pilgrimage for the Orthodox Polish Church, although over the last few years Catholic believers have also been going there.

Two traditions gave rise to the sacred status of this mount and the founding of its sanctuary. The oldest goes back to the thirteenth century when local people, terrified by Tartar invasions, hid there an icon of the Transfiguration of Christ. It was never found again. The other tradition dates back to 1710 during a cholera outbreak that devastated the region. At that time, a villager had a dream - believed to be a divine revelation – in which a cross was taken to the top of the mount to save the villagers from the plague. Since then, both Orthodox believers and Catholics have gone on pilgrimage to Grabarka to stand their crosses in the wood and drink water from the miraculous fountain. The size of the cross depends on the significance of their offering and their penitence.

Like many other sites of pilgrimage and cults, Grabarka is a hill- a place of revelation – that is linked to the natural element of water, a symbol of the purification of sins, and the cross, the Christian symbol of the Passion of Jesus.

Pilgrims at Ajmer (India) Nacho Castellanos

1995-1997 B/W positives

Donated by the artist

Ajmer, a city in northern India, in the region of Rajastán, was founded in the 12th century. It is a holy place for 90 millon Sufist Muslims in the Asian subcontinent.

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Over 150,000 worhippers from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Afganistán head for Ajmer every year. This makes it the greastest Muslim pilgrimage in this region.

They celebrate the Urs, the anniversary of the death of Khawaja Mo’inudin Chisti (1139-1236), a Sufi saint who was the precursor of Islam in India. On arriving there, pilgrims put their hands, the forehead and their lips on one of the arches at the entrance of the burial mound. Then, they listen to the mystic music of the Qawwali for the whole day while they give rice and tea out to all the people there regardless of their religion.

Sufism is the most open and tolerant expression of Islam.

Pilgrimage in Lalibela, Ethiopia Fernando Moleres 2001Positives in B/W Donated by the artist

Lalibela, a small village lost in the heart of Ethiopia, was built in the image of Jerusalem: with a small rivulet called the Jordan and a hill named Mount Tabor. It is also home to a marvellous group of eleven churches and a monastery, carved out in rock in the twelfth century.

Its origin is to be found in the death by poisoning of the monarch Lalibela after which event an angel took his soul to heaven. There he saw some marvellous constructions that God commanded him to replicate back on Earth. Upon the return of his soul to the mundane world, both men and angels built Lalibela.

Nearly 50,000 Christians of the Monophysite and Coptic cults go there to celebrate Christmas, the Epiphany and Easter. Like eight centuries ago, festivities begin every year with the different processions of believers from each of the churches. They meet at the central esplanade and then re-baptise themselves in the swimming pools filled with the waters of the Jordan. Tradition also has it that the Ark of the Covenant is kept in Lalibela.

Before the chapel of Qoyllur Rit’i. Peru

Christoph Lingg May 2002

B/W photograph

The pilgrimage to the sanctuary of the Lord of Qoyllur Rit’i in Peru is the most multitudinous indigenous festival in America and one of the most profound manifestations of Andean religiosity. The ritual consists in a pilgrimage of several days during which pilgrims climb all the way to the limits of the perpetual snows to get to the heart of the sanctuary.

A crowd of worshippers gathers on the valley of Sinakara for the three days prior to the celebration of Corpus Christi. The liturgical acts take place to the pealing of bells, amidst fireworks, dances and folk chants; at night there is the praying of the rosary and during

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the day the masses. The so-called “Día Principal” (Main Day) may gather as many as 70,000 pilgrims who attend the religious events and festivals that take place there: the procession, the folkloric parade and finally the Blessing and the Farewell.

The Kumano Pilgrimage Japan 1999

Positives in colour on paper Donated by the Governor of Wakayama Prefecture. Japan

In its origin, Kumano was a holy land where Shinto gods lived. With the spreading of Buddhism, these gods were also considered as the incarnation of Buddha. The Kumano pilgrimage is thus a case in point of religious syncretism and the coexistence of two religions.

The Kumano Pilgrimage route starts at the city of Kyoto and stretches for 370 km (approx. 230 miles). Scattered along the way, small sanctuaries and large temples are found. It reached its height of popularity between the tenth and twelfth centuries when people from all social classes, including the royal family, would participate in this pilgrimage. A present-day revival has compensated for the slight decline that began in the seventeenth century. Four festivals during different seasons of the year are associated with it. Two involve fire as a purifying element.

The similarities and parallelisms in many of the historical traits between the Kumano Pilgrimage and the Santiago Pilgrimage contributed to the signing of the Official Declaration of Friendship between the Autonomous Region of Galicia and Wakayama Prefecture in 1998.

Pilgrims in a ghat

in Benarés (India)

Luís Baylón 2001

B/W prints on paper

Donated by the author

Benares or Vanarasi, is one of the most emblematic cities of pilgrimage in the world. Hinduism is the majoritary religion in India and the strength of the religious experience becames apparent in this city on the sacred river Ganges. The sacred nature of this river stems from its very origin in the Himalayas but it is at Benares where veneration reaches its most profound meaning. Although all rivers are sacred in India as they are identified with divinity and providers of physical and spiritual fertility by irrigating the fields and purifying the soul, the Ganges stands out from the rest because it is considered the source. It is Ganga, the goddess of water, she who gives life and also, who receives the ashes of the dead and takes the soul of the deceased to Shiva (god of death) while at the same time making their rebirth possible. The stories

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about pilgrimages to Benares seem to go back to the 7th century. Ever since, thousands of Hindus go on pilgrimage to this city to purify themselves in the waters of the river on some stepped areas called ghats, where they make their offerings, listen to spiritual guides, sadhus and gurus and some even to go there to die.

Lamps 1st century AD. Modelled clay

Possibly from the catacombs of San Sebastian (Rome)

Lamps were used among other things to light funerary sites. In catacombs, next to the burial niches, there were other small holes or shelves where lamps were placed. They consisted of a lighter- bico-rostrum – for the wick – ellychnium – which was usually made of tow, canvas or ricine fibers, papyrus or other such materials and a tank of the fuel, usually oil.

Relic Crosses. Encolpia 12th-13th century Bronze and silver

The very Greek name of encolpion (“pectoral”) suggests how these crosses were used. They were used to hold relics that pilgrims

often brought with them from the most singular centres of Christian pilgrimage on the eastern Mediterranean coast (Syria, Palestine, Egypt, etc.), during the Middle Ages, particularly from the fourth to the thirteenth century. They consist of two pieces joined by a hinge so that the corresponding relic could be kept inside them. A hoop allowed them to be hung on a chain or cord on the chest. Christ Crucified, the Virgin and even the evangelists appeared on their decoration. The encolpion was both a symbol of the Christian believer and a devotional object. Currently, the cross worn by Bishops of the Catholic Church is known by this name.

Prayer Wheel. Khorten Tibet. 19th century Wood,ivory, turquoise and coral

The khorten, or prayer wheel, is one of the objects most widely used by Buddhists. A very large version of it can be found at the entrance to temples, but handheld ones are often used by pilgrims who take them on their journey. Its cylindrical body is engraved with mystical emblems or prayers in Sanskrit while inside there are, in turn, some pieces of paper that have holy texts or invocations (mantras) written on them. The cylinder revolves around an axle so that the carrier can turn it – always in the direction of the sun - while walking or meditating, in such a way that each twist is equivalent to a multiple recitation of the prayers contained within. This continuous movement makes a gentle, rhythmic sound in harmony with the walker’s stride.

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In Buddhism there are four principal places of pilgrimage. They are all associated with Buddha’s life in Nepal and India: Lumbini, his birth place; Sarnath, where he gave his first sermon; Bodh Gaya, where he achieved enlightenment; and Kushinagara, where he died.

[The book of pilgrimage to Mecca] Around 1830 Manuscript on paper in thick thread Gold-embossed, leather cover

For all healthy, adult Muslim believers, the pilgrimage to Mecca, hayy, is one of the “Five Pillars of Islam” according to sura 3:97 of the Koran. As long as economic conditions do not prevent it and all other necessities are provided for, this pilgrimage is obligatory at least once in life. It entails a great pardon through which the believer achieves forgiveness for all their previous sins. A person that has already gone on pilgrimage may do it again in the name of another one who is sick or unable to do it.

Mecca (Saudi Arabia) is the capital of Islam’s holy cities of pilgrimage. The other two most important cities are Jerusalem (Israel–Palestine) Medina (Saudi Arabia, Prophet Mohammed’s shrine.

Sandals. Warayi Vegetable fibre Japan. 1999 Donated by Jose Isorna, OFM

These sandals were commonly used by monks and even Buddhist pilgrims. In this case, they were among those used by the Zen monks Kakuju Matsubara, from Tokyo, and Hakuho Hanahoka, from the Monastery of Saitama – Ken, to make the pilgrimage to Santiago during the Holy Year of 1999.

This pilgrimage was made in the company of two Japanese Christians. They undertook this initiative together to strengthen the ecumenism between the two separate religions and the peace among all human beings as a document delivered to the Archbishop of Santiago and the Rector of the Convent of San Francisco reads.

In Japan, there are many sites of pilgrimage both in the Buddhist and the Shinto religions. The most important are Ise, Nara and Kumano.

Walking across the Portomarin area. Way Of Saint James

Luisa Rubines 2002-2004 Clour satin

paper Donated by the artist

THE ALLEGORIES OF PILGRIMAGE AS ALEGORÍAS DA PEREGRINACIÓN

The notion of pilgrimage is used allegorically in all cultures to express the similarity between the individual’s physical journey that takes them to a holy site and the spiritual

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journey that the same individual should travel during their life. An allegory is a means of symbolic communication, in which a real fact, a visual or written image is endowed with a meaning other than the literal one, a different, hidden meaning, sometimes only comprehensible to a small group of people.

The pilgrim’s physical journey is, at the same time, an internal spiritual journey. The very physical effort and the vicissitudes faced in the pursuit of the aim that a pilgrimage entails may be taken as a metaphor or example of what the human being’s spiritual journey on Earth should be. The aim of this journey is to attain the highest level of Knowledge, Wisdom, Spiritual Renewal, Glory, Paradise or Proximity to God.

In this way, many instances of the allegorical idea of pilgrimage are found in the form of artistic, literary works and even as games. Already in the Christian tradition, the journey of the apostles to spread the doctrine of Jesus Christ is compared to the pilgrims’ journey, to the the journey of travellers in foreign countries. Even the name Jehovah means “God of the Path”. The philosopher Lao Tze (c.570–c.490 BC) created the Taoist thinking and religion in his book Tao Te Ching. He referred to Tao as Path towards Perfection. Buddha (c.563-c.486 BC) not only travelled along the whole Ganges valley to teach his doctrine, but also focussed on an internal voyage aiming to achieve Nirvana or enlightenment. In his doctrine, the path for an individual to achieve spiritual liberation from the material world is called The Eightfold Noble Path.

Even mystical experience was described metaphorically as a journey towards God. That is how Muslims from the mystical

Sufi branch or twelfth-century Arab philosophers such as Avempace (The Regime of the Solitary) or Ibn Tufayl (Hayy ben Yaqdhan) describe it. The thirteenth-century German Christian mystic Master Johannes Eckhart expressed it in an identical way: “The path without paths, where God’s children get lost, and at the same time, find themselves”.

Paraphrasis in Novum Testamentum. Peregrinatio...Petri et Pauli. Author: Erasmus of Rotterdam Printed: Lugduni [Lyon], S. Gryphius, 1542-1544 Printed paper, italic letters, xylographs

From 1522, Erasmus embarked on the difficult task of commenting on the evangelical texts, specifically the Acts of the Apostles. He added critical notes that attempted to demonstrate the inaccuracy of the Latin version of the Vulgate Bible. He dedicated the publication to different statesmen and monarchs of the time such as Charles V, Henry VIII and Francis I with the intention of entrusting to them the good governance of the world and put an end to the struggles between their kingdoms.

In 1542 he added the Peregrinatio...Petri et Pauli. It is written in the fashion of Holy Scriptures as an allegory of the human being’s passing through their life. He created a parallelism with regard to the task of the Apostles who - in their spreading of the doctrine of Jesus Christ – travelled all the paths known then.

On the other hand, while Erasmus continued to endorse this ancient evangelical comparison, he did not condone, just like so many other humanists of the period, the religious practices of cults to relics and pilgrimages, considering them to be rituals loaded with superstitious elements.

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Mandala Nepal End of the 20th century Painting on fabric canvas

In Tantric Buddhism, a cult mainly practised in Tibet, one of the most widely used devotional objects are mandalas, personified representations of the different aspects of Buddha and his doctrine. A mandala is a structured illustration or diagram that enables meditation by “travelling” with the mind and spirit to the centre, i.e. to Buddha or the representation of enlightenment. Through meditation techniques, ritual gestures to meditate and pray (mudras), and the mandalas, the initiate progressively meditates on the various aspects of Buddha until achieving one day an union with him, i.e. nirvana, or the ultimate knowledge, enlightenment, through liberation from all desires, and, as a consequence, from all suffering.

Game of the ‘Oca’ (Spanish board game similar to Snakes and Ladders; ‘oca’ is a kind of goose) Date 1960-70. Interpretation based on originals from the 17th century Printed: Pos. Heraclio Fournier. Vitoria Lithograph. On drawing by Heliodoro Fernandez

The traditional Game of the ‘Oca’ has, like so many other habitual pastime games, an ancient origin loaded with a strong symbolism. In the game a spiral “route” is followed from the outside in that takes you into a journey, a walled path divided into three sectors. On this path, all kinds of obstacles are met (wells, labyrinths, jails

and even death), as well as beneficial situations (bridges, the dice or the ‘ocas’). There is a beginning and an end. This end is not death but the final box, where a maiden and a swan usually appear.

It has been suggested that the game has a Greek origin, being attributed to King Palamedes during the Trojan War. Both the ‘oca’ and the swan were endowed with a symbolism in the Classical World that associated them to Knowledge, to the training of those that were initiated in any discipline and also the security of properties since they warned of the presence of strangers with their loud squawks.

Other indications point to their relation to the Order of the Temple and the safeguarding of the paths of Christian pilgrimage, as other warrior-priest orders did. In this sense, the game of the ‘oca’ would be an allegorical, reduced version of the Pilgrimage to Santiago, with human beings as travellers. The thirteen ‘ocas’ would be the Temple houses, the safe havens (“de oca a oca…” Spanish expression in the game meaning to go from safe pace to the next safe place) that would coincide with the thirteen stages stated in the Codex Calixtinus. Death would be Saint James’ tomb in box 58, and the city an ‘oca’ (box 59) but not the end of the Path, which would be the Swan’s box, the true end to the Path, physically Finisterre (the Finis Terrae of Ancient times), symbolically the spirit’s rebirth, Glory, Supreme Knowledge, the Resurrection.

The physical identification of the rest of the boxes, based among other evidence on calculations of numerical symbolism, connect for example the first bridge to the Puente La Reina, the well to Castrojeriz or Carrión de los Condes (…), the labyrinth to the region of Leon and the ‘ocas’ to Jaca, Pamplona, Estela, Rabanal del Camino or Triacastela and Santiago, among others.

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Moral Theatre of Human Life in one hundred emblems: with Epictetus’ Enchiridion Original author: Cebes. 1st century AD Version in Spanish: on Ambrosio de Morales. Engraver: Otto Van Veen (Vaenius) Printed: Antwerp, Hieronymus Verdussen’s widow, 1733

The text that contains the philosophical – moral dialogue known as Tabula Cebetis (Tabula of Cebes). This dialogue is attributed to the philosopher Cebes who wrote it in the first century AD. The moral philosophy contained within derives from Greco-Latin Stoicism, values that have also been used by Christianity.

The dialogue allegorically presents the life of humans as a pilgrimage on Earth. During the Renaissance Humanism period, the text of the dialogue was completed with an illustrated representation. The allegory takes on the form of a journey through a rising path, divided into three sections by walls where ever since their infancy humans are confronted with constant choices resulting in joy or suffering as well as the vicissitudes of their lives and pain, purification or suffering are always encountered. Those who were able to travel the whole path (represented, in fact, as travellers wearing the pilgrim’s attire of that time), arrive at a building in the form of a temple that can symbolize at the same time Glory, Wisdom and Knowledge.

Another special feature of the illustrated representation of the Tabula of Cebes is its possible connection to the Game of the ‘Oca’ (Spanish board game similar to Snakes and Ladders). Of ancient or medieval origin and also of symbolic nature, it could thus represent the allegory of human life as a pilgrimage, with a beginning, a walled-off journey divided into three sections, with favourable and unfortunate situations, death, and an arrival in Paradise or at Knowledge.

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ROOM II

ORIGINS OF THE CULT OF SAINT JAMES. CONVEYANCE OF THE APOSTLE’S

REMAINS TO SANTIAGO ORIXES DO CULTO XACOBEO. A TRASLACIÓN DO CORPO DE SANTIAGO

THE LEGEND OF SAINT JAMES A LENDA XACOBEA

The Bible and other religious texts provide little information about Saint James. This has resulted in the appearance of numerous traditions that elaborated on unknown aspects of his life. One such tradition tells of Saint James preaching in the West and relates the circumstances of his martyrdom. According to this tradition, Herod had the Apostle beheaded in 44 AD. Denied a burial, his body was retrieved by his disciples and carried to a ship at the port of Jaffa. This was the beginning of a miraculous voyage which, in seven days, brought the saint to Iria Flavia, in the Kingdom of Queen Lupa just 18 km from what is now Santiago.

Upon disembarking, the disciples presented themselves at Lupa’s palace – Castro Lupario – to request from the queen a suitable burial ground for Saint James. Lupa referred them to the Roman Legate, who ordered their imprisonment. The disciples were later freed by an angel, though. Once again, Lupa tried to trick them. This time by sending them to a Mount called Monte Ilicino in search of oxen that would take the remains of the Apostle. However, the oxen turned out to be wild bulls. Miraculously, they were tamed and allowed themselves to be yoked. This led the disciples to consecrate the hill which has been known as Pico Sacro (the Sacred Peak) ever since. As to Queen Lupa, she converted to Christianity, and granted the disciples of Saint James the place by the name of Libredón at the foot of a small castro (hill-fort) as burial ground.

There is a whole series of factors that are associated to the discovery of the remains of the Apostle in that place. On the one hand, although the first evidence of the belief that Saint James had preached in Spain dates back to late 6th century it was not until the 8th century, when it was very much in the interest of the emerging Kingdom of Asturias to stress its links with the Apostle, that it was widely circulated. The leap from this belief to the rediscovery of the Apostle’s remains easy enough to take as it was widely believed that the apostles had been buried where they had preached (as is illustrated in the text by the Beatus of Liébana). Furthermore, it should not be forgotten that Iria Flavia –in Roman times a flourishing commercial centre- was by the 8th century one of the most influential sees of the kingdom of Asturias.

It was, therefore, in early 9th century and amidst this political and religious context that hermit Pelayo, guided by miraculous lights, made his remarkable discovery in the place that would come to be called Santiago de Compostela. The hermit informed Bishop Teodomiro of Iria, who immediately confirmed that the tomb was the Apostle’s, and sended word to Alfonso II.

SAINT JAMES THE APOSTLE O APÓSTOLO SANTIAGO

Saint James the Greater, the son of Zebedee and Salome, and the brother of Saint John the Evangelist, is one of the apostles who is with Jesus Christ in important moments of his mission such as the resurrection of the daughter of Jairus, the healing of Simon Peter’s mother-in-law, the Transfiguration on Mount Tabor or the praying at the Olive Garden of Gethsemane. Little information is therefore given in the Biblical texts about his life and preaching.

An old tradition has it that years after the resurrection of Christ, the apostles got together to assign the areas of the world where each would preach the gospel. Santiago was assigned Hispania, where he organised a small number of disciples, created some sort

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of community and where the Virgin appeared to him in several occasions to encourage him.

One of the first sculptural representations of Saint James as an apostle is that by Beato de Girona. He is represented as wearing a tunic and a cloak and holding the Book of Gospels as just any other apostle and no iconographic element identifies him.

Since early 14th century, Saint James the Apostle is also represented seated, in majesty or chair wearing a tunic and a cloak, barefooted and holding in one hand a walking stick and in the other a roll of parchment informing of his evangelising mission: Hic est corpus divi Jacobi apostoli et hispanorum patroni.

Saint James the Apostle in the Beatus of Liébana. “Iacobus. Spania” Facsimile of the original from the archive of the cathedral of Girona Explanatio in Apocalypsin Attributed to the Beatus of Liébana Emeterio (esch.); Eude (ilum.) 970 Manuscript, parchment

Saint James the Apostle seated Based on the engravings by Melchor de Prado on the sculpture of the High Altar of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela Anonymous Late 18th century Drawing painted with watercolours on parchment Donated by the Blanco-Cicerón family

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THE HOLY KINDRED A SANTA PARENTELA. A DESCENDENCIA APOSTÓLICA DE SANTA ANA

Apostle Saint James the Greater- according to tradition and apocrypha, is the grandson of Saint Anna. These writings tell of the legend of the three marriages to which the three Maries are born: Virgin Mary, Mary Cleophas and Mary Salome. Mary Salome, in turn, married Zebedee and had two children: Saint James the Greater and John the Evangelist.

This genealogical issue of the Holy kindred of Anna has resulted in iconographic representations where Saint Anna is depicted with her three husbands and all her children. It will be from the 15th century that this representation will become particularly widespread as a consequence of the worship to Saint Anna in Holland and Germany. It disappeared after the Council of Trent as this tradition of the three marriages of the Saint is rejected by the ecclesiastical authority.

Saint Anna is represented in this sculptural group as the mother of the Virgin in an iconographic model that is closely associated to the iconography of the Holy kindred of Saint Anna, where the three generations are represented: Saint Anna, the Virgin and Baby Jesus.

In the relief of the Visitation, Virgin Mary embraces her cousin Saint Elisabeth – who is expecting a child from John the Baptist – so as to announce to her the good news of the coming birth of Christ. The third feminine figure represented is presumably one of the two sisters of the Virgin: Mary Cleophas or Mary Salome. The latter is the mother of Saint James the Greater.

SAINT ANNA AND HER THREE MARRIAGES. According to tradition and apocrypha

Saint Anna-Cleophas

Mary Cleophae-Alphaeus

Saint James the Lesser / Joseph the Just / Simon / Judas

Saint Anna-Joachim

Virgin Mary-Joseph

JESUS

Saint Anna-Salomas

Mary Salome-Zebedee

Saint James the Greater / John the Evangelist

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Saint Anna with the Virgin and the Child Flemish school Second half of the 15th cent.-1st half of th 16th cent. Polychrome and golden wood

Altarpiece with the Holy kindred Ca. 1500 Nationalmuseum of Copenhague

Relief with the scene of the Visitation of the Virgen with her cousin Saint Elisabeth Anonimous 1st half of the 17th century Polychrome, gilded and stewed wood Deposit of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela

SAINT JAMES THE APOSTLE AND HIS PREACHING IN GALLAECIA O APÓSTOLO SANTIAGO E A SUA PREDICACIÓN EN GALLAECIA

The Breviario de los Apóstoles of late 6th century defines the area of preaching and the place of burial for each of the apostles. It is in this text where for the first time Saint James the Greater a mention is made of his preaching in the western areas of Hispania (“Hispaniae occidentalia loca”) and of his burial in a place by the name of Arca Marmarica.

This belief is perhaps based on a long standing oral tradition which, as a consequence of this writing, becomes fully disseminated. It

was strengthened on the one hand by Asturian monarchy, who on political-religious grounds establishes a relationship of patronage and commendation between Saint James the Apostle and the Christian kingdoms of the north of the peninsula. On the other hand, as a consequence of the learned tradition in the Comentarios al Apocalipsis attributed to Beatus of Liébana and which were already completed by 786 in the territory of Asturias.

The manuscripts that survive of the Comentarios by the Beatus have or had a world map illustrating the areas of where each of the apostles preached. Although there are different versions, all have one feature in common: the fact that the name of Gallaecia is associated to Saint James the Apostle.

World map with the apostolic mission Facsimile of the original from the archive of the Cathedral of Girona Explanatio in Apocalypsin Attributed to Beatus of Liébana Emeterio (esch.); Eude (ilum.) 970 Manuscript, parchment

World map with the apostolic mission Facsimile of the original from the archive of the Cathedral of Burgo de Osma Explanatio in Apocalypsin Attributed to Beatus of Liébana Emeterio (esch.); Eude (ilum.) 1086 Manuscript, parchment

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THE CONVEYANCE OF THE REMAINS OF THE APOSTLE ACCORDING TO TRADITION A TRASLACIÓN DO CORPO DO APÓSTOLO SANTIAGO NA TRADICIÓN

The identification of Galicia as the burial place of Saint James accounts for the appearance of numerous traditions that satisfy folk devotion and attempt to explain the conveyance of the remains of Saint James the Greater from Jerusalem to Gallaecia.

Herodes had Saint James beheaded circa 44 A.D. and refused to grant him a burial place. His remains are then brought to Gallaecia by his disciples in a ship. They set sail at the port of Jaffa, and after seven days of miracolous sailing, they arrive at the estuary of the rivers Ulla and Sar.

The medieval coin of medio real de vellón with the representation of the conveyance by sea of the apostle and the 17th century engraving by Castellá Ferrer summarise some of these traditions rich in magical elements.

After taking the remains off the ship, the disciples head for the palace of Queen Lupa at Castro Lupario to request a burial place for Saint James. Lupa sends them to the Roman legate in the village of Duio. He has them imprisioned but they are later freed by an angel. The queen tries to trick the disciples again by sending them to Mount Ilicino to fetch some oxen to carry the remains. The oxen turned out to be wild bulls which are nonetheless miraculously tamed. The disciples also kill a dragon there and consecrate the Mount which ever since has been known as the Pico Sacro (The Sacred Peak). The queen converts to Christianity and assigns to them a small fort by the name of Libredón as burial place.

Coin of Ferdinand II with the conveyance of the body of Saint James the Apostle Medio dinero de vellón ( copper and silver coins) Mint: compostela 1157-1188 Adro Vello Excavations (san Vicente do Grove)

Map with the places cited by tradition of the conveyance of the apostle. Historia del Apóstol de Iesu Christo Santiago Zebedeo, Patrón y Capitán General de las Españas Mauro Castellá Ferrer Diego de Astor, engraver Madrid, Alonso Martín de Balboa, printer 1610 Printed on a mould on paper

Apparition of the Virgin of the Pillar to the Apostle Miraculous foundation of the Capilla Angélica y Apostólica de la madre de Dios del Pilar, y excellencias de la imperial civdad de Çaragoza Fr. Diego Murillo Barcelona, Sebastián Matevad, printer 1616 Printed on paper, charcography leather binding (19th century) with golden iron fittings.

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Engraving of de Nuestra Señora de la Barca TRUTHFUL ACCOUNT AUTHENTICATED BY THE AUTHORITY of Ordinary of the City and the Archbishop of Santiago, the sole Patron Saint of Spain. Of the marvels and miracles that our Lord works and has worked by intercession of Nª.Sª.DE LA BARCA, placed in her chapel that is by the sea and at two musket shot’s distance from the Parish Church of the Village of Mugìa, in the Kingdom of Galicia, Archbishopric of Santiago that gives birth to a devotee of the very Queen of Angles, the Mother of God and of Mankind, the Holy Virgin for the consolation of her devotees and the greater veneration of this Sovering Lady Anonimous José dos Santos Maragato, engraver Madrid, Diego Martínez Abad, printer 1719 Typographic printing on paper, xylography

Defense of the coming and evangelic preaching of Saint James Defense of the coming and evangelic preaching of Saint James in Spain Diego del Castillo Zaragoza, Lorenzo de Robles, printer 1608 Printer on paper, engraved using burin, xylogaphy

Defense of the coming and evangelic preaching of Saint James History of the Glorious Saint James, the Apostle, Patron Saint of Spain: of his coming of Spain and of the greatness of his church and military order. Hernando Oxea Madrid, Luis Sánchez, printer 1615 Parchment, printer on paper, xylography

María Salomé asks the Lord a privileged place in Paradise for her sons James and Jonh the Evangelist. Leopoldo di ser Giovanni 1367-1371 Pistoia. Cathedral, Santiago altarpiece

Beheading of James and his disciple Josiah Leopoldo di ser Giovanni 1367-1371 Pistoia. Cathedral, Santiago altarpiece

Conveyance of the remains of James from Jerusalem to Galicia Leopoldo di ser Giovanni 1367-1371 Pistoia. Cathedral, Santiago altarpiece

PREHISTORICAL GOLDSMITHING OURIVERÍA CASTREXA

Gold has been the preffered metal in the making of jewelry since prehistorical times in the north west of the peninsula.Golsmithing particularly flourishes here in prerroman times (the so-called ‘cultura castreña’), the period to which this gold collection belongs to.

Of the tesoro del Castro de Recouso (treasure of the fort of Recourso) 16 pendant earrings and four plano-convex ingots of a gold+ silver alloy were recovered. But it had more jewelry, which unfortunately was given out and most of it was melted. This collection must have been the stash of a goldsmith. Of the Castro

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de Bardaos there is record of the finding of three gold torques, of which only two survive today. One of them is kept in this museum.

The auriferous richness of the northwestern is one of the reasons why August decides to conquer this land and annex it to the Roman Empire.

One of the consequences of Romanisation is the settlement of the first Christian communities. Tradition has it that Saint James the Apostle preached in the peninsula. Whatever the truth, the fact is that this is the commencement of a slow Christianisation with stems from the syncretism of indigenous cults and of different creeds of Roman origin.

Treasure of castro de Recouso 4th-1st century B.C.

Gold, gold and silver alloy Castro de Recouso (san Martiño de Marzoa, Oroso, A Coruña)

Fortuitous finding in 1921 while farming the land. Deposited by Felipe R. Cordero Carrete

Torques from castro de Bardaos 4th-1st century B.C. Cast gold, welding, incision Castro de Bardaos (Tordoia, A Coruña) Fortuitous finding in 2004

CASTRO LUPARIO

Some of the places referred to in the Jacobean tradition clearly correspond to specific locations while others are more difficult to identify. An example of the latter case is the Castro Lupario, identified from the 16th century onwards with the Castro (Hill-fort) de Francos (Rois/Brión, A Coruña Province), where the remains of a wall and numerous archaeological artefacts, dating from the Iron Age to the medieval period, have been found.

More recent theories, however, indicate that the Castro Lupario may in fact correspond to the Castro de Lobeira, on the shore of the Ría de Arousa, as is suggested by the similarity between the two names. This hill-fort dates back to at least the 10th century.

Male head from castro Galaico-Roman times 1st-2nd century AD. Granite Excavations at the Castro Lupario/de Francos/del Faramello (Rois and Brión, A Coruña)

IRIA FLAVIA

Iria Flavia – an important enclave of maritime trade where several land routes converged – had great importance in Roman times. The town’s name –referring to its foundation during the reign of one of the Flavian emperors, perhaps Vespasian- is testimony to its importance. Archaeological remains from the Roman period are abundant: terra sigillata, early Christian sacophagi, remains of mosaic flooring, and coins from the period between the Republic and the Late Empire.

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The importance of Iria was confirmed with the establishment of Christianity and its designation as a see. The names of the bishops of Iria Flavia are known from the 6th century onwards. From the 8th century onwards (that is, after the Moorish invasions), it becomes one of the most important sees of the Kingdom of Asturias. And from the 9th century onwards, following the discovery of the Apostle’s tomb in Compostela, the bishops add to their title the words Regent or Guardian of the Apostolic See. This signals the progressive loss of importance of Iria in favour of Santiago which culimimated in the 11th century when Dalmacio began to sign documents as Bishop of Santiago .

REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS IN THE CHURCH OF SAINT SANTA MARÍA DE IRIA FLAVIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING AREA (PADRÓN, A CORUÑA).

Fusayola with interpolated decoration Roman times Bronze

Fusayola Roman times Glass

Fragment Terra sigillata Roman times romana

Fragment with figured decoration figurada Terra sigillata Época romana

Glass beads Roman times Glass Loom weight Roman times Granite

Apis Ox Late Roman epoch(4th-5th century) Bronze

Medium imperial bronze 3rd-4th centuries Bronze

Coin from Marco Aurelio’s epoch Sestertium Rome, 177-178 A.D.. Bronze

Bird-shaped lamp Roman time Cooked clay

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PEDRÓN: THE GREAT STONE Beneath the altar of the Church of Saint James in Padrón – just 2 km from Iria Flavia – is the great stone (pedrón in Galician) which gave the town its name. lt is now widely believed to be a Roman altar dedicated to Neptune. On the Roman inscription the anagram of Christ –HIS- was engraved over the incomplete original inscription.

Two traditions that refer to two different stays of Saint James in Hispania provide us with two different versions of the origin of this great stone. Some versions state that the Apostle came to Hispania seated upon a rock hewn from the coast of Palestine; others, that the great stone of Padrón is that to which the boat bearing the Apostle's body moored on arrival.

PICO SACRO

Traditionally, hills and mountains have been objects of devotion in Galicia, as is reflected in numerous popular legends. This perhaps explains why the Jacobean tradition recognised the Pico Sacro (The Sacred Peak) as that Monte Ilicino to which Queen Lupa had treacherously sent the Apostle's disciples in search of oxen.

The assimilation of these traditions by the church prompted that at the beginning of the 9th century, Bishop Sisnando I ordered the building of a monastery dedicated to Saint Sebastian on the north-west slope of the Pico Sacro. All that survives of this monastery today is a hermitage rebuilt in the 16th and 17th centuries. Another hermitage, dedicated to Saint James, was constructed here in the 11th century. But it was completely demolished in the 15th, together with a tower that rose there, whose foundations and a well can still be seen.

There is also evidence of human activity on the Pico Sacro prior to the 9th century; specifically, fragments of brick and tiles from the Roman period, together with evidence of metal-mining activity. It

seems likely that the mined material were transported down the River Ulla to Iria Flavia. In addition, the discovery of a milestone from the year 40 AD in Aixón-Sergude ( Boqueixón- A Coruña) indicates that a Roman road passed nearby, as was also the case with the Castro de Lobeira.

THE MOUTH OF THE ULLA: ROMAN RIVER PORT

During Roman times, the increase in maritime traffic encouraged the development of new routes of communication in Galicia; one consequence of this was that the mouth of the Ulla became a major point of entry to the interior. Evidence still remains of the settlements which sprung up around this port: notably, two archaeological sites, both perhaps related to the Turris Augusti mentioned in ancient texts. The first site is known as the Torres del Oeste, near Catoira, where archaeologists have found the remains of the walls of a number of modest buildings, and fragments of Roman amphorae. The second site is close to the village of Porto, near Pontecesures, at the confluence of the Rivers Ulla and Sar.

The flow of traffic through the area was enhanced by the proximity of the roads joining Bracara, Brigantium and Lucus, thus favouring the establishment of other settlements.

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ROOM III

SANTIAGO: THE CATHEDRAL AND THE CITY.

THE APOSTLE’S SHRINE AS THE ORIGIN OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY

SANTIAGO: CATEDRAL E CIDADE. O SEPULCRO DO APÓSTOLO COMO XERADOR DA URBE COMPOSTELÁ

LOCUS SANCTI IACOBI (c. 830– 880) LOCUS SANCTI IACOBI (ENTORNO ÓS ANOS 830– 880)

Several archaeological remains suggest that there was indeed a castro (hill fort) at the site where the sepulchre of Saint James was discovered. To this castro, located at a junction of roads, belonged the necropolis where the Apostle tomb was discovered. Apparently, it was inhabited between the Roman period and the early Middle Ages. However, at the time of the discovery of the Apostle’s tomb in the 9th century, it was not inhabited.

Following the discovery, Bishop Teodomiro of Iria and the King of Asturias Alfonso II conferred the site a legal status and commenced the construction programme that led to the locus Sancti Iacobi. This site, covering some three hectares, was physically and spiritually isolated from the outside world by a defensive stockade. Inside, two groups of buildings can be distinguished: a set of Episcopal buildings and the monastery buildings.

The Episcopal buildings comprised the Church of Saint James, probably just a single nave church, adjoining the reliquary itself (which served as apse), and with a single altar, Saint

James’. Close by there was a graveyard that was used until 11th century. The church must have been was a crude construction; certainly, this is what is suggested by the reference made to it in the Act of Consecration of the replacement built by Alfonso III, in which the original is described as being ex petra et luto opere parvo (‘of worthless stone and mud’). A short distance to the north, there was a baptistery dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, while to the south-west there was the bishop’s residence, used by the successive bishops of Iria (who upon the discovery of the mausoleum, they immediately moved there even though they did not call themselves bishops of Santiago until late 11th century).

The monastic buildings occupied the eastern part of the complex, practically adjoining the church, though perhaps separated from it by a fence. Here dwelt the guardians of the cult of Saint James, the monks of Antealtares. The name Antealtares derived from the monastery’s physical proximity to the two churches (that of Saint James, and that of Saint John). The monastic complex itself included a church dedicated to the Saviour, possibly with three altars (to the Saviour, Saint Peter and Saint John the Evangelist).

THE APOSTLE’S SHRINE O SEPULCRO APOSTÓLICO

The rediscovery of remains of the original tomb – lost since the 16th century – in 1879 led to a site made up of two connected compartments. The little data that such remains provided – as there only survive the foundations of a mausoleum constructed with Roman or Roman-style stone-

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masonry – led to a number of hypotheses on its original appearance.

Recent studies suggest that the original mausoleum was a modest construction, the height of a single chamber with an altar above the Apostle's tomb and access from the east and the west. The interior might have had a domed ceiling and have been decorated in marble; this would explain the terms arce Marmarica or arca marmarica by which the oldest texts refer to place of rest of the body of Saint James.

Tomstone of bishop Teodomiro de Iria (+847) Santiago de Compostela, cathedral

Alfonso II el Casto (the chaste) Tomb A in the Cathedral of Santiago 1129 to 1255 Santiago de Compostela, Cathedral Archive

Apostle Mausoleum. Reconstruction. Juan M. Muñoz Gambero 1976 Wood and plaster

VILLA SANCTI IACOBI (c. 900-1040) VILLA SANCTI IACOBI (ENTORNO ÓS ANOS 900-1040)

The main factor explaining the transformation in the 10th century of the modest locus into a flourishing villa burgensis is its role as an ecclesiastical centre.

Thus, during the reign of Alfonso III and being Sisnando I the bishop, the buildings of the locus underwent a major remodelling to underscore its sacred relevance as an apostolic site. It was for this reason that a new Church of Saint James was built using marble brought from Moorish Spain. This church was consecrated in the 899. This same period saw the restoration of the Church of Saint John and of the Church of the Saviour in the monastic complex.

In addition, a new monastic community was established in a small plot of land where the Church of Santa María de la Corticela and other buildings are built.

The construction of the medieval town, the Villa Sancti Iacobi, was a result of the expansion of the village beyond its original boundaries. As early as before 915, private dwellings begin to rise on the outskirts of the town as a result of the lack of space within. From this point on, and around the routes of access of the original castro new settlements appear: Pinario (due to expansion of the monastic community of Santa María de la Corticela), Lovio, (site of the first pilgrims’ hospice), Vilar, Preconitorium, Forum and perhaps Vicus Francorum (though this may have been a later development). All of these names have survived to the present day.

The decade 960-970 saw the second major development. Faced with the threat of a Norman attack, Bishop Sisnando II had the original wall surrounding the locus rebuilt. Besides, an outer stockade and a defensive ditch were built around the town. Sisnando’s defences were destroyed during the raid of Santiago in 997 by the Moorish raider Almansor. Bishop Cresconio rebuilt Sinando’s wall and also put up a new wall to reinforce the defensive ditch.

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Alfonso III el Magno Tomba of Saint James’ Cathedral 1129 to 1255 Santiago de Compostela, Cathedral Archive

Wall covering from the construction site of the Apostole mausoleum. Fragments 2nd half of the 4th century A.D (?) Green porphyry Intervention south of the apostle’s mausoleum Santiago de Compostela, cathedral

Materials from Roman constructions probably taken from Alexandria and that would be part of Roman materials taken for their reutilisation in the the basilica built by king Alfonso III.

Pre-Romanesque basilica of AlfonsoIII. Reconstruction Scale E 1:50 A Coruña, 27 june 1997 Alabaster

CIVITAS SANCTI IACOBI (c. 1150) CIVITAS SANCTI IACOBI (ca. 1150)

From about the year 1,000 onwards, there is a dramatic increase in the number of pilgrims coming to Santiago. The impact of this influx on the city is apparent in two major respects: the construction of the great Romanesque cathedral and, closely associated to this, the urban development of Santiago.

The dimensions and basic ground-plan of the cathedral were mapped out by Bishop Diego Gelmirez. The cathedral was to occupy the site of the existing complex: the Church of Santa María de la Corticela, the monastery of Antealtares, the Episcopal palace, the cemetery and the walls of the locus. Work started in 1075, on four largely independent units: the sanctuary, the transept, the nave and the western gate (the pórtico). When Bishop Diego Gelmírez took over, plans for a chapter house and a cloister were added, while the pre-Romanesque Church of Saint James was demolished to make way for a larger sanctuary and nave.

In 1117, there was a popular uprising against Bishop Gelmírez, and the Episcopal palace was destroyed; he was subsequently obliged to build another, on the north side of the Cathedral. At the same time, he developed the Cathedral’s surroundings, building a plaza, the Paraíso (the Paradise), in what is now known as Acibechería (the street to the north and east of the Cathedral). Around this square, traders and money-changers set up shop, and at its centre was a great drinking fountain, a visible symbol of the city’s water piping system. From the square, one could reach the Hospice and the Casa de la Moneda (Mint).

Communications within the city hinged around two main streets: the Calle Francígena, the final stretch of the Way of Saint James, running east-west to the north of the Cathedral (i.e. what is now Acibechería), and the Rúa de Vilar, running north-south, to the south of the Cathedral. In both artisans and traders abounded.

Between the 9th century and the beginning of the 13th, Santiago grew in size by a factor of almost six. From the 11th century onwards, buildings began to appear outside the 30

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hectare enclave bounded by the city walls, giving rise to ‘suburbs’ such as San Pedro de Fóra, Santa Susana and Sar.

Growth was particularly rapid during the first half of the 12th century, when a variety of economic, social and legal incentives were introduced with the aim of attracting people from the surrounding countryside.

Coin of Fernando II Copper and silver alloy Minted in Santiago de Compostela 1157-1188 obverse: bust of Saint James the Apostle with the inscription “IACOBI” Reverse: “REX””

There are also distinctive symbols such as the scallop shell in the varied numismatic production that came out of the mint of Santiago where royal coins were minted since the times of Alfonso VI. Coins used the same design as the remaining territory of León, However, distinctive references to Saint James were made for decorative purposes in those coins reserved for the cathedral as they were a most important advertising element to spread the importance of the worship of both the Apostle and the city as a pilgrimage destination.

Coin of Fernando II Copper coin Minted in Santiago de Compostela 1157-1188 obverse: “REX LEO” Reverse: “FERNANDUS”

It is a most rare coin that shown on the obverse the bust of king Fernando II on a strange longitudinal motif that some researchers interpret as the schematic representation of the Way of Saint

James. Thus, with the legend “civitas Sancti Iacobi” as the destination of the Way represented under the royal bust, Fernando II would be depicted as the ‘Lord of the Way of Saint James’, which is very interesting as a working hypothesis. There was a very close connection of Fernando II both with the Way of Saint James and the City and the coins minted in Santiago - royal and ecclesiastic coins on equal parts - around 1100, were extremely interesting during his kingdom.

Coin. Copper and silver alloy from Tours Mint of the abbey of Martín de Tours 12th century Archeological excavation at rúa do Vilar (Santiago de Compostela)

The ‘tornesa’ coin (minted in Tours) is frequently cited in the medieval documentation of Santiago de Compostela. It arrived here through the Way of Saint James as a consequence of pilgrimages and become a very frequent method of payment in business transactions, particularly in those made between the 12th and 14th centuries. The abundance of foreign coins in Santiago during this epoch in the Middle Ages is a clear indication of the important role placed by contact with foreign places as a consequence of the city being a pilgrimage centre where people from all the known world came not only for religious purposes but also for business.

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Apothecary jar Probably made in Talavera de la Reina (Toledo) Late 18th –early 19th century Polychrome, glazed china; moulded using a wheel

The archbishop emblem of the Monastery of Martín Pinario shows a central pine with a scallop shell on each side and topped by a bishop or abbot’s hat. The origin of the monastery goes back to the 10th century when Bishop Sisnando builds a small chapel of Saint Martin not far from a place called Pignario. A new church was built the following century but it was not until later that the current building was built. Different traditions associate its name to the existence in former times of a great pine in that place to which some add a miracle by Saint Martin in which the Saint defends the faith in God before this tree dedicated to the Devil. The toponym is associated with the existence at the time of a peñascal (rocky area) there, hence the name Pignario.

Apothecary jar Late 17th century Polichrome, glazed china; moulded using a wheel Talavera de la Reina (Toledo)

The blue cobalt coat of arms made up of a double blue ring with the cross potent at the centre and topped on the outside by the emblem corresponding to the archbishop dignity determines that this piece belongs to the jars of the Hospital Real de Santiago. This hospital institution was founded in Santiago in 1492 by the Catholic

Monarchs to thank the help provided by Santiago as the Patron Saint of Spain in the conquest of Granada. The main purpose of this hospital was to improve the care given to pilgrims, the poor and the beggars that were attracted to the city by centralising the hospitality and health efforts given in other hospices existing in the city.

Tomb with the coat of arms of the Moscoso. Fragments Mid. 15th century Policrome granite Santiago de Compostela, church of santa María del Camino (?)

THE CATHEDRAL AND THE CITY FROM THE LATE MIDDLE AGES CATEDRAL E CIDADE DENDE A BAIXA IDADE MEDIA

The period between 1200 and 1500 saw the parallel growth of Cathedral and city. The construction of a series of chapels in the nave and the sanctuary, together with a number of defensive modifications substantially changed the Cathedral’s outward appearance. In the 16th century, a new cloister was built on the old one.

The expansion of the city beyond its walls - to which access was gained through seven doors- continued with the construction of a number of buildings: the mendicant convents of San Domingo de Bonaval and of San Francisco,

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and the houses that made up the streets of San Pedro and Hortas.

Of what the cathedral was like at about 1658, we have information thanks to the drawings of Vega y Verdugo. One of the drawings shows the Praza do Obradoiro, with the Cathedral’s former facade (the one built at the same time as the Pórtico da Gloria) and the newly constructed stairways, together with the façades of the cloister –after a classical-style- and the façade of Episcopal Palace, to the south and north of the Cathedral respectively. Another drawing, showing a view from the Quintana, shows the irregular appearance that the addition of the new chapels had given to the sanctuary.

It was not until the 17th and 18th centuries, however, that Santiago and its cathedral acquired the appearance that we know today. The key factors leading to this transformation were an increase in income of the city’s Church authorities and the great monastic bodies, together with a renewal of interest in the Cult of Saint James. The great reforms carried out over this period –most notably the Clock Tower, the high altar ciborium, and the west façade- were to give the Cathedral a baroque appearance that would almost completely hide the original Romanesque structure.

At the same time, the medieval city underwent a similarly radical transformation. The basis of the city’s original layout were, however, respected: on the one hand, the street running east-west from the east gate, the Porta do Camiño, along what is now Casas Reais, through the Praza de Cervantes (then the Praza do Campo), down to Acebechería and finally leading to the Praza do Obradoiro; and, on the other hand, the street running north-south from San Roque,

down through the Praza de Cervantes and along Preguntoiro. The town planners of the 16th and 17th centuries retained many of the original narrow streets, although large spaces were opened in front of major buildings, producing the spectacular spatial effects typical of baroque city plans.

In the 18th and 19th centuries many medieval structures –including for example a number of arcades- were demolished. The same period saw the construction of a series of major buildings, notably the City Hall, the University and the Market, giving the ‘old quarter’ the appearance that we know today.

Map of Santiago 1595 Archivo General de Simancas (Valladolid)

Drawing of the west facade of the Cathedral José Vega y Verdugo Ca. 1658 Santiago de Compostela, Cathedral Archive

Drawing of the east facade of the cathedral José Vega y Verdugo Ca. 1658 Santiago de Compostela, Cathedral archive

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Skyline of Santiago Relazione uffíciale Lorenzo Megalotti Pier María Baldi 1669 Florencia, Biblioteca Laurenziana

View of Santiago Ramón Gil Rey 1832 Santiago de Compostela, Museo Municipal

Street map of Santiago Enrique Mayer 1886 Santiago de Compostela, Instituto de Estudios Galegos Padre Sarmiento

PANEL: HOW THE CATHEDRAL WAS BUILT Panel: así se construiu a catedral

- General view over the Santiago area - Discovery of the Roman mausoleum by Teodomiro - Baslica of Alfonso II - Consecration of the Basilicia of Alfonso III - Destruction of Alfonso III’s basilica by Almansor in 997 - Alfonso III’s basilica inner section views - Alfonso III’s basilica reconstructed and first stage of the

Romanesque cathedral - Second stage of the construction of the Romanesque cathedral - Visit to the construction site by bishop Diego Gelmírez - Third stage of the construction of the Romanesque cathedral - Proportion between the nave section, the portico and the rosette - Romanesque cathedral completed.

THE STONE CHOIR CORO PÉTREO

The choir is the enclosed area near the altar reserved for clergy and choir. The original stone choir of the Cathedral was completed in about 1200, and is one of the most important elements produced in the workshop of Master Mateo, the master architect and stonemanson responsible for the remodelling of the original west facade. Unfortunately, however, the choir was dismantled in 1604 . It was replaced by a wooden structure more in accord with the tastes of the time. Some parts of the original choir were re-used in other parts of the Cathedral, whether as decorative elements (as in the case of the figures of the Apostles, Evangelists and Prophets in the Porta Santa, (the Holy Door) or for more mundane purposes.

There have been a number of attempts to reconstruct the design of the choir, the most important to date being those of José Manuel Pita Andrade in 1953(1); Manuel Chamoso Lamas in 1961 (2), Manuel Chamoso Lamas and José Manuel Pita Andrade in 1970 (3); and Ramón Otero Túñez and Ramón Yzquierdo Perrín in 1985(4).

Fragment of the stone choir by Master Mateo 12th century Granite Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela

Fragment of the stone choir by Master Mateo 12th century Granite Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela

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Maquette of the front of the cathedral in its first stage of construction. Juan Manuel Muñoz Gambero, Alfonso Moreno Mora 1976-1981 Plaster and wood

Maquette with a cross-sectional view of the main nave of the cathedral Juan Manuel Muñoz Gambero, Alfonso Moreno Mora 1976-1981 Plaster and wood

Maquette of the head and transept of the cathedral Juan Manuel Muñoz Gambero, Alfonso Moreno Mora 1976-1981 Plaster and wood

THE GOTHIC SANCTUARY

GOTHIC FRONT (CABECEIRA GÓTICA)

The plans for the remodelling of the original Romanesque sanctuary were made in the 13th century, under Archbishop Juan Arias. It was an ambitious project, influenced by the architectural tendencies prevailing in northern France at the time, although perhaps the cathedral of León would be a more accurate model. Work was abandoned in 1266 upon the death of Juan Arias, at a time of poor relations between Alfonso X (Alfonso the Wise) and the ecclesiastical nobility of Santiago.

Modillion with Plant decoration Ca. 1200 Granite Santiago de Compostela, cathedral (?)

Reel modillion Early 12th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, cathedral (?)

Corner capitel Master Mateo´s worshop 1st half of 13th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, primitive cloister of the cathedral

Capitals with plant decoration 3rd quarter of the 13th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, unfinished gothic front of the catedral

Cymatium. Fragment Master Mateo’s workshop early 13th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, primitive cloister of the cathedral

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Figured capital Early 13th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, chapel (?) of the former cloister of the cathedral

Capital with plant decoration & interwoven elements Early 12th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, cathedral

Tomb lid. Fragment Early 12th century Granite Excavations in plazas de Platerías and Quintana (Santiago de Compostela)

“Wheel of Fotune”. Fragment 13th century Granite Excavations in rúa da Acibechería Santiago de Compostela, cathedral (?)

Arch. Reconstruction First half of 13th century Granite with policrome traces Santiago de Compostela, primitive cloister of the cathedral

Geminated capital 14th century (?) Granite From a tower-house o manor house in the area of Algalia (Santiago de Compostela)

Role of the keystone in the vault Función dunha pedra clave de bóveda

The keystone is the central and highest stone where the lateral weight of the vault meet. In medieval architecture it also had a decorative role.

Keystone 1st half of the 13th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, primitive cloister of the cathedral

Keystone 1st half of the13th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, primitive cloister of the cathedral

Keystone 1st half of the 13th century Granite Santiago de Compostela, primitive cloister of the cathedral

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ROOM IV

THE WAY OF SAINT JAMES. ROUTES AND RITUALS

PEREGRINOS A SANTIAGO. CAMIÑOS E RITOS

Routes to Santiago in Europa Based on the Map of the Council of Europe

Pilgrim scallop shell (Pectem maximus) Prior to 1120 Santiago de Compostela

This” Vieira” (scallop shell) was found in a burial place in a plot that was later occupied by the north central nave of the Romanesque cathedral of Santiago. Therefore, it is prior to 1120. The scallop shell is the symbol of the pilgrimage to Santiago, taken by pilgrims on their way back home to the most remote places in Europe.

The yellow arrow José Antonio Robés 2001 W/N and colour. Leica M6 Film Ilford 100 y 400 Donated by the author

Pilgrims arriving at plaza del Obradoiro

Jacobo Remuñán 2003

Colour. Nikon S90X. 35-70 mm. F2’8

Film: Fuji Superia 100 Donated by the artist

LA VIEIRA. EMBLEM OF THE WAY OF SAINT JAMES A VIEIRA. INSIGNIA XACOBEA

Sacrarium 2nd third of the 16th century Carved and polychrome wood Triacastela (Lugo)

Tiles 16th century. (?)

Glazed china Alfares de Triana

(Sevilla)

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THE ROUTE AND THE INFRASTRUCTURE O CAMIÑO E AS INFRAESTRUCTURAS

As time went by, the pilgrimage route to Compostela gradually became fixed. Many a factor contributed to this: political circumstances, the construction of highways and bridges, the establishment of villages and towns, as well as of hospices and inns. This route –the French Route, of Way of Saint James- is first documents in the 12th century, in Book V of the Liber Sancti Iacobi, better known as the “Pilgrim’s Guide”. The first known copy of the Guide is part of the manuscript known as the Codex Calixtinus. The text is an invaluable source of information about the journeys undertaken by pilgrims who set out from Tours, Vézelay and Le Puy and crossed to the Iberian Peninsula via Roncesvalles (Portus Cisere), or by those who started from Saint Gilles and crossed via the Pass of Somport (Summo Portu); the two routes met in Puente la Reina, and continued as one to Compostela.

Both Roncesvalles and Somport had major hospices, that of Santa María and Santa Cristina respectively. They offered food, warmth and a place to rest in that most strenuous stage of the pilgrim’s long journey, the crossing of the Pyrenees. The Hospice of Santa Cristina has disappeared completely, though that of Roncesvalles remains to this day, and still tends to pilgrim’s needs with the same dedication as it did many centuries ago.

The Guide divides the journey in thirteen one-day stages of differing length; some would be quite impossible even on horseback. It speaks, too, of the names of towns, of the great hospices, of the land, the people and their customs; in short, it is a practically oriented travel guide, full of down-to-earth advice designed to help pilgrims and make their journey easier.

The two routes of the Pyrenees run separately until reaching the area of Óbanos-Puente-la Reina where they meet. The road out of the village is across a fine Romanesque bridge over the River Arga.

Puente la Reina, Ponte Regina in medieval documents –was created by royal decree to facilitate the pilgrimage. Its linear layout, with buildings on both sides of a high street or main street as it is typical of towns along the Way.

Bridge of Puente la Reina (Navarra)

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One of the chapters of the Guide deals with the name of the regions through which the Way of Saint James passes, and the characteristics of the native people. After giving the Basques and the people of Navarre a decidedly bad press, the Guide moves on to Castile and Galicia

“... once you have passed the Montes de Oca, towards Burgos, you will come into the land of the Spaniards: Castile and Campos. This land is full of treasures, rich in gold and silver, cloth and strong horses; bread, wine, meat, fish, milk and honey are plentiful. However, it has no trees… Later, having passed through the land of León, and after crossing the mountain passes of Monte Irago and Monte Cebreiro, you will reach the land of the Galicians. Forests abound, and the land is made pleasant by its rivers, meadows and marvellous orchards, its fine fruits and crystal-clear springs; but cities, towns and agricultural land are scarce. Wheat and wine are in short supply, but it is rich in rye and cider, in livestock and horses, milk and honey and great and little fish of the sea. Abundant too are gold and silver, fabrics and furs and other riches, particularly Saracen treasures”.

Entering Galicia from Cebreiro

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The Códice Calixtino already mentions the two possible access routes in the Iberian Peninsula through the Pyrenees: Portus

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Cisere or Port de Cize which connects with Roncesvalles in Navarre and Summo Portu, or Somport in Aragón. Two important hospitals are found in these towns: Santa María’s hospital and Santa Cristina’s. They offered hospitality to pilgrims providing the necessary rest and care after such a hard effort as it was to cross the Pyrenees. Nowadays, there is no trace of the hospital of Santa Cristina but the one in Roncesvalles continues to provide assistance to travellers with the same devotion as in former times.

Pass of Somport in the Pyrenees (Huesca)

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One thing the pilgrim badly needed was drinking water; caution in this regard was very important as poor health conditions made indiscriminate consumption of water something extremely dangerous. In fact, the Códice Calixtino devotes a whole chapter to listing the good and the bad rivers along the Route. Amongst the latter, we find the River Salado, in Navarre, of which we read “refrain from drinking here both you and your horse for this river is deadly”. Good for drinking, in contrast, were the Pisuerga, the Carrión, the Esla, the Valcarce, the Sil, the Miño, and the Sar.

Bridge over Río Salado in the vicinity of Lorca (Navarre)

The Guide comes to an end with a detailed description of the city of Santiago and the Saint James’ Catedral. The city’s gates and its churches are listed, and the Cathedral is described in a wealth of detail: its dimensions, the date when work commenced and the lamps, and the stonemasons who participated in its construction. This is an extraordinarily important source of information about the Cathedral and its surroundings, and most notably about those aspects of the Cathedral which have disappeared or changed since that time.

Mazarelos’ gate (Santiago de Compostela)

Bull of Pope Gregory XIII whereby plenary indulgence was granted in articulo mortis to the infirm, the pilgrims and the remaining members of the Hospital del Rey de Burgos founded by Alfonso VIII Roma, 1574, february, 13 Original with lead seal hanging Parchment, manuscript

The Way of Saint James brought about the establishment of villages throughout it with a typical lineal arrangement. The Calle Real or Calle Mayor (high or main street) of so many towns and villages is nothing but the old Road around which the village grew. But along with these more or less spontaneous villages, there were villages that came into being as a result of royal decisions motivated by their connection to the Way of Saint James. As maps demonstrate, the pilgrim’s route has left an important imprint on toponymy.

Bridges take on an extraordinary importance from the 11th century onwards as essential elements in the infrastructure of the Way of Saint James. Pilgrims were exempted from paying bridge tolls, although many a time greed and cunning turned this privilege into nothing. In the history of pilgrimages some “puenteadores” (bridge builders) have made themselves a name such as Petrus Peregrini, santo Domingo de la Calzada, san Juan de Ortega and even Master Mateo.

Castrillo de los Polvazares (León) Roman Bridge of Leboreiro (A Coruña)

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Wooden or stone crosses (cruceiros in Galician) are part and parcel of the Way of Saint James. They were originally symbols of

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piety, of fulfilment of holy vows, of supplication of grace. In time, they became important landmarks along the Way of Saint James and resting places at that.

Humiliatorios or milladoiros were piles of small stones on the wayside. Following an ancient custom, pilgrims would toss a pebble onto the pile as they walked by. Originally, this was a pagan rite, aimed at invoking the favours of the deities who protected travellers. Very few of the humiliatorios along the Way of Saint James have survived: one at Foncebadón, some vegetation-covered remains on the Monte do Gozo, and the toponym of Milladoiro, near Santiago.

Lameiros’ cross (Lugo)

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The Religious buildings along the Route were of course of great importance and assistance to the pilgrim. At the end of a day’s journey, the pilgrim needed a place to rest, and at the same time to restore his spiritual motivation. In addition, pilgrims would often make side-trips to visit other sites with sacred relics or to witness religious events. Indeed, a number of secondary cults arose in association with the Way of Saint James, notably those of the Virgin of the Way, the Pilgrim Virgin, Saint Roque, Saint Michael, and the Virgin of Rocamadour. The latter was widely revered among French pilgrims.

Saint Michael church. Corullón (León)

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The origins of the worship to Saint James in Portugal go back to before the foundation of the nation in 1143. Since an early date pilgrims flocked to Santiago. The network of roads used consisted of at least seven routes, a dense network of middle roads that

heading north and south led to the border with Galicia. Pilgrims were particularly numerous in the regions of Entre-Douro and Minho, Ponte da Lima being the main junction of roads and the port cities of Viana and Porto due to the importance of the maritime route that originated in Lisbon.

Evidence of the importance of this maritime route is the story that tells of a miracle that occurred when, while a young lord of the area was celebrating his wedding in Bouças, the ship taking to Galicia the remains of the Apostle sailed by the coast of Portucale. Unexpectedly, a runaway horse rode into the sea with the horseman and when everyone had lost all hope of ever seeing him alive, the man and the mount came out of the sea covered in scallop shells which ever since have been the symbol of Saint James.

Drawing of P.M. Baldi, of the journey of Cosme de Médici, Coimbra

Drawing of P.M. Baldi, of the journey of Cosme de Médici, Lisbon and Porto

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Several factors determine the choice of a route: geographic factors when in order to skirt a mountain pass or a river an easier route is chosen even though it means making a detour; political factors, such as internal problems or clashes between countries that cut off the flow of pilgrims in certain areas; religious factors such as making a stop on the way to visit a church. The density of hospices and the legal and physical protection offered to the traveller also increased the importance of certain routes. However, the route per excellence is the so-called “Camino Francés” (French Route). Its tradition was never lost as we can see in the journeys dated more recently that maintain the same stages as those first indicated in the Liber Sancti Iacobi.

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Establishments providing lodging and other services to pilgrims were obviously key elements of the infrastructure of the Way of Saint James. Monasteries provided such services from a very early time; as the Way of Saint James grew in importance, hospices were established by ecclesiastical or lay institutions, or by individuals.

The first hospices were established in places where passage was particularly difficult, such as mountain passes, notably Somport, Roncesvalles, and O Cebreiro. As time passed, the network of accommodation and services expanded, until the route was well provided with hospices, lodging houses and eating places.

The protection of pilgrims from highwaymen was another important task. In addition to legal measures, the castles, towers and forts dotted along the Way of Saint James made a valuable contribution, as did ‘military orders’ such as the Caballeros de Santiago (the Knights of Saint James).

Hospital de la Reina, Villafranca de Montes de Oca (Burgos)

Puerta del Patio de los Romeros. Hospital del Rey (Burgos)

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MARITIME ROUTES RUTAS MARÍTIMAS

As frequent as the land routes were the maritime routes for those pilgrims coming from Northern Europe, Holland and the British Islands who travelled to Santiago. British pilgrimages are the best documented and thanks to them we know of the circumstances and the events of the journey. We have information on transportation

permits, the ships, the collective safe-conducts that were issued to the name of the shipowner, the names and status of the pilgrims on board and also the names of some of the ships that voyaged in the 14th and 15th centuries: Gracedieu from Bristol, Trinitate from Falmouth. We also have information about the main ports of embarkment and their destination.

English pilgrims could go directly by taking advantage of the proximity of the port of La Coruña and other seaside towns in Galicia and the Bay of Biscay or they may cross the English Channel to Bordeaux. The latter must have been the commonest route up to late 14th century when political issues made crossing France impossible.

Carrack taking pilgrims from northern Europe. (Hans Burkmair. 1511)

TRAVELLERS AND THEIRS ACCOUNTS VIAXEIROS E AS SUAS CRÓNICAS

NOPAR, LORD OF CAUMONT Nopar, Lord of Caumont, made the pilgrimage to Santiago in 1417. His account is simply a record of his route, though he stops to describe the ‘Miracle of the hanged man’, said to have taken place in Santo Domingo de la Calzada.

Leaving his domains in France, he follows the Liber Sancti Iacobi to the letter, citing numerous villages along the way, and the distance in leagues between them. Interestingly, he describes the continuation of his journey to Fisterra, listing a number of the places he passes through. Many pilgrims continued their journey to the coast, with the aim of seeing some of the other villages mentioned in the legends around Saint James, the Apostle.

View of Cabo Fisterra (A Coruña)

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Guild tombstome with scallop shell and scissors. Graveyard of Santa María de Noya (A Coruña)

Road and church of Santa María (León) Wall of Mansilla de las Mulas (León)

HERMAN KÜNIG VON VACH In the late 15th century a monk from the Strasbourg region, Herman Künig von Vach, wrote a guide to the Way of Saint James for German pilgrims. It was written in verse, and –judging from the numerous editions printed- it was a great success.

He followed different routes on his way to and back. On his way to Santiago, the Obere Strasse, starts out from the Swiss sanctuary of Einseindeln, then crosses the Alps and continues to the Iberian Peninsula by the Toulouse Route, crossing the Pyrenees at Roncesvalles. From this point onwards the author follows the Liber Sancti Iacobi with scant additional comments. He describes, though, a number of variants such as a detour through Lugo to avoid the rise to Cebreiro. He does the same to reach Ponferrada over the Manzanal Pass, thus avoiding another stiff climb up to Foncebadón. In León, the text indicates the route leading to San Salvador de Oviedo.

On the way back, the Nieder Strasse, retraces the outward route as far as Burgos, then takes a more norther detour. The Nieder Strasse continues through western France and the Netherlands, and eventually reaches Aquisgrán, where the account comes to an end.

Throughout, the practical intent of the text is evident: the author does not waste time with description or narrations, but limits himself to distances, currencies, hospices and hostels, and other information of practical interest to the traveller.

Chapel of Santiago, Roncesvalles (Navarre)

General view from the top at la Laguna de Castilla, La Faba (León)

COSIMO III DI MÉDICI As the Middle Ages drew to a close, the mentality and the way of life also changed and this had a reflection in how the pilgrimage was approached. The search for knowledge acquired greater importance, giving rise to the so-called “chivalrous pilgrimage”, in which the real purpose was not to reach the Apostle’s shrine, but rather the undertaking of the journey itself: a sort of religious tourism. In journeys of this type –such as that of Cosimo III, Grand-Duke of Tuscany- there was no longer a need to follow the traditional route.

Driven by both personal motivations and deep religious feeling, this Italian ruler commenced his long journey from Florence towards the end of 1668. Having first toured much of the Iberian Peninsula, he came to Santiago, only to continue to La Coruña, where he boarded a ship bound for the British Isles. He was accompanied by a court of 40 people, including Lorenzo Megalotti, who was entrusted with the task of writing the official account of it and Pier María Baldi, who painted water-colour illustrations.

Cosimo’s account helps us to reconstruct the customs, culture and art of 17th century Spain, sharply portrayed by the fearlessly critical Megalotti, who describes Santiago in great detail (not forgetting the rain!).

Darwing by P.M. Baldi, of the journey of Cosme de Médici. Pontevedra. Padrón.

Drawing by P.M. Baldi, of the journey of Cosme de Médici. Port of A Coruña.

DOMENICO LAFFI Though a contemporary of Cosimo III, priest Domenico Laffi made his pilgrimage to Santiago with very different purposes and means. He left

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Bologna, his city of birth, in 1670, on foot and wearing pilgrim’s attire with the devout intention of visiting the Apostle’s shrine. He followed the traditional route of Italian pilgrims, which linked up with the French Route. Having reached Santiago, he continued to Fisterra, though some of the place-names he cites during this part of the journey are difficult to identify with certainty.

Laffi’s account reveals that many of the difficulties and dangers of faced by pilgrims had changed little since the Middle Ages: poor lodging, poor food, illness, highwaymen and and rivers to cross. What is more, it is clear that the pilgrimage was in severe decline by this time: he states that pilgrims were scarce, and viewed with admiration.

Tambre’s bridge (A Coruña)

GUILLAUME MANIER In the 17th century, measures are taken to encourage true pilgrims but, at the same time, these measures make the journey more difficult, which leads to its decline. By this stage, pilgrims were middle-class people, clerics, craftsmen, etc. and, above all, agricultural peasants, drawn to pilgrimage by a combination of piety and thirst for adventure. This is readily apparent from the account of Guillaume Manier, a tailor from Carlepont in France who set out for Compostela in 1726. He was an inquisitive man, relating everything he saw and deemed of interest in the course of his journey, describing the land through which he passed, the food and the prices, the beauty of the women and their attire.

Manier made his pilgrimage with three friends, crossing into the Peninsula at Irún and, from Santo Domingo de la Calzada onwards, strictly following the French Route. The place-names he cites are often crudely transcribed and difficult to identify, as can be seen from the map. Of the four friends, Manier is the first to sight the Cathedral from San Marcos, and for this reason his companions appoint him “King”. He describes the city of Santiago and particularly the free meals offered by various convents. He also

tells of his experiences buying souvenirs and visiting inns. He returns by a more northerly route, in order to visit San Salvador de Oviedo.

Hormazuela’s bridge (Hornillos del Camino, Burgos) Wooden cross of Foncebadón (León)

NICOLA ALBANI The portrait left by Nicola Albani of his journey from Naple to Santiago around the middle of 1743 and his stay in Lisbon until 1745 bears witness to the transformation suffered by the pilgrimage with time, that had severely declined by the middle of the 18th century. Often, the adventurer and the pícaro (crafty men) mix with the true pilgrim.

Nicola Albani, after his stay in the city of the apostle, moves to Lisbon where he works with a wine merchant to later return to Santiago for the Holy Year of 1745 and finally go back to Melfi, where he was born.

In his two volumes, with make up an interesting account (Verídica Historia ó sia Viaggio da Napoli a San Giacomo…), he provides a very animated version of his deep personal convictions and his adventures among which the fight will had with a bandit in the vicinity of Ponte de Lima should be singled out. The manuscript that survives is illustrated with a great number of pictures where the visits he made to the great cities, the Virgin Mary santuraries and the watercolours on his most remarkable adventures are shown.

Nicola Albani in Naple Aventure of Nicola Albani in the vecinity of Ponte de

Limia

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RITES AND RITUALS RITUAIS DE PEREGRINACIÓN

From the 15th century onwards, pilgrims arriving in Santiago were given a Compostela, a certificate of completion of their journey. This document confirmed that the bearer had reached the Apostle’s shrine and it also guaranteed that the different types of assistance offered along the Way were enjoyed by genuine pilgrims only.

Pilgrims who arrived in Santiago in a Holy Year –a year in which Saint James’ Day falls on a Sunday- additionally received jubileo, a plenary indulgence of all the pilgrim’s sins.

In addition to the remains of Saint James, pilgrims could also venerate the bodies of other saints. An altarpiece with a series of niches for these different saints was constructed between 1625 and 1630 by architect Bernardo Cabrera and sculptor Gregorio Español; the Royal Pantheon was converted into Chapel of Relics to house this altarpiece, which was destroyed by a fire at the beginning of the 20th century.

The 18th century engraving shown here is commonly called the Pilgrim’s Procession; in fact, it probably represents one of the major liturgical celebrations of the church year, possibly that of Saint James’ Day.

“Compostela” Santiago de Compostela, Melchor de Prado 1820 Paper, chisel-engraved From the original plate

Iubileo Plenísimo en la Santa y Apostólica iglesia de Santiago de Galicia 1666 From the original plate

List of Sacred Relics revered at the Chapel ofSanta Apostólica Metropolitana Basílica Mayor de Santiago de Compostela. Santiago, J. Soto 1898 Lithography

Procession of pilgrims in Compostela Les delices de l’Espagne et du Portugal,I Juan Álvarez de Colmenar Leiden, Pierre Boudewyn van der Aa, engraver and editor 1707 Printed

MEMENTOS OF PILGRIMAGE RITUAIS DE PEREGRINACIÓN

In addition to spiritual benefits, Compostela offered its visitors more tangible reminders of their stay: gourds or bells, or medallions and badges (often of jet, though less costly materials were also used). The most frequent images were of Saint James, of his emblem, i.e. the scallop shell, and of pilgrims themselves. Much of this craft-work was not made in Compostela, but brought in from elsewhere.

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Dish with view of Santiago Pickman et al. 2nd half of the 19th century patterned china

Plate with a view of Santiago Real Fábrica de Sargadelos 1845-1862 Patterned china

Saint James, Pilgrim 20th century jet

Medallion with the image of Saint James “ the Moorslayer” Made in the Filipines or Holy Land Late 18th-early 19th century Nacre

Little bell with Saint James the Moorslayer 20th century Bronze

Santiago

19th century Sperm whale tooth

Holy year conmemorative Medallion 19th-20th century Silver and bronze

TRAVEL BOOKS LIBROS DE VIAXE

The Codex Calixtinus, a 12th century manuscript kept in the archives of the Cathedral of Santiago, is the first known copy of the Liber Sancti Iacobi, an anonymous compilation of various texts referring to the Apostle, organised in five books. It includes liturgical texts, accounts of miracles, the story of the Spanish adventures of Charlemagne, musical scores and - in Book V - the so-called "Pilgrim's Guide". As its name makes apparent, the Codex Calixtinus is attributed to the early 12th century pope Calixtus II. lt is dedicated to Archbishop Gelmírez and to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, thus symbolically uniting the three great centres of pilgrimage: Rome, Jerusalem and Santiago. Interestingly enough, an additional text bound with the Codex Calixtinus in the 15th century provides the first mention of the Cathedral's great swinging incense-burner, the botafumeiro.

There is another copy of the Liber Sancti Iacobi at the University of Salamanca; this seems to be a copy of a ‘twin’ of the Codex Calixtinus. It likewise consists of five books, though the musical scores and appendices of the original version are missing. There are also some minor differences.

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Of the various German texts about the Way of Saint James, the only one that really accords with our modern concept of ‘travel guide’ is Hermann Künig von Vach’s Die Walfart und Strass zu Sant Jacob; the rest are merely accounts of journeys. The successive reprints of Künig von Vach’s work differ depending on where they were printed in accordance with the varying requirements of pilgrims from different regions. It is clearly a popular work, as reflected by the fact that a number of passages from the text became incorporated into the pilgrim’s ballad Wer das elend bauwen Hill, and as is apparent from the style of the engravings.

Códice Calixtino Facsimile of the original in the archive of the Cathedral of Santitiago Scriptorium compostelano ca. 1150-1160 Iluminated manuscript, parchment

Thel Códice Calixtino brings together in five books a unique set of writings on the apostle (liturgical texts, miracles, translatio, deeds of Carlomagno, music…). Book V, known as the “Guide to the Pilgrim” is attributed to Aymerico Picaud de Parthenay and it includes the first description of the Way of Saint James. Of special interest is the information on places, peoples, and on the customs and traditions of the places along the Route from France.

“El Camino de Santiago en España realizado en los años 1983-1984. 1986” Ikeda Munehiro Japonese paper, ink, watercolours 1983-1986

Japonese artist Munehiro Ikeda from his oriental apporach gives expresión to an interesting viee of the Way of Saint James in the Spanish stage by writing a surprising and detailed “Pilgrim’s

Guide”. It is one of the latest testimonies of a genre that started in the 12th century with the Liber Sancti Iacobi (Códice Calixtino).

CARD A Screen

The WAY OF SAINT JAMES IN SPAIN. 1983-1986 IKEDA MUNEHIRO Instructions You can search places or references, churches, monasteries, nunneries, sculpture, crosses, fountains, … of the Way of Saint James 1.- Click on the initial letter of the place or reference you are looking for on the search panel 2.- Select a term and the page of the book where it is mentioned will be shown 3.- You may read the translations from Japanese by clicking on the texts 4.- If you wish to go back to the home page, click on ‘volver’ If you do not touch the screen in one minute, pages will begin to turn automatically. To go back to search press ‘volver’.

PILGRIM’S ATTIRE INDUMENTARIA DO PEREGRINO

Traditional pilgrim’s clothing comprised a wide-brimmed hat, a cloak, a wooden staff or crook, a leather pouch and a drinking gourd. Once the pilgrimage had finished, this clothing might be kept for special occasions, or donated to a monastery. Some people chose to be buried in their pilgrim’s garb when they died, thus symbolising their journey to the next life.

When a pilgrim arrived in Santiago, he received a scallop shell which he would then carry home with him. Until the 14th century, pilgrims invariably attached the shell to their pouch; subsequently, it became the norm to carry ¡t on the front of your hat or on your cloak. The scallop shell was visible proof of completion of the Way, and entitled the bearer to the assistance and privileges offered to true pilgrims. In the Late Middle Ages, it became a symbol of

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pilgrimage in general, though at the same time retaining its association with Santiago in particular.

INDULGENCES GRANTED TO THE FRATERNITY OF THE ROYAL HOSPICE OF SAINT JAMES INDULXENCIAS Á CONFRARIA DO HOSPITAL REAL DE SANTIAGO

In 1499, Pope Alexander VI issued a bull grating Spain’s Catholic Monarchs licence to build a hospice to provide lodging for pilgrims and to house the Fraternity of Saint James the Apostle; the result was the Royal Hospice of Saint James, now the Hostal de los Reyes Católicos.

The indulgences and spiritual graces conferred upon the Royal Hospice were administered by the Fraternity. The graces were made known to the faithful by public announcement, and from time to time a summary of the associated spiritual benefits was published.

Indulgence and Brotherhoold of the Hospital de Señor Santiago Valladolid, 1504 Xylography Print from the original plate

Summary and Compilation of the Graces, and Indulgencies granted by the different Popes to the House and Royal Hospice of Santiago of Galicia and to the Members of the Fraternity, having the Bull of the Holy Crusade, of Publishing and Preaching and every year School of Santiago de Compostela 1755, September 1 Print from the original plate

DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS ON THE ORDER OF SAINT JAMES DOCUMENTOS E LIBROS RELATIVOS Á ORDE DE SANTIAGO

Rule and establishment of the ‘Orden de la Cavallería del Señor Santiago del Espada’ Attributed to Andrés Ruíz de la Vega León, Pedro de Celada, printer 1555 Typographic printing, xylography

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One of the most important compilation works on the Order on Saint James, whose aim is to tell the history, rules and the regulations of the Order. Felipe II had it written with a view to compiling there all the spiritual ordinances that were not included in previous books, that is to say, the whole of the old and new rules that concerned its friars and knights. Another interesting point is that this book, as many others, is written is Spanish as opposed to Latin so that its contents could be widely understood by all the followers of Saint James and the literate society at large.

Testimony of how Don Luís Montilla y Mendoza was knighted and given the emblems of the Order of Saint James Madrid 1675 Paper, manuscript. Seal of a quarter of 10 maravedís

Manuscript document where a detailed description is given of the ritual to knight someone as a member of the Order of Saint James with the awarding of the corresponding emblems. The document also includes a list of persons attending the ceremony.

Apology in favour of the habit of Saint Dominic and statement in favour of the Order of Saint James by the Saint Domingo de Guzmán, patriarch, founder of the Predicadores José López Agurleta Alcalá de Henares, Manuel de Moya, printer 1725 Typographic printing paper, parchment

This book deals with the relation between the Order of Saint James and the Religious Order of Preachers founded by Santo Domingo de Guzmán. Apparently, this saint was a member of the Order of Saint James, when he turned fourteen or fifteen according to the account, as he had some relation with its first Master (Primer Maestre ).

Laurea legalis decana salmantina de jure quatuor ordinum militarum Divi Jacobi, Calatravae, Alcantarae et Montesae Bernardino Antonio Franco Valdés Salamanca, Antonio Villarroel y Torres, printer 1740-1744 Impreso, chisel-engraved III vols.

Momentous book on the right, privileges, exemptions, spiritual jurisdiction and temporal administration of the military orders of Saint James, Calatrava, Alcántara and Montesa. It is a most useful book to discern their privileges and successfully conduct legal cases. Thus, different chapters deal with issues such as the founding and internal organisation of religious orders of a military nature, the powers of Masters and the duties and rights of the different members; the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of orders in their towns and churches and those corresponding to friars, priests and the nuns of Saint James and Calatrava.

PILGRIMS SAINTS SANTOS PEREGRINOS

Of the pilgrim saints, Saint Roch –invoked above all to guard against the plague was greatly revered in Galicia, and particularly in Santiago. After a terrible outbreak of plague in 1517, the City Council and the Cathedral Chapter constituted the Brotherhood of Saint Roch, and Saint Roch’s Day was henceforth a public holiday.

The cult of the Pilgrim Virgin originated around the Virgin of the Way, a sanctuary in León, and took root in various points in Germany and France, as well as in La Rioja and León. In Galicia, the Pilgrim Virgin was venerated above all in Pontevedra, and indeed she was adopted by this city as patron saint.

In the Middle Ages, the concept of 'pilgrim' embraced both 'traveller' and 'foreigner', which perhaps explains why Christ and the Virgin were sometimes represented as pilgrims. One of the

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earliest images of this type can be seen in a relief in the cloister of the Monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos, in which Christ and the Disciples are represented in pilgrims' garb at Emmaus.

Saint Roch 2nd half 16th century Wood with traces of original polychromy and re-paintings Deposit by the Varela-Villamor family

Saint Roch 1st third of 17th century Carved wood Deposit by J. Varela Villamar

“Portrait of the Miraculous Likeness of Saint Roch as revered in the antique Chapel of the city of Santiago by his illustrious order that dedicated it to the honourable Counts of Rivadavia and Amarantes as truly benefactors of such order. The honourable Friar Sebastián Malbar y Pinto, Archbishop and Lord of the said city grants 80 days of indulgence to every worshipper who devoutedly prays a Lord’s Prayer before this holy likeness for the exaltation of the Holy Church, the health of our Catholic King, of his Royal family and may God grant prosperity to the State and the Illustrious Bishop of Tanes his assistant 40 days” Ángel Antonio Piedra, engraver Julio Bernardo del Río, draughtsman 1789 Donated by the Blanco-Cicerón family

Saint Julian, the Hospitable 1st half of the 18th century Water-based painting on glass

“True likeness of San Vicente Ferrer kept a the monastery of Santo Domingo of this city of Santiago” Santiago de Compostela, attributed to Ángel Piedra, engraver (1735-1800)

Front piece of the altar with scenes of the life of Saint Martin Lérida school Fourth quarter of the 13th century Tempera on board Lérida, santa María de Palau de Rialb

Santa Isabel de Portugal 1st third of 18th century (?) Polychrome, golden wood. Inscription: “Sta YSABEL Ra DE PORTUGAL ARAGONESA”(Miss Isabel, Queen of Portugal, from Aragon)

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The Divine Pilgrim, Virgin Mary of the Refuge who is revered at her chapel in the outskirts of the town of Pontevedra, whose worshippers dedicate it with humble feeling to their most beloved prelate the most honourable Sebastián Malvar y Pinto, Caballero prelado, Gran Cruz de la R.l distinguida Orn. de Carlos III. Archbishop and Lord of Santiago &.ª Santiago de Compostela, Luís Fernández Piedra Antonio Rodríguez, draughtsman 1778 From the original plate

Pilgrim Jesus 18th century Polychrome canvas embroidered in gold, silve and jet; polychrome wood

Portrait of Cosme III de Médici (1642-1723) Flemish school. Anonymous First decade of the 18th century Oil on canvas Donated by de Alberto Bruschi (Antique dealer from Florence)

In the days that followed the birth in Florence of the great duke of Tuscany, Cosme III de Médici, a musical play is being staged in the chambers of his mother Vittoria Della Róvere that will be repeated at each anniversary of the happy date. This play is entitled Il Pellegrino. In time, chance will make that Cosme III is not only the Médici that travelled the most but that he will become a true pilgrim who visited dozen of pilgrimage sites, among them, Santiago de Compostela. During his administration, he was characterised by his interest in reforms, and he strived to improve the local church as well as the legal and financial systems. He was also true to the family tradition of encouraging creativity, collecting and the patronage of arts in the state of Florence. This portrait, probably intented to hang on the walls of one of the many ducal offices of Tuscany is a variation of a linkeness attributed to the famous painter Giuseppe Maria Crespi. In this portrait, Cosme III, a not very handsome man but one endowed with a great dignity, is portrayed in an atmosphere of tenebrous effects with black attire of an undefined style on which there is a red cross of the Order of Saint Sebastian.

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ROMM VI

THE SANTIAGO GUILDS OS GREMIOS COMPOSTELANOS

The increasing importance of pilgrimages to Santiago over the centuries resulted in the gradual appearance of numerous and varied trades dedicated to meeting the different and numerous needs of the pilgrims as well as of those of the institutions associated with the Apostle’s devotion and the pilgrim’s care.

Thus, from the 12th century onwards, many people worked as hostel owners o innkeepers, as well as money changers, exchanging money for those arriving from every corner of Europe. Others worked in handicrafts such as cobblers who made and repaired the badly needed footwear, or beltmakers, who made such essential items for pilgrims as belts, pouches or bags.

The shellmongers came into existence to meet the growing demand for emblems or “reallia”, as bearing the shell certified the pilgrim’s visit to the shrine in Santiago. There was also a demand for mementoes of the pilgrimage, such as figurines of the Apostle, of saints or rosaries, as well as others of a more lavish nature which pilgrims of high social position would offer up to the basilica. A variety of liturgical items were also necessary for the religious ceremonies held in the many churches of Santiago: chalices, crosses, monstrances… A good number of these items were primarily made from jet and silver, and the craftsmen who made them grouped together into jet craftsmen and silversmith guilds.

Likewise, the spreading and promotion of the pilgrimage by the Santiago council brought about an increase in the number of documents produced for the same – indulgences, “Compostellas”, devotional images…- which made the local engravers’ work all the more important.

Obviously enough, these items had a wide circulation throughout Europe as a consequence of the variety of places pilgrims came from such as the Scandinavian countries, England, Italy, Germany or France.

In Santiago, artisans and craftsmen associated in guilds and brotherhoods, since the 13th century. The activity of these workers led to the opening of hundred of workshops throughout the city. Evidence of this can still be seen today in the arrangement of shops around the cathedral, particularly in the “Praza de Praterías” (Silversmiths Square) and in “Praza de Acibechería” (Jetwork Square) as well as in street names, such as “Rúa dos Concheiros” (Shellmongers´street), which is street that gives access to the city for those following the from the French Route to Santiago.

Although some of these trades were lost in time or have become very marginal, others have survived to this day true to their origin and catering for the same needs.

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Martyr of Saint Sebastian Worshop in southern Germany (?) 1st quarter of the 18th century Ivory and stone, possibly jasper, sculputure

Saint Sebastian was made Patron Saint of jet craftsmen in 1410, the date when their brotherhood was created in Santiago de Compostela. Since the Middle Ages, he was a Saint believed to be an intercessor in the event of outbreaks of the Plague, because, in spite of the many wounds caused by the arrows in his matyrhood, and the pains sent by God, he did not die. He was, however, substituted as protector from the Plague, in later times by other saints such as Saint Adrian, Saint Anthony or Saint Roch. As a matter of fact, the brotherhood of jet craftmen was created because of the spread of one of the many outbreaks of the Plague which devastated european villages and which in Galicia affected a great deal of people killing many. The festivals of the brotherhood in honour of the saint were almost invariably held at the Chapel of the Holy Ghost of Saint James’ Cathedral.

JETWORK A ACIBECHERÍA

Jet is a fossil substrate – a purified carbon – which, due to its composition and texture, is a very hard, albeit extremely fragile, variety of lignite. The term in modern Galician (acibeche) derives from an Arabic word: az-zabach. The Belief in the magical, healing powers of jet originates in prehistoric times, as is spread in time across several cultures (Egypt, India, Asia Minor, Rome and Greece), as evidenced in texts by Aristotle, Pliny and San Isidoro, inter alia. In the Middle Ages, the production of items made

of this material flourished as a result of a fashion imposed by pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela. The demand for these items grew as the devotional blended with the superstitious element because of the traditional belief that it was an efficient protection against the evil eye.

The first works in jet made in Santiago date from the 13th century. The raw material used was brought from Asturias, as Galicia has no deposits of this mineral. The jet workshops in Santiago were created from the guild of shellmongers, who had exclusive rights for the trading in natural shells or “scallops”, the symbolic emblem for pilgrimage. Later, these were made of jet or lead. In the 14th century, the jet artisans established a guild of their own distinct from the shellmongers guild, and from de 15th century on theirs was one of the most important and influential Guilds in the city under the protection of Saint Sebastian. Until the 17th century, the work of the jet artisans was the city’s chief activity as local place names make apparent. The 18th century saw the commencement of a decline which, nonetheless, did not damage this trade which enjoyed renewed prestige and a considerable production.

Three types of uses may be generally identified in the production of jet items:

A/ Items for which there was a demand as mementoes of the pilgrimage. These were small in size, basically of a religious nature an occasionally sloppy: shells, images of Saint James, of the Virgin, of saints, rosary beads…

B/ Liturgical and devotional items: these more elaborate items were made for the ecclesiastical domain: paxes, crosses of abbess, necklaces.

C/ Items for secular or personal use: amulets, necklaces, medallions, beads, adornment for headdress, etc.

MEMENTOS OF THE PILGRIMAGE

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RECORDOS DA PEREGRINACIÓN. Paneis 1 e 2, pezas 15 e 16.

From the 14th century onwards, small devotional sculptures, which pilgrims would take home with them as a memento of their pilgrimage, became very popular. The most demanded items have always been the images of Saint James in all their iconographic variations: as an apostle, as a pilgrim, as a “Moorslayer”… Also, all types of sacred images and religious items were made such as crosses, images of the Blessed Virgin, the ‘Fifth Anguish’ and different saints, Saint Anthony being one of the most popular. The rosary was also very much in demand, particularly the so-called “pocket” versions, which were shorter with simple, plain beads. Today, these items are still made and demanded.

ECCLESIASTICAL AND LITURGICAL ITEMS

Items for ecclesiastical purpose were made, whether with a ritualistic, liturgical or emblematic nature. Examples include the stoup adorned with scallop shells, one of the few examples of its type still preserved, and the pax, a tablet kissed by the faithful when holding Mass, and which in this case represents the Virgin of the Pillar among angels, a theme in the St. James tradition. Also, necklace making was prolific from the 17th to the 18th century. The so-called “abbess” necklaces were restricted to nunneries to mark rank. Similar necklaces were also used by widows and village women living in the North Western Spain. The use of jet set in adornments increased considerably in the 16th century as the belief in its protective nature increased.

HANDS IN JET OR AMULETS “mans de acibeche” ou figas. Panel 3.

From the 16th century onwards, an item in the shape of a closed hand with the thumb between the index and the middle finger became known as a “figa” in Galician (“higa” in Spanish). It was considered as a scornful gesture but, at the same time, as an amulet with the power to heal and protect against rumours and

curses. Similar talismans had already appeared in Ancient Egypt and Phoenicia, and were widely used in the Roman world. In the 11th century, the Arabs in the Iberian Peninsula used pendant amulets made of jet of various shapes, including a hand associated with the widely-rooted Arab belief in the evil eye. The custom of wearing jet amulets was widespread throughout Christendom in the Middle Ages. The hand shape or “figa” became more widespread in the 16th century. From the 17th century onwards, “figas” were decorated with many symbolic and talismanic elements such as hearts and moons. They eventually took on a more schematic form, which sometimes made them unrecognisable. The most likely reason for this is because they were forbidden by the Inquisition in 1526. It will not be until the 19th century that they were made again in a naturalistic fashion. By this time though, they had fallen into disuse.

“Figas” along with other amulets, were uses specially to protect children as they were believed to be the weakest before the evil eye. Children would wear them hanging from a belt or as a pendant. It was even common custom in the courtly life of the 16th and 17th centuries, as depicted in many portraits of the time such as the portraits of Princess Ana, of Pantoja de la Cruz or in the portrait of Felipe Próspero by Velázquez.

1.- Rosary Santiago workshop Late 19th century Early 20th cent Jet and silver filigree adorments

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2.- Possibly a bead from the rosary of a pilgrim or an abbess’ necklace with St. James, the pilgrim Santiago worshop (?) 17th-18th centuries

3.- Medallion with representation of St. James at the battle of Clavijo Santiago workshop (?) Late 17th century- early 19th cent.

4.- St. James, the pilgrim Ramón Requeixo Rebón Decade of 1960 Santiago de Compostela

5.- Seated St. James Manuel Moratalla 1960-1970 Santiago de Compostela

6.- Seated St. James from the Pórtico de la Gloria Pena 20th century

7.- Bust of St. James, the Pilgrim Ramón Requeixo Rebón 1960-1968 Santiago de Compostela

8.- Upper section of figa with the image of St. Anthony of Padua 16th-17th centuries

9.- Double cross 13th century Excavations in the area of Azabachería

10.- Possibly, Hail Mary from rosary 17th-18th centuries

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11.- Christ Crucified Manuel Moratalla Circa. 1968 Santiago de Compostela

12.- Holy Face José Ricart 20th century

13.- Christ Crucified Arturo Brea Pasín 20th century

14.- Holy Face Isidro Nieto 20th century Salamanca

15.- Pietà Manuel Moratalla 1960-1970 Santiago de Compostela

16.- Descent Ramón Requeixo Rebón Circa 1970 Santiago de Compostela

17.- Stoup 17th century Santiago de Compostela

18.- Pyx with the Apparition of our Lady of the Pillar Santiago workshop (?) Early 16th century Gilded silver and jet

19.- Abbess necklace 17th-18th century Beads,safety pins and “libricos”

20.- Necklace. Possibly an abbess’, Santiago School 17th -18th centuries

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21.- Left hand Figas Santiago workshop Late 16th cent.-early 17th cent.

22.- Left hand Figa with engraved heart Late 17th century Santiago de Compostela

23.- Left hand Figa with geometrical-symbolic decoration and heart in palm Último tercio s. XVII Santiago de Compostela

24.- Left hand Figa with symbolic decoration of a heart in a plam and the moon on the “cuff” Late 17th century

25.- Left hand Figa Santiago workshop Probable 19th century Jet and silver

Saint James, the Pilgrim Castor Lata Montoiro ca. 1960 Jet Inscription: “CASTOR LATA” Santiago de Compostela

Saint James, the Pilgrim Castor Lata Montoiro ca. 1960 Jet Inscription: “C. LATA” Santiago de Compostela

Saint Eligious Deposited by “Asociación del Gremio de Joyería, Orfebrería y Azabachería de Santiago” R. Rivas Mejuto, S. Mayer Garea, Julio Lado Martínez, J. Eloy Gesto Ferreiro, R. Rivas Casal, E. Fink Fernández, Artesanía Pampín, L. Gesto Beiroa and M. Vilas Novas. 2000 Silver, ivory, chestnut wood, jet, gold, amethyst, zirconoim, Inscription:“THIS SAINT ELIGIOUS WAS MADE UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE GUILD OF GOLDSMITHS OF SANTIAGO UNDER THE CHAIRMANSHIP OF MR. ELOY GESTO FERREIRO/SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA, 1 DECEMBER 2000” Deposited by “Asociación del Gremio de Joyería, Orfebrería y Azabachería de Santiago”

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This sculpture of Saint Eligious is a good instance of the continuity of the guilds devoted to the making of silver, gold and ivory handicraft in Santiago since the 11th century.

Saint Eligious is represented with the insignia that characterised his patronage of the guild of goldsmiths, silversmiths and blacksmiths, mainly the crosier and the hammer.

Born in France in the area of Limousin, circa 558, he became at a very early age a goldsmith apprentice in Limoges to later go to París to hold the position of treasurer of King Clothaire II. Some years later, he became a priest and ended in life as a bishop. He used his properties to help the poor and the rescue of captives. He was also a tireless preacher, notable in the area of Flanders. He died on 1 December 660, for which reason that day was marked as his feast.

THE SILVERSMITH´S GUILD O GREMIO DOS PLATEIROS

The growing importance of the pilgrimage to Santiago from the Middle Ages onwards made Santiago de Compostela one of the most important religious centres in the Christian world. This resulted in an increase in the construction and restoration of monasteries, churches and chapels, not only in the Santiago area but throughout the whole of Galicia. As a result, the demand for silver items also grew both for liturgical worship and for offerings and donations from private individuals, pilgrims, guilds and other institutions.

So, over time, numerous silversmith workshops or ourives (goldsmiths) began to appear, as 11th century documents in the records of the Cathedral show. Silversmiths, along with the powerful guild of moneychangers, were also responsible for setting the value of money and the intense trade in items made of precious metals in Santiago. Their influence made them into preferential creditors, one of their privileges being exemption from military duty, even at times of war, or the right whereby the King, the Archbishop and the civil servants were forbidden entry to their homes.

Silversmith shops were always very close to the cathedral, stretching from the “Praza da Quintana” (Square of the Crypt) to the south door, which is still called today “Platerías” (Silversmiths´).

The fame of the work by the Santiago silversmith workshops in the Middle Ages led them to receive orders from other parts of Europe. Over the centuries, the city was also visited by silversmiths from other areas of the Iberian Peninsula and even from other countries. The many offerings and donations from pilgrims and institutions means that there is a considerable number of items of workshops from elsewhere. These items also brought new artistic modes and technical innovations with them.

The 17th century witnessed another period of splendour for Santiago silverwork. This trend continued throughout the 18th century, a period in which engraving also flourished. Some of the most outstanding families of engravers – the Pedra family, the Romay or Melchor de Prado – were active in both professions. At that time, there was also an increase in the demand for pieces of a civil nature, although religious items remained the prevailing ones.

The 19th century began with the War of Independence and the subsequent plundering of an important part of the artistic heritage. Many works of goldsmithery as the gold were lost as they were melted down to obtain coins. The work of silversmiths, however, continued to be one of the most relevant in the city, and it has vigorously survived to our day by developing traditional forms along with designer creations.

LITURGICAL ITEMS IN SANTIAGO SILVERWORK Os Obxectos Litúrxicos na Pratería Compostelá

With the boost given by the pilgrimage, artisanal workshops sprung up all over Galicia to respond to the endless demand for liturgical elements for churches and monasteries, especially for those most closely associated with the Routes to Santiago. A great variety of elements were required for these purposes. Some of them, such as

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the chalices, can be seen in the display. Particularly remarkable is the alms chalice, an example of a donation from an archbishop to a parish in order to increase his assets. The processional cross and the paxes are examples of orders placed by monasteries, in this case from the important San Domingos de Bonaval monastery of this city. The crosses are important not only in the liturgical and devotional sphere, but also socially as they represent the parish, this being the most important community in Galician life. The standard cross is almost certainly from a parish near Santiago, either dedicated to the Apostle or on the Way of Saint James. The spread and diversity of the forms taken by the reliquaries, from the 16th century onwards, was the result of the Catholic Church’s reinforcement of the role of saints, as opposed to their rejection by the Protestant Church. It became mandatory for churches and monasteries to possess relics. This led to an increased demand for sculptures representing different sanctified personages.

THE SILVERSMITHS GUILD AND SILVER MARKING IN SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA A Confraría dos Prateiros e a Marcaxe da Prata en Santiago de Compostela

It seems that in the 11th century goldsmiths already had their own Association, which brought together all the craftsmen from different professions working on the construction of the cathedral. The first ordinances regulating activity in Santiago were approved by silversmiths in 1431 and were not amended until 1786. The guild that brought them together was established in the mid 16th century. The guild’s religious acts were held at the Capela da Blanca (White Chapel) of the cathedral. Members had the right to be buried in the crypt known as the Quintana.

The first marks that guarantee that silver is being used appeared in Santiago in the 14th century. In the 16th century, the local silver mark depicted Saint James as a pilgrim. In the 18th century, it was the Apostolic Ark, but towards the end of that century and linked to the change in the city’s coat of arms, the mark of the Chalice with

the Sacred Form and an inscribed cross was used. At the same time, like in other regions, the triple marking (the punch mark of the craftsman or silversmith, or of the assayer or contrast and the mark of the locality) is used.

THE ABUNDANT PRESENCE OF OBJECTS FROM OUTSIDE SANTIAGO

The 17th and 18th centuries saw the height of Santiago silverwork as it is apparent by the increase in the number of silversmiths with their own workshops in the city, which went from 57 to 137 at the turn of the century. To this figure, silversmiths from other regions in Spain and from abroad (Italy, France, Portugal…) must be added. These silversmiths worked on a temporary basis in Santiago to make particular pieces, attracted by the reformist and artistic euphoria taking place in the city and the cathedral, as well as to work on the cathedral’s high altar. Some came to stay in Santiago, as it was the case of the French Claudio Pecul, whose son, Jacobo Pecul, became one of the most outstanding silversmiths in 18th century Santiago. An example of his work is the processional cross exhibited in the display. Also, items donated by the high clergy and the nobility to churches and monasteries were, on many occasions, commissioned to silversmiths from elsewhere. Examples of these are the alms chalices made by the Madrid-born silversmith, Lucas de Toro, in the first half of the 19th century.

Esculpture. Representation of a Saint 18th-19th centuries Silver and gilded silver Madrid

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Ciborium Barcelona, 1st half 19th century (?) Guilded silver

Procressional Cross with the representation of Christ crucified and the handing to of the Holy Rosary to St. Dominic Jacobo Pecul Montenegro Crespo, silversmith Sánchez, marker Santiago de Compostela, 1794 Gilded silver From the monastery of Santo Domingode Bonaval (Santiago de Compostela)

Alms Chalice Lucas de Toro, silversmith Madrid, 1820 Silver and gilded silver on the inner side

Reliquary Late 18th century Embosed, molten silver Madrid

Chalice with scenes from the life of Crhist José Casas, silversmith Barcelona, 1st half 19th century Silver and gilded silver

Chalice Ricardo Martínez Costoya, silversmith M. Aller, assayer Santiago de Compostela, Late 19th cent. Early 20th Gilded silver, embossed and engraved

Chalice with symbols of the Passion of Christ Narcís Rosell (?), Silversmith or assayer Barcelona, 1st half of 19th century Gilded silver

Chalice Bermúdez (?), silversmith M. Aller,assayer Santiago de Compostela, finales s. XVIII- mediados s. XIX Plata sobredorada

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Banner cross with representation of the Inmaculate Conception and St James, the Pilgrim Juan Montes, silversmith Santiago de Compostela (?), 1671 Molten, engraved silver

Altar cross Galician workshop Late 17th century (cross); 1738 (foot) Molten,engraved silver

Pyx with the representation of St. Dominic receiving the Holy Rosary from the Virgin J. Seijo, silversmitj Santiago de Compostela, late 18th century Silver and gilded, molten, engraved, chiselled and relief silver Mark: “J/SEIJO” From the monastery of Santo Domingo de Bonaval (Santiago de Compostela)

ENGRAVING O GRAVADO

Engraving in Galicia has its splendour in 18th century Santiago de Compostela. It was closely associated to the pilgrimage tradition of the shrine of the Apostle as it was used as part of the effort to

spread devotion to St. James and the subsequent use of Jacobean themes to illustrate the large number of documents required: important documents such as the Compostellas or certificates to confirm completion of the pilgrimage. Other documents included the Summaries of Indulgences, by which the Popes granted certain privileges to those who contributed to charity-religious bodies, the listings of relics, the itineraries on the Way of Saint James and devotional illustrations.

It was precisely these devotional illustrations, loaded with a considerable propagandistic value, that were amongst the most popular engravings. They contributed to promoting devotion among the less well-off strands of society. These low-priced illustrations were often bought by pilgrims and taken to their respective places of origin. Besides the diverse types of iconography associated with St. James (as an apostle, a pilgrim, a knight…), other sacred figures were reproduced with the Jacobean theme, such as Saint Roch, the Virgin Pilgrim, the Virgin of the Pillar and a whole host of saints.

Engraving appears to be associated to masters in the guild of silversmiths, as it is the case of the Piedra family, and to architects and sculptors such as Melchor de Prado and Miguel de Romay, which added variety and perfection to the design of decorative motifs (borders, initials, vignettes and colophons), which adorn many prints.

An important technical innovation, ascribed to Miguel de Romay himself, appeared around 1730 in Santiago: the “buxo de pé” or standing boxwood. Here the artist used end-grain wood block to give higher definition to a good part of his production. This technique was mainly used in decorative elements.

The development of the work by engravers in Santiago is linked to book production and had some impact on other non-religious documents. The university, the Holy Court of the Inquisition and other institutions required quality presentations, heraldic themes,

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portraits of illustrious personages… Plates of a scientific-technical nature were also made, such as playing cards, very popular in everyday life, and illustrations of views of the city and its historical sites. The latter also attracted many foreign artists.

“SAINT JAMES THE APOSTLE, PATRON SAINT OF SPAIN./ The original painting isa t the Real Palacio de Madrid” Juan Antonio Salvador Carmona, engraver circa 1770 chisel-engraved

Plenary Jubilee of the Saint Apostolic Church of the Lord Saint James of Galicia and the Sole Saint Patron protector of Spain for the whole of the current year of 1717” Santiago de Compostela, Antonio de Aldemunde, printer 1717 Engraving, chalcography

Our Lady the Pilgrim Enrique Mayer, engraver Santiago de Compostela, late 19th century Xylography

Saint Roch 2nd third of 19th century Santiago de Compostela Engraving

Church of Pontedeume Santiago de Compostela, Ángel Piedra, engraver 2nd half of the 18th century Inscription: “To the great Saint James, who as protector of the Illustrous town of Pontedeume is revered in its main Church to his greater worship and glory it was rebuilt and consecrated by the honourable Prelate Bartholomé de Rajoy y Lossada, Archbishop and Lord of Santiago in memory of his being baptised there. 1768 AD”.

Coat of arms of Viscount of Pegullal Diego de Romay Junqueras, engraver (+1694) Engraved on a copper sheet

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Ornamental orles Attributed to Jacobo de la Piedra, engraver Between 1750 and 1788

Coat of arms of D. Jorge Cisneros or of the family of the Counts of Ximonde Attributed to Melchor de Prado y Mariño Circa 1799

Street map of the city of Santiago, the first of the seven that make up the Kingdom of Galicia Manuel Salvador Carmona, engraver Map of architect Juan López Freire el Menor 1796 Chisel engraved

Selection of cards from a deck 1818 Xylography Inscription in the ace of gold: “Fábrica/de Compostela”

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SAINT JAMES ICONOGRAPHY ICONOGRAFÍA DE SANTIAGO: A IMAXE DE SANTIAGO NA HISTORIA

The depictions of the Apostle Saint James the Greater have been one of the most diversified in Christian iconography since the Middle Ages. The widespread devotion to the saint throughout Europe and, from the 16th century in America, not only resulted in the adoption of very different attitudes as a function of the varying devotional and political needs of the time (mixing his roles as an apostle, a knight, a pilgrim…), but also in echoing the diversity of customs and fashions in clothing according to the epoch and place where the images were made.

Saint James is the only apostle to have this variety of iconography. In the first and oldest images, he is depicted with attributes common to all the other apostles: a tunic and mantle, the holy book, barefoot and with a phylactery or a script bearing their name or sentences alluding to the Holy Scripture. This is the way he is represented in the first sculptures of certain importance in the very Saint James’ Cathedral: the painting known as “Santiago entre cipreses” (Saint James between the cypress trees) at the “Portada de Platerías” (Silversmith Square Entrance) (circa 1111 – 1116) and in the sculpture of the mullion known as the Portico de la Gloria, by Master Mateo, made circa 1188. He is shown as the blessing Apostle, from 1135 to 1140, in the first chapter of the Liber Sancti Iacobi of the Calixtine Codex.

Saint James is also a Pilgrim saint. He was sent by Jesus Christ on a long journey to evangelise Hispania and, for this reason, in some of the first depictions, he also bears the staff or walking stick. The widespread devotion to the saint and the resulting influence of the pilgrimage to his shrine made that fervent devotees identified with him on setting out on their journey. The seated Saint James or the saint in majesty gives even more drive to the evangelising mission,

and Saint James as a Soldier of Christ or a Knight were to be frequently used as a symbol of the defence of the Christian Faith. This diversity in the ways of depicting him was further enriched with the role of Saint James as intercessor, with the Virgin Mary as the chief mediator.

SAINT JAMES IN MAJESTY SANTIAGO EN MAXESTADE

The image of Saint James seated, in majesty or in cathedra appeared for the first time in the Cathedral of Santiago in the sculpture by Master Mateo, for the mullion of the Portico of Glory (circa 1188). This type of iconography, however, was by no means common. Saint James is depicted as an apostle (tunic, mantle, barefoot and a phylactery or holy book), but seated on a sumptuous chair or throne. Generally, a text appears on the phylactery alluding to his evangelising mission, like in the image in the Portico of Glory in the phrase Misit me Dominus (“The Lord has sent me”). The staff held in one of his hands was in the traditional form of the ceremonial crosiers of the archbishops, and recalled the crook used by the apostles as they spread the teachings of Christ. So the walking stick reinforced the idea of the apostolic mission, which Jesus entrusted to Saint James, while at the same time underscored the importance of Santiago as an Episcopal see.

Years later, in 1211, a sculpture of Saint James seated was commissioned for the High Altar, which despite the major modifications to the altar in the 17th century, can still be seen today. The text inscribed on its phylactery reads Hic est Corpus Divi Iacobi Apostoli et Hispanorum Patroni (“Here lies the Body of the Divine Apostle, Saint James, Patron Saint of the Kingdom of Hispania”). Later, around 1250, another sculpture with the same image was made for a chapel in the same cathedral. But this time the apostle wore a crown, symbolising the Apostle who reigns. This iconographic model gives Saint James some of the identifying

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features of pilgrims: the leather purse worn round the waist, the gourd, the tunic or the hat.

Illustrations of Saint James seated are not found after the 15th century. Beyond the area of influence of Galicia, a few examples are found in France, particularly in the Brittany area, probably as a consequence of the many maritime pilgrimages that set out from that region. In the 18th century, engraved illustrations of Saint James seated in the high altar of the cathedral were used once again to decorate documents on the pilgrimage and prayers highlighting Saint James as the Patron Saint of Spain.

Processional cross Appliqué at the centre of the cross consisting in a

seated Saint James Spanish workshop

2nd third 16th century Plateresque style

Silver. Gilded, chiseled relief impressed by

punches and gravers.

SAINT JAMES THE PILGRIM SANTIAGO PEREGRINO

By the 12th century, pilgrimages to the sanctuary of Santiago de Compostela had become a widespread ritual in Western Europe. At the same time, the Church of Santiago had full endorsement by the Pope as one of the most important centres in Christendom. Devotion to the Apostle grew intensely, and numerous churches were dedicated to him throughout the Christian world. From that point on, a varied artistic production of religious images developed to represent Saint James the Apostle.

That he is viewed as a pilgrim was emphasised from the outset in the basilica of Santiago itself by portraying the Apostle with a walking staff. Soon a leather purse was added. Both accessories are essential for all walkers. The “bordón” (staff) or the “caxato” (walking stick) with a handle serve to fend off animals and any other hazards lying in wait. The “moral” (purse) or “escarcela” (pouch) is a leather bag for keeping food in. But for the Church and pilgrims, they also have the symbolic meaning of the long road of penitence. The staff stands for the defence of the Faith against temptation, and the purse for the mortification of the flesh and the generosity of alms giving. In this manner, al least since the 9th century, the Church established a blessing ceremony for those who completed the pilgrimage where these two elements were symbolically given to them.

Other useful accessories for the traveller were the “calabaza” (gourd), for carrying drink, and the “sombreiro” (hat) which, depending on the season of the year or the country, was made of a different material or had a particular shape. In other words, they also varied according to the fashion of the time. The “esclavina” (cape) is a small mantle, generally made of leather, covering the shoulders, protecting the thorax from the cold and rain. It was generally adorned with small shells and staffs made from a variety of materials.

From the 11th century onwards, the use of the “vieira” (scallop shell) to symbolise the Saint James pilgrimage had become increasingly common. The sermon, Veneranda Dies found in the Liber Sancti Iacobi (1135-1140), attempted to provide a symbolic justification for the shell as an emblem of charity, by comparing its ribbed lines with the fingers on the hand. Initially, the shells, natural or made of metal or jet, were purchased in the area surrounding the cathedral to take on the return journey as proof that the pilgrimage had been completed.

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All these items appear, to a greater or lesser extent, in the images of Saint James. The clothing and accessories of the images of the Apostle almost always echo the fashion of the time and of each country. The “libro” (book), whether open or closed, is always depicted as a reminder of the apostolic mission. The first illustration of Saint James wearing the traveller’s accessories seem to date back to the 12th century, all along the main route of the Way of Saint James.

CHANGES IN ATTIRE AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE ICONOGRAPHY OF THE APOSTLE ST. JAMES A transformación da indumentaria e o seu reflexo na iconografía do Apóstolo Santiago

The illustrations depicting the Apostle Saint James show the changes in attire throughout time not just as far as pilgrims and travellers are concerned but in general. Furthermore, the clothing used changed depending on the climate of each place, (for example, the warm marten skin hat on the Saint James Pilgrim of John of Flanders was more typical of Central Europe). Although the tunic and the mantle were predominant in the Apostle´s outfit, these articles of clothing gradually were adapted to the innovations of the time. Thus, features such as rolled up cuffs, collars, cassocks, belts, brooches and different types of footwear, as well as a wide range of elements both from sumptuous and more humble clothing began to appear. Undoubtedly the greatest variation has to do with hats, where evolution from the medieval bonnet type to the double hem designs of the 18th century can be traced.

A case in point of this adaptation of the attire with which the Apostle was represented can be seen in the two wood sculptures from around the 15th century. Both present similar clothing, a doublet or long tunic reaching down to the feet, and an overcoat known as a “roupiña” (a short-sleeved tunic, which was shorter and

lower-necked). The use of these two garments was a fashion from the 14th century among the Parisian bourgeoisie, which quickly spread to central and northern Europe, so that images of Saint James dressed in this manner reached Scandinavia, England and Spain. These sculptures do, however, differ in the model of hat depicted; the bonnet with folded brim was the most popular and was widely used throughout Europe, whereas the peaked bonnet doubled over the brims originated in England.

St. James, the Pilgrim Galician workshop 14th – 15th centuries Granite polychrome

St. James, the Pilgrim Possibly, galician workshop Late 14th century –early 15th century s. XV Chestnut wood polychrome

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St. James, the Pilgrim Castilian workshop (?) 2nd half 15th century Castilian pine wood

St. James, the Pilgrim Spanish –Flemish school Late 15th century- early 16th century Carving and polychrome wood

St. James, the Pilgrim Juan de Flandes (Ca. 1465-1519) 1505-1519 Oil on canvas Probably made for the altarpiece of the University Chapel of the Universidad de Salamanca Deposit from the Museo del Prado

St. James, the Pilgrim Hispanic workshop 15th century Gilding and polychrome wood

St. Jame, the Pilgrim Castilian workshop. Spanish-Flemish style Late 15th century-early 16th centuryI Carved, golden wood polychrome. Deposit from J. Varela Villamar

High relief of St. James, the Pilgrim Galician workshop 16th century Carving and polychrome granite From the area of Padrón

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St. James, the Pilgrim Burgos workshop circa 1500 Oak wood polychrome with traces of gilt.

St. James, the Pilgrim Spanish school. Spanish-Burgundian style 2nd third 15th century Carving, gold-coloured and polychrome alabaster

St. James, the Pilgrim Juan de Juanes (early 16th – 1579) 1560-1570 Oil on canvas Made for the church of the Convento de la Corona de Jesús de los Religiosos de san Francisco de Valencia

St. James Pilgrim Castilian workshop. Romanist style 2nd third 16th century Gold-colored and polychrome wood Depósito de J. Varela Villamar

St. James, the Pilgrim 16th century Carved in wood

St. James, the Pilgrim Probably, Portuguese workshop Last third 16th century Carving alabaster

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St. James, the Pilgrim 2nd third 16th century Wood with traces of gilt Deposited by J. Varela Villamor

St. James, the Pilgrim Late 17th century- early 18th century Carved, gilded and stewed wood

St. James, the Pilgrim Bernardo Lorente Germán 1st half 18th century Oil on canvas

The half-body representation of this Saint James pilgrim is in keeping with the stylistic and technical characteristics of religious, devotional painting in late 17th and early 18th century Spain. These criteria explain for instance the foreshortening composition looking towards the viewer that evolves from an iconographic type that is progressively used between the 16th and 17th centuries notably in the apostle series. But the most definying features of this time are the naturalism of representations and the abundance of backgrounds with the darkest hues of the palette. This gives these works a tone of devotional absorption that is particularly

favoured by the Church at the height of the Counter-reformation controversy.

Bernardo Lorente Germán (1680-1759) was a painter from Seville who was educated under the influence of the most outstanding painter in that city, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, although Lorente painting has more expressive power. As a result of the quality of his work, he was closely linked to the painters who worked for King Felipe V during his stay in Seville, for whom he painted a portrait of Infant Felipe. Proposed for the office of Painter of the King, he turned it down because of his reserved nature and his attachment to his homeland. However, in 1756 he did not turn down the offer to become a member of the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid.

St. James, the Pilgrim 18th century Carving and polychrome wood

St. James, the Pilgrim Galician workshop 2nd third 19th century Polychrome wood Deposit by J. Varela Villamor

SAINT JAMES, THE KNIGHT SANTIAGO CABALEIRO

The first explicit mention of Saint James, the Apostle as a knight- interceding for the Christian troops facing the Muslims – appears in two texts dating from the first half of the 12th century. The Historia Silense and the Liber Sancti Iacobi that is part of the Calixtine

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Codex. They tell of the miraculous conquest of the city of Coimbra, in 1064, by Ferdinand I, thanks to the help of the Apostle. There arises the warmongering function of Saint James as a Soldier of Christ – miles Christi. According to tradition, Saint James had already helped Christians, in 895 AD in the conquest of that same city. Later, in 1125, the Privilexio dos Votos (Privilege of Offerings) was drawn up. This was a false document relating how the Apostle intervened to the benefit of Ramiro I in the battle against the Muslims, supposedly fought at Clavixo in 859. The objective here was to establish the “Offering to Saint James” or a compulsory donation by the peasantry of cereals and wine to the Church in Santiago in payment for the help received.

The justification of Saint James as a knight of God had already been given in the 8th century in a liturgical hymn of the Comentario á Apocalipse (Commentary on the Apocalypse) written by Monk Beato de Liébana. Saint James is named here protector of the kingdom of Spain, standing up against calamities and the conquering infidels. Since the 10th century, monarchs promoted the Patron Sainthood of Saint James on the kingdoms of Spain. This patronage, politically motivated and in keeping with the miraculous traditions – was promoted as beneficial to society at large, who was thus protected by the Apostle. Monarchs would appeal for his help, not only in their battles against the Muslims, but also against any enemy, including those within the kingdom. Ferdinand II himself founded the Order of Saint James in 1170 as an emblematic institution to confront the Muslim armies.

What is considered to be the first sculpture of Saint James as a knight (circa 1220) is on the Santiago Cathedral tympanum. We should not lose sight of the fact that a knight was a social rank, which was particularly important in the Middle Ages, a time of territorial and religious conflict, so that it is a common, everyday figure. Associating saints with the status of knights or soldiers of Christ (Saint Demetrio, Saint George, Saint Millán…) had been

commonplace since the early days of Christianity. As Beato de Liébana put it, they were the Armies of Heaven. Knights were always white knights, symbolising purity, the body of Christ; his steed was the Lord in Majesty. They fought to free Mankind from evil, a role that originates in the mythology of Classical Antiquity. An identical role was ascribed to Mohammed among the Muslims.

The warmongering image of Saint James gradually changed with the passage of time to adapt to the changes in the causes to be championed. Initially, with the exception of some documents Saint James was rarely portrayed as a Soldier of Christ. From the 14th century onwards, the image of Saint James, the Moor Slayer, spread. It clearly depicted the Muslim soldiers under the horse. Even when the Reconquest had been completed in Spain, the pressure of the Turks on European territories remained for several centuries so that this depiction took on a new meaning. Since the reign of Carlos V, the iconography of Saint James, the Moor Slayer, became an essential element in the exaltation of warfare and the triumph of the Spanish monarchy. This was at a time when the Spanish Empire was at its height. The Church authorities in Santiago at the same time promoted the monarchy as an emblem of the defence of its privileges. Thus, the alliance of political and religious power is consolidated at a time when there was a strong controversy with the Protestants. The image of Saint James, the Patron Saint of Spain proved to be an emblem for the legitimisation of power even as late as the 20th century.

Santiago at the Battle of Clavijo Anonymous 17th-18th century Oil on wood

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Reliquary Central medallion with Santiago at the battle of Clavijo 18th century Gilded, Castillian pine wood polychrome and enamel copper.

Santiago at the battle of Clavijo Anonymous 17th-18th century Oil on canvas

Santiago at the battle of Clavijo Madrid School 2nd half of the 17th century Oil on canvas Inscription on the coat of arms of Álava on the reverse of the canvas: “JUSTICE AGAINST EVILDOERS”

Appearance of the Virgin of the Pillar to St. James Andrés de Riola, engraver (+1744) Draftsman, Domingo de Andrade, architect (1639-1712) Inscription: " El Yllmo Sr. Dn Joseph de Yermo Arbpo y Sr deSto côcede 80 dias de Yndulga a quien rezare una Ave Mª delte deestaSª Ymagen de NS del Pilar ". (The Most Honourable Mr. José de Yermo, Archbishop and Lord of Santiago, grants 80 days of Indulgence to whosoever prays an Ave Maria before this Holy Statue of Our Lady of the Pillar).

The association between James and the Virgin is very close and it occurs earlier in time than in the case of any other apostle. Indeed, as early as the time when St. James was evangelising in Hispania, the Virgin appeared to him to comfort him on his difficult mission. A wealth of other Marian traditions are found. This does not occur in the case of any other Apostle in the West (appearances in Muxía and in Iria Flavia). The Marian tradition is always present in the world of devotion to St. James, as compiled by Gonzalo de Berceo (1198?-1264?) in Os Milagros da Nosa Señora (The Miracles of Our Lady), by King Alfonso X the Wise (1252-1284) in Cantigas (Canticles) and in Book II of the Calixtine Codex. Churches dedicated to the different Marian advocations (Rocamador (Loving Rock), Virxe do Camiño (Virgin of the Road), Pastoriza (Shepherdess), Peregrina (Pilgrim), etc.) were also commonly found on the routes to Santiago.

This scene is divided into two registers, the lower representing the earthly domain where St. James appears with his disciples, clad as a pilgrim, kneeling before the Virgin; in the background, a city, supposedly Saragossa. The upper register is the heavenly domain, where the Virgin

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appears in the heavens among angels. They are holding a column on which, according to tradition, the Virgin would place an illustration of herself on the spot where a place of worship was to be raised in her honour.

Iconographic illustrations of the Virgin of the Pillar are common in Spain. In the 18th century, the theme became even more tremendous according to the description by Sister María de Ágreda in her Mystica Ciudad de Dios (Mystical City of God) dated 1701, which became highly popular. This illustration is a unique example of the new treatment given to the theme in relation to Santiago.

St. James as protector and intercessor before the Virgin Anonymous. Spanish school 17th century Oil on canvas

This painting is divided into three horizontal registers. The lower representing the earthly sphere, in the centre a dying man is shown, attended by a priest and a sacristan. Interrelated with the wordly sphere, the representatives of the infernal sphere are also here: demons and the protectors of the heavenly sphere, Saint Michael and Saint James, the latter bearing an inscription referring to his function: “PROTECTOR”. In the intermediate register, the Virgin in Glory is depicted in Heaven, flanked by angels and saints, particularly Saint Peter, Saint Paul, Saint Jerome, Saint Peter Martyr and Saint Steven. The upper register depicts the Father Almighty in the centre, with Christ to his right and the Holy Ghost to his left, comprising the Trinity.

In illustrations of a funerary nature, where the dying person has to “give account” to the gods is a scene with a time-honoured tradition. For this reason, the bed legs where he reposes stand for the cardinal virtues and

the pillows for the theological virtues as well as for good works, thoughts and sins. The illustration is moralist and didactic in intent, hence the numerous inscriptions and lettering. It acts as a sort of reminder of life and inevitable death, possibly entrusted by a devotee of Saint James.

The function of Saint James as intercessor before the Virgin is portrayed here in a unique manner, following a tradition which survives from the first instances of devotion to him, appearing at a later, in the 12th century, in the miracles recorded in the Calixtine Codex. He was always an exceptional intercessor, as he did not receive supplications for ills in particular, as was the case with other saints. But he was, however, first and foremost able to foresee death and eternal damnation, tearing the believer from the devil´s grasp.

“Santiago entre cipreses” (St. James between the cypress trees) Leather seat backrest Anonymous Circa 1500 Wood, bas-relief

Depicting Saint James between two trees had already been seen in the “Portada de Praterías” (Silversmith Square Porticle) of Santiago Cathedral (circa 1111-1116). In The Liber Sancti Iacobi, these trees are identified as cypresses, although they bear a greater resemblance to palm trees. Today, isolated from their original context, this bas-relief was originally a part of an overall illustration of the Transfiguration of Christ. There on Mount Tabor, Jesus once again calls Saint Peter, Saint John and Saint James, and the Father confirms his Son as the Messiah, announcing yhat he will die by the hand of men and that he would rise from the dead. Many illustrations of the Transfiguration of Christ often depict landscapes with palm and cypress trees in reference to Palestine.

Unlike the image in Praterías, Saint James is shown in this work with all the characteristic features of a pilgrim: a gourd, the leather purse, the hat

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and the staff. And as always, he is holding the holy book. Fruit trees, difficult to identify, stand on both sides of him.

In the tradition of the medieval imagery and literature, cypress and palm trees held a sacred meaning. In a sermon recorded in the Calixtine Codex itself, Saint James is compared to the palm tree. Since antiquity, this plant has had a symbolic nature, evoking the rich, fertile lands of Mesopotamia. Palm trees in the pagan world stood for life, fertility, immortality and victory. This symbolic was assimilated assimilated by the Christian religion as a representation of the martyr´s triumph over death, the resurrection of Christ, the immortality of the soul, salvation and, above all, as a symbol of Heavenly Paradise. On the other hand, the cypress tree, also an emblem of immortality since classical times as it is an evergreen tree whose wood is incorruptibility, was associated in the Christian iconography to resurrection and heaven.

St. James “the Spaniard Slayer” Workshops of Cuzco (Perú) 2nd third 19th century Chiselled and engraved in silver

In the 15th century, immediately following the end of the confrontations between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslims in the so-called Reconquest, the Spaniards set out to discover and colonise the New World. Saint James, the Apostle, high advocate and emblematic figure for the Spanish armies, was called upon once more as helper in battle against the Native Americans. In fact, legends began to circulate that tell of Saint James, the Knight, appearing in some battles, particularly in the early stages of the conquest and colonisation. But in America, the iconographic type of Saint James Knight underwent a very complex transformation as a result of the mixture of the Christian religion with the beliefs of the local populations.

For Spaniards, “Saint James, the Moor Slayer” became “Saint James, the Indian Slayer”. But at the same time, the Indian peoples dominated by great empires such as the Aztecs or the Incas, assimilated Saint James Knight into their warmongering gods – by way of an example, in the Andean region Saint James, the Apostle, was associated to the god Illapa, Lightening, thus identifying the Apostle with the Son of Thunder from the sacred writings. The popularity of the figure of Saint James was, therefore, all the more intense among the indigenous population. As a result of this, numerous churches were consecrated to the Apostle, and places were named after him – Santiago de Querétaro, Santiago de Chile, Santiago de Cuba, Santiago de Guayaquil…

From the 17th century onwards, once the American possessions had been consolidated, “Saint James, the Indian Slayer” became again a “Moor Slayer” so as avoid any iconography which could offend local people. Long after, at the time of the pro-independence aspirations by the colonies in the 19th century, Saint James had become so deeply rooted in the folk culture that he became “Saint James the Spaniard Slayer” or the “Illapa Liberator”. Thus, he was held as a true protector of the Indians, and once again, legends of his appearance as helper began to appear, on this occasion defending the conquered against the conquerors.