RomeRome

The Early DaysThe Early Days

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome "Who is so thoughtless and lazy that "Who is so thoughtless and lazy that

does not want to know in what way and does not want to know in what way and with what kind of government the with what kind of government the Romans in less than 53 years conquered Romans in less than 53 years conquered nearly the entire inhabited world and nearly the entire inhabited world and brought it under their rule - an brought it under their rule - an achievement previously unheard of?" achievement previously unheard of?" This question was asked by Polybius, a Greek This question was asked by Polybius, a Greek

historian who lived in the second century B.C.historian who lived in the second century B.C. the achievement Polybius was speaking the achievement Polybius was speaking

of was Rome’s ability to not only conquer of was Rome’s ability to not only conquer peoples but to incorporate them into the peoples but to incorporate them into the Roman system.Roman system.

From City-State to EmpireFrom City-State to Empire

““Rome’s greatest achievement was to Rome’s greatest achievement was to transcend the narrow political transcend the narrow political orientation of the city-state and to orientation of the city-state and to create a world-state that unified the create a world-state that unified the different nations of the Mediterranean different nations of the Mediterranean world…. The Hebrews were world…. The Hebrews were distinguished by their prophets and the distinguished by their prophets and the Greeks by their philosophers. The Greeks by their philosophers. The Romans…found expression in law and Romans…found expression in law and government, in the practical, not the government, in the practical, not the theoretical” (Perry 2005, 69-70). theoretical” (Perry 2005, 69-70).

The Land and the SeaThe Land and the Sea

Italy ‘s Position and Climate Italy ‘s Position and Climate (subtropical)(subtropical) Rivers were unsuitable for shipping so Rivers were unsuitable for shipping so

Mediterranean became important.Mediterranean became important. The Apennines hindered people from The Apennines hindered people from

penetrating Italy from the north.penetrating Italy from the north. Geography was better than Greece. Geography was better than Greece.

Latium and Campania were fertile plains Latium and Campania were fertile plains The Romans established their city on The Romans established their city on

the Tiber River in Latium.the Tiber River in Latium. The seven hills of Rome were The seven hills of Rome were

defensible and safe from the floods.defensible and safe from the floods.

Early DaysEarly Days

By the 8By the 8thth century BC, small peasant century BC, small peasant communities were living in the hills communities were living in the hills of Romeof Rome

North of them were the EtruscansNorth of them were the Etruscans South of them were the GreeksSouth of them were the Greeks Eventually both of these were Eventually both of these were

absorbed by the Romansabsorbed by the Romans

The EtruscansThe Etruscans The Etruscans were a mysterious people The Etruscans were a mysterious people

that formed towns in Italy.that formed towns in Italy. Some scholars believe that they migrated from Some scholars believe that they migrated from

Asia MinorAsia Minor The Etruscans exported mineral resources The Etruscans exported mineral resources

to pay for luxury goods imported from the to pay for luxury goods imported from the eastern Mediterranean. They also created eastern Mediterranean. They also created an export market in olive oil and wine. an export market in olive oil and wine.

Formed a loose league of cities whose Formed a loose league of cities whose domination covered much of Italydomination covered much of Italy

7th century B.C. they had fully entered 7th century B.C. they had fully entered the cosmopolitan life of the Mediterranean the cosmopolitan life of the Mediterranean worldworld

They were eventually defeated by Celts, They were eventually defeated by Celts, Greeks, and finally RomansGreeks, and finally Romans

Roman LegendRoman Legend

According to Roman legend, According to Roman legend, Romulus and Remus founded Rome Romulus and Remus founded Rome in 753 B.C. in 753 B.C. Romulus built his settlement on the Romulus built his settlement on the

Palatine Hill. Remus chose the Palatine Hill. Remus chose the Aventine. Aventine.

Remus was jealous and jumped over Remus was jealous and jumped over Romulus’s wall. Romulus’s wall.

Romulus killed him saying "So will die Romulus killed him saying "So will die whoever else shall leap over my walls."whoever else shall leap over my walls."

The Romans and the The Romans and the EtruscansEtruscans

During the 6During the 6thth and 7 and 7thth BC the Etruscans BC the Etruscans expanded their territory and controlled the expanded their territory and controlled the monarchy in Romemonarchy in Rome

Under the Etruscans, Rome enjoyed contacts Under the Etruscans, Rome enjoyed contacts with the larger Mediterranean world, and the with the larger Mediterranean world, and the city began to grow. Capitoline Hill became the city began to grow. Capitoline Hill became the religious center of the city when the temple religious center of the city when the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was built there.of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was built there.

The Romans adopted some things from the The Romans adopted some things from the Etruscans: the toga, Architectural styles (the Etruscans: the toga, Architectural styles (the vault and arch), road construction, sanitation, vault and arch), road construction, sanitation, hydraulic engineering, metallurgy, ceramics, hydraulic engineering, metallurgy, ceramics, portrait sculpture, Etruscan words, names, portrait sculpture, Etruscan words, names, and gods.and gods.

Forming the RepublicForming the Republic Romans expelled the Etruscan king Romans expelled the Etruscan king

Tarquin the Proud from Rome in 509 Tarquin the Proud from Rome in 509 B.C. and founded the republic.B.C. and founded the republic. Then they formed alliances with the Latin Then they formed alliances with the Latin

towns around them. towns around them. In the beginning, religion governed the In the beginning, religion governed the

people, dictated laws and legitimized the people, dictated laws and legitimized the rule of the patriciansrule of the patricians

Gradually religion and politics were Gradually religion and politics were separatedseparated

The constitutional system paralleled the The constitutional system paralleled the Greek achievement of rationalizing and Greek achievement of rationalizing and secularizing politics and law secularizing politics and law

Early RepublicEarly Republic Early republic- power was with the Early republic- power was with the

aristocracy- the patricians. aristocracy- the patricians. The Plebeians had few of the Patricians’ The Plebeians had few of the Patricians’

advantages but had a voice in politics.advantages but had a voice in politics. The Senate- originated under the The Senate- originated under the

Etruscans as a council of noble elders Etruscans as a council of noble elders who advised the king, sat year after who advised the king, sat year after year year

Senate could not pass legislation, it Senate could not pass legislation, it could only offer its advice. could only offer its advice.

Centuriate Assembly was established as Centuriate Assembly was established as a popular assembly and the Senate a popular assembly and the Senate advised itadvised it

Social Conflict in RomeSocial Conflict in Rome The Struggle of Orders- social The Struggle of Orders- social

conflict that developed between conflict that developed between patricians and plebeians. The patricians and plebeians. The plebeians wanted real political plebeians wanted real political representation and safeguards representation and safeguards against patrician domination. against patrician domination. Senate and Centuriate AssemblySenate and Centuriate Assembly

In 494 B.C., the plebeians In 494 B.C., the plebeians walked out of Rome and refused walked out of Rome and refused to serve in the army. to serve in the army.

ResultsResults The tribunes- plebeians who brought The tribunes- plebeians who brought

grievances to the senate for resolution.grievances to the senate for resolution. Only the patricians knew the law. Plebeians Only the patricians knew the law. Plebeians

wanted the law codified and published. wanted the law codified and published. Law of the Twelve Tables- civil and criminal Law of the Twelve Tables- civil and criminal

law that were inscribed on large bronze law that were inscribed on large bronze plaques. They forced the patricians to plaques. They forced the patricians to publish legal procedures as well.publish legal procedures as well.

In 287 B.C., the lex Hortensia gave the In 287 B.C., the lex Hortensia gave the concilium plebes the force of law for concilium plebes the force of law for patricians and plebeians alike. Plebeians patricians and plebeians alike. Plebeians could now hold the consulship and wear the could now hold the consulship and wear the purple toga, the symbol of aristocracy- also purple toga, the symbol of aristocracy- also established a new nobility with plebes and established a new nobility with plebes and patricians.patricians. Tribal Assembly no longer needed senate approval Tribal Assembly no longer needed senate approval

to pass lawsto pass laws

Roman Offices and Roman Offices and AssembliesAssemblies

The Romans created assemblies who elected The Romans created assemblies who elected magistrates and passed legislation. magistrates and passed legislation. Comitia Curiata- religious, political, and military Comitia Curiata- religious, political, and military

functionsfunctions Comitia centuriata- a military group who would Comitia centuriata- a military group who would

help decide policyhelp decide policy Concilium plebes- an assembly made up of Concilium plebes- an assembly made up of

plebeians to pass ordinancesplebeians to pass ordinances Chief magistrates of the republic were the two Chief magistrates of the republic were the two

consuls, elected for one-year terms. consuls, elected for one-year terms. They appointed quaestors to assist them.They appointed quaestors to assist them. In 421 B.C. the quaestorship became an elective In 421 B.C. the quaestorship became an elective

office open to plebeians.office open to plebeians. The Praetor primarily dealt with the administration The Praetor primarily dealt with the administration

of justice. of justice. Censors were responsible for the supervision of Censors were responsible for the supervision of

public morals, the power to determine who lawfully public morals, the power to determine who lawfully could sit in the senate, and for the registration of could sit in the senate, and for the registration of citizens. citizens.

The Roman ConstitutionThe Roman Constitution

Ruling ologarchy had a sense of Ruling ologarchy had a sense of responsibility and talent for statesmanshipresponsibility and talent for statesmanship

Civic needs rather than religious mystery Civic needs rather than religious mystery formed the foundationformed the foundation

Study and interpretation of law passed to Study and interpretation of law passed to a class of professional jurists who a class of professional jurists who classified, systematized and sought classified, systematized and sought commonsense answers to legal problemscommonsense answers to legal problems

The Roman constitution evolved gradually The Roman constitution evolved gradually and empirically to respond to needs as and empirically to respond to needs as they arosethey arose

146 BC146 BC There had been 5 great powers when Rome There had been 5 great powers when Rome

started to consolidate its power: started to consolidate its power: Seleucids in the Near East, Ptolemaics in Egypt, Seleucids in the Near East, Ptolemaics in Egypt,

Macedonia, Carthage, And the Italian Confederation Macedonia, Carthage, And the Italian Confederation (Rome dominated)(Rome dominated)

By 146 Rome was the dominant power in all of By 146 Rome was the dominant power in all of the Mediterraneanthe Mediterranean

This Roman expansion occurred in 3 main phasesThis Roman expansion occurred in 3 main phases Unification of the Italian PeninsulaUnification of the Italian Peninsula Collision with CarthageCollision with Carthage Subjugation of the Hellenistic statesSubjugation of the Hellenistic states

Rome evolved into the city of humanity – the Rome evolved into the city of humanity – the cosmopolis imagined by the stoicscosmopolis imagined by the stoics

Roman Conquest of ItalyRoman Conquest of Italy Romans drove the Etruscans out of Latium about a Romans drove the Etruscans out of Latium about a

century after forming the republic century after forming the republic Around 390 B.C. Rome faced a setback- the Celts Around 390 B.C. Rome faced a setback- the Celts

(AKA Gauls) sacked Rome. (AKA Gauls) sacked Rome. From 390 to 290 B.C. Rome was rebuilt; army was From 390 to 290 B.C. Rome was rebuilt; army was

reorganized into mobile legions.reorganized into mobile legions. Next they subdued other Latin kinsmen, semi-Next they subdued other Latin kinsmen, semi-

civilized Italian tribes, and finally the Greek city-civilized Italian tribes, and finally the Greek city-states in southern Italystates in southern Italy

They developed a moral and religious devotion to They developed a moral and religious devotion to their city that kept them away from social conflict, their city that kept them away from social conflict, factional disputes, and personal ambitions.factional disputes, and personal ambitions.

Rome couldn’t have accomplished this task without Rome couldn’t have accomplished this task without the cooperation of the other Italian peoplethe cooperation of the other Italian people

Rome displayed a remarkable talent for turning Rome displayed a remarkable talent for turning former enemies into allies and then Roman citizensformer enemies into allies and then Roman citizens No Greek city had ever integrated non-natives into the No Greek city had ever integrated non-natives into the

political systempolitical system

Expansion into the Expansion into the Mediterranean Mediterranean

Rome was drawn into conflicts that Rome was drawn into conflicts that brought her an overseas empirebrought her an overseas empire

In 282 B.C. Rome expanded in Italy In 282 B.C. Rome expanded in Italy and to Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia.and to Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia.

Romans brought various peoples Romans brought various peoples into one political system. into one political system. Those closest to Rome were Those closest to Rome were

incorporated into the Roman state. incorporated into the Roman state. The others were bound by treaty with The others were bound by treaty with

the Romans and were considered the Romans and were considered allies.allies.

CarthageCarthage

Founded by Phoenecians in around Founded by Phoenecians in around 800 BC800 BC

Was a world commercial powerWas a world commercial power Held major pieces of Spain, Sicily, Held major pieces of Spain, Sicily,

Sardinia and CorsicaSardinia and Corsica Rome was stepping into their territoryRome was stepping into their territory Rome also had to come to the aid of Rome also had to come to the aid of

her Sicilian and southern Italian alliesher Sicilian and southern Italian allies

The Punic Wars (264-133 The Punic Wars (264-133 B.C.)B.C.)

The First Punic War between Rome The First Punic War between Rome and Carthage lasted 23 years(264-and Carthage lasted 23 years(264-241 B.C.). 241 B.C.). The Romans built a navy and fought The Romans built a navy and fought

seven major battles with the seven major battles with the Carthaginians, won six, and finally wore Carthaginians, won six, and finally wore them down. them down.

In 241 B.C. the Romans took In 241 B.C. the Romans took possession of Sicily.possession of Sicily.

Carthage had to surrenderCarthage had to surrender In 238 B.C. Rome took advantage of In 238 B.C. Rome took advantage of

Carthaginian weakness- took Carthaginian weakness- took Sardinia and Corsica. Sardinia and Corsica.

Second Punic WarSecond Punic War

Carthage still held Spain and Rome Carthage still held Spain and Rome tensions were still high between the two tensions were still high between the two powerspowers

In 237 B.C. Carthaginian named Hamilcar In 237 B.C. Carthaginian named Hamilcar led an army to Spain. With him he took led an army to Spain. With him he took his 19 year old son, Hannibal, and made his 19 year old son, Hannibal, and made him swear to be an enemy to Rome him swear to be an enemy to Rome forever.forever.

In 221 B.C. Hannibal became commander In 221 B.C. Hannibal became commander in Spain. He laid siege to Saguntum. The in Spain. He laid siege to Saguntum. The Romans declared war, claiming that Romans declared war, claiming that Carthage had attacked a friendly city.Carthage had attacked a friendly city.

The Second Punic WarThe Second Punic War Hannibal struck first marching over the Alps Hannibal struck first marching over the Alps

into Italy. He defeated one Roman army at the into Italy. He defeated one Roman army at the Battle of Trebia, another at the Battle of Lake Battle of Trebia, another at the Battle of Lake Trasimenne in 217 B.C., and got his greatest Trasimenne in 217 B.C., and got his greatest victory at the Battle of Cannae.victory at the Battle of Cannae.

A number of cities in central and southern A number of cities in central and southern Italy rebelled against Rome.Italy rebelled against Rome.

Scipio Africanus copied Hannibal’s methods of Scipio Africanus copied Hannibal’s methods of mobile warfare, streamlining the legions and mobile warfare, streamlining the legions and introduced new weapons.introduced new weapons.

With Hannibal bottled up in southern Italy, With Hannibal bottled up in southern Italy, Scipio in 204 B.C. struck directly at Carthage Scipio in 204 B.C. struck directly at Carthage itself. The prompted the Carthaginians to itself. The prompted the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from Italy to defend the recall Hannibal from Italy to defend the homeland.homeland.

In 202 B.C. Scipio defeated Hannibal in one of In 202 B.C. Scipio defeated Hannibal in one of the world’s truly decisive battles.the world’s truly decisive battles.

The Third Punic War The Third Punic War

Needless, unjust, and savage Needless, unjust, and savage conflict that ended in 146 B.C. conflict that ended in 146 B.C. when Scipio Aemilianus, when Scipio Aemilianus, grandson of Scipio Africanus, grandson of Scipio Africanus, destroyed the old hated rival.destroyed the old hated rival.

The war was launched merely as The war was launched merely as means to annihilationmeans to annihilation

Rome Turns East (211-133 B.C.)Rome Turns East (211-133 B.C.)

The Hellenistic WorldThe Hellenistic World Overseas Conquest (282-146 B.C.) led to a Overseas Conquest (282-146 B.C.) led to a

fearful Greecefearful Greece In the barbarian West, Rome resorted to In the barbarian West, Rome resorted to

harsh aggression to conquer new harsh aggression to conquer new territory. territory.

The Greek city of Tarentum in southern The Greek city of Tarentum in southern Italy called for help from Pyrrhus, king of Italy called for help from Pyrrhus, king of Epirus in western Greece, a relative of Epirus in western Greece, a relative of Alexander the Great and an excellent Alexander the Great and an excellent general. general.

Pyrrhus won two furious battles but Pyrrhus won two furious battles but suffered heavy casualties.suffered heavy casualties.

In 275 B.C. Rome drove him from Italy and In 275 B.C. Rome drove him from Italy and extended her sway over southern Italy.extended her sway over southern Italy.

Hellenism ConqueredHellenism Conquered Rome didn’t trust Greece anymoreRome didn’t trust Greece anymore During the Second Punic War Philip V of During the Second Punic War Philip V of

Macedonia made an alliance with Hannibal against Macedonia made an alliance with Hannibal against Rome.Rome.

The Romans headed east and found their first The Romans headed east and found their first victory over the Macedonians in 197 B.C. After victory over the Macedonians in 197 B.C. After that the Roman general Titus Flamininus defeated that the Roman general Titus Flamininus defeated the Spartans.the Spartans.

In 189 B.C. the Seleucid kingdom fell too the In 189 B.C. the Seleucid kingdom fell too the Romans.Romans.

The decisive victory came in 146 B.C. when the The decisive victory came in 146 B.C. when the Romans conquered the Achaean League, sacked Romans conquered the Achaean League, sacked Corinth, and finally defeated Macedonia.Corinth, and finally defeated Macedonia.

Attalus III, the last king of Pergamum, Attalus III, the last king of Pergamum, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. The bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. The Ptolemies of Egypt meekly obeyed Roman wishes.Ptolemies of Egypt meekly obeyed Roman wishes.

Spread of CultureSpread of Culture Roman Culture spread through religious cults, Roman Culture spread through religious cults,

mythology, and drama furthering the mythology, and drama furthering the Romanization of Italy. The Italians adopted Roman Romanization of Italy. The Italians adopted Roman deities and their religious traditions.deities and their religious traditions.

The Romans and Italians grew closer together by The Romans and Italians grew closer together by the mutual understanding of and participation in the mutual understanding of and participation in the religious rites of Roman cults.the religious rites of Roman cults.

Drama gave the Italian an understanding of Roman Drama gave the Italian an understanding of Roman law and ethics.law and ethics.

Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not simply Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not simply conquer and dominate. conquer and dominate.

They shared both political power and citizenship They shared both political power and citizenship (degrees). (degrees).

Rome both conquered and shared the fruits of Rome both conquered and shared the fruits of conquest with the conquered. conquest with the conquered.

Rome could consolidate where Greece could only Rome could consolidate where Greece could only dominate. dominate.

Roman LawRoman Law Divided the Mediterranean into provinces Divided the Mediterranean into provinces

governed by ex-consuls and ex-praetors.governed by ex-consuls and ex-praetors. The civil law, or ius civile, consisted of The civil law, or ius civile, consisted of

statutes, customs, and forms of procedure. statutes, customs, and forms of procedure. Assemblies added to the body of law, and Assemblies added to the body of law, and

praetors interpreted it. praetors interpreted it. The spirit of the law aimed at protecting the The spirit of the law aimed at protecting the

property, lives, and reputations of citizens, property, lives, and reputations of citizens, redressing wrongs, and giving satisfaction redressing wrongs, and giving satisfaction to victims of injustice.to victims of injustice.

-ius gentium- "the law of peoples,," that -ius gentium- "the law of peoples,," that applied to Romans and foreigners and that applied to Romans and foreigners and that laid the foundation for a universal laid the foundation for a universal conception of law.conception of law.

-ius naturale- "natural law, a universal law -ius naturale- "natural law, a universal law that can be applied to all societies.that can be applied to all societies.

Consequences of ExpansionConsequences of Expansion Thousands of educated Greeks came to Thousands of educated Greeks came to

Rome- some enslaved, some free, some Rome- some enslaved, some free, some hired as tutorshired as tutors Expedited the Hellenization processExpedited the Hellenization process

Between 80 and 8 BC over 2 million slaves Between 80 and 8 BC over 2 million slaves were brought into Italywere brought into Italy 1/3 the Italian population1/3 the Italian population

Slave revoltsSlave revolts Sicily in 135 BCSicily in 135 BC Spartacus in 73 BCSpartacus in 73 BC

Provinces became a source for quick profit Provinces became a source for quick profit and corruptionand corruption

Cultural AspectsCultural Aspects

Greater Contact with Greek CultureGreater Contact with Greek Culture Wealthy Romans either sent their sons to Wealthy Romans either sent their sons to

Athens to study or hired Greek teachersAthens to study or hired Greek teachers Roman generals shipped libraries and Roman generals shipped libraries and

Greek art back to RomeGreek art back to Rome Romans acquired a taste for Greek Romans acquired a taste for Greek

science, philosophy, medicine, and science, philosophy, medicine, and geographygeography

They adopted Greek humanismThey adopted Greek humanism Rome assimilated Greek culture and then Rome assimilated Greek culture and then

diffused itdiffused it

Roman Cultural FiguresRoman Cultural Figures Cato the Censor- denounced Socrates fro undermining Cato the Censor- denounced Socrates fro undermining

respect for Athenian law and warned against Greek respect for Athenian law and warned against Greek philosophyphilosophy

Plautus- Rome’s greatest playwright- adopted 4Plautus- Rome’s greatest playwright- adopted 4thth and and 33rdrd BC Greek comedy BC Greek comedy

Terence- Came as a slave but was freed by his owner- Terence- Came as a slave but was freed by his owner- less boisterous than Plautus but superior in styleless boisterous than Plautus but superior in style

Catullus- One of the Great lyric poets- wrote about Catullus- One of the Great lyric poets- wrote about passion and its anguishpassion and its anguish

Lucretius- an epicurean that sought philosphical Lucretius- an epicurean that sought philosphical tranquility. He denounced superstition and advanced tranquility. He denounced superstition and advanced a materialistic sense of nature. Argued that the soul a materialistic sense of nature. Argued that the soul perishes with the bodyperishes with the body

Cicero- roman statesman and orator. Student of Greek Cicero- roman statesman and orator. Student of Greek philosophyphilosophy More than 800 of his letters surviveMore than 800 of his letters survive Stoic belief in natural law as the governance of nature and Stoic belief in natural law as the governance of nature and

humanityhumanity

Collapse of the RepublicCollapse of the Republic

Destroyed Farms and returning Destroyed Farms and returning Farmer-soldiersFarmer-soldiers Forced to sell farms for cheap moneyForced to sell farms for cheap money

Latifundia and slavesLatifundia and slaves Many people moved to the urban Many people moved to the urban

centerscenters Independent rural Romans became Independent rural Romans became

part of the urban poorpart of the urban poor

The GracchiThe Gracchi

Tiberius Gracchus (163-133)- spokesman for Tiberius Gracchus (163-133)- spokesman for land reformland reform Revived old law forbidding the use of more than Revived old law forbidding the use of more than

312 acres of public land312 acres of public land Senatorial elites killed him and 300 of his followersSenatorial elites killed him and 300 of his followers

Gaius Gracchus (153-121)- younger brother Gaius Gracchus (153-121)- younger brother who reintroduced these reformswho reintroduced these reforms Enabled the poor to buy grain at ½ market priceEnabled the poor to buy grain at ½ market price Civil war ensued and Guy and 3000 followers diedCivil war ensued and Guy and 3000 followers died

The End is NearThe End is Near Senate saw itself as the guardian but it Senate saw itself as the guardian but it

was expressing the will of 300 families was expressing the will of 300 families who wanted to retain controlwho wanted to retain control

Generals like Marius begin to use their Generals like Marius begin to use their power to gain authoritypower to gain authority He disposed of property rights to become a He disposed of property rights to become a

soldiersoldier Promised money, loot, and landPromised money, loot, and land

Sulla battles MariusSulla battles Marius Marius dies and Sulla makes reformsMarius dies and Sulla makes reforms

Reduced the power of provincial governorsReduced the power of provincial governors Increased senate to 600Increased senate to 600 Limited power of tribunes and the AssemblyLimited power of tribunes and the Assembly Restored the right of the Senate to veto the AssemblyRestored the right of the Senate to veto the Assembly

Old Values and Greek Old Values and Greek CultueCultue

"Acquisition of an empire was "Acquisition of an empire was the beginning of Rome’s the beginning of Rome’s troubles:"troubles:"